Humans often consider tool use a mark of intelligence. Yet many animals find creative ways to solve problems. A new study reveals how carrion crows - which seldom use tools in the wild - can learn to master them when trained.



Their performance suggests that with only small evolutionary changes, they might one day adopt tools as part of their natural behavior.



Researchers from the <a href="https://uni-tuebingen.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tübingen</a> trained three carrion crows to handle sticks and retrieve food pellets placed inside a transparent Plexiglas box. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-beaks-to-borrowed-sticks">From beaks to borrowed sticks</h2>



The birds could not access the pellets with their beaks, so they had to explore with sticks. Success depended on careful manipulation: moving the pellet too quickly risked losing it from the platform.



"Tool use is very rare in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crows-hold-grudges-for-up-to-17-years/">animal kingdom</a>, but relatively common in dexterous generalists such as primates, parrots, and corvids," said lead author Felix&nbsp;Moll.



Only two crow species - the New Caledonian and Hawaiian crow - use tools regularly. This experiment tested whether carrion crows could, with training, refine similar skills.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crows-master-deliberate-tool-actions">Crows master deliberate tool actions</h2>



The crows did more than just copy actions. They aligned sticks carefully with their beaks and guided food into reach.



"The crows first picked up the stick from a holder and adjusted it until they were grasping it so that it was precisely aligned with their beak. Then they used it to guide the pellet within reach," said Moll. They even returned the stick to the holder before eating.



Recordings showed early awkwardness: sticks shoved pellets back and forth with little success. Over time, movements became refined, efficient, and highly repeatable.



"By comparison, recordings of later training sessions showed extremely precise movement patterns. The movements of the stick varied little in standard situations; the crows determinedly guided the food pellet to one side of the box and fished it out," said co-author Julius Würzler.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practice-reveals-hidden-intelligence">Practice reveals hidden intelligence</h2>



The study used pose estimation to analyze thousands of trials. It found that the crows improved through reinforcement learning, a trial-and-error process where variability early on helped them discover effective strategies. 



This variability mirrors processes seen in human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dopamine-fuels-learning-in-young-songbirds/">motor learning</a>, where exploration refines skill. 



Such parallels remind us that intelligence does not always require a complex evolutionary leap. Sometimes, it is about applying existing flexibility to new challenges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crows-show-flexible-problem-solving">Crows show flexible problem-solving</h2>



Each crow developed its own style - some preferred sliding pellets out to one side, while others adjusted depending on pellet position. 



These strategies were consistent and efficient, highlighting not just learned precision but also individuality in problem-solving. The presence of personal approaches suggests that tool use is not a rigid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crows-can-recognize-geometric-patterns-in-shapes/">behavior</a> but a dynamic process shaped by learning and constant feedback. 



Mistakes added another layer of insight: when a pellet slipped from control, the crows reacted within fractions of a second, adjusting stick movements to regain control. 



Such rapid corrections revealed continuous monitoring and flexibility, showing a level of awareness that goes beyond instinct and hinted at truly adaptive cognition.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/carrion-crows_precise-tool-use_infographic_UTubingen_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/carrion-crows_precise-tool-use_infographic_UTubingen_1s.webp" alt="Typical stick-tip trajectories during an early and late training session. The crow can’t reach the food reward without the stick-tool. Credit: University of Tübingen" class="wp-image-1986134"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Typical stick-tip trajectories during an early and late training session. The crow can’t reach the food reward without the stick-tool. Click image to enlarge. Credit: University of Tübingen</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tool-grip-reveals-hidden-intelligence">Tool grip reveals hidden intelligence</h2>



Another striking behavior was how they adjusted stick orientation before use. Often, the stick was misaligned when pulled from the dispenser. 



The crows tossed and re-gripped it until alignment was perfect. This fine motor adjustment revealed an advanced capacity to prepare tools for effective use.



"Animal tool use is supported by a number of enabling factors: motivation, conceptual knowledge and advanced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ravens-develop-sophisticated-cognitive-skills-by-the-age-of-four-months/">cognitive skills</a>, as well as fine motor control," said co-author Andreas&nbsp;Nieder.



The carrion crows displayed all of these, suggesting their brains integrate the stick as part of their own body. Similar processes occur in primates, where neurons adapt to represent the working end of tools.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crows-hint-at-evolution">Crows hint at evolution</h2>



The findings show that non-habitual tool users can still reach high levels of dexterity. This supports the idea of “tooling,” where animals treat body and object as one system. 



Such results deepen our understanding of cognition in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crows-count-out-loud-just-like-toddlers/">birds</a> and may guide future research into neural mechanisms.



"If woodpeckers didn't already - with their highly-specialized long tongues - fish beetle larvae out of their burrows in dead wood, this nutritious source of protein might one day be exploited by carrion crows using tools," Moll adds. 



These experiments suggest that with only small evolutionary nudges, carrion crows could naturally evolve into regular tool users. 



The work also invites reflection on intelligence across species: when given the right opportunities, animals may reveal skills that once seemed uniquely human.



Click here to <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)01100-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watch videos of carrion crows using precision tools...</a>



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)01100-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Carrion crows can create, prepare, and use tools with great precision

Humans often consider tool use a mark of intelligence. Yet many animals find creative ways to solve problems. A new study reveals how carrion crows - which seldom use tools in the wild - can learn to master them when trained. Their performance suggests that with only small evolutionary changes, they might one day adopt tools as part of their natural behavior. Researchers from the University of Tübingen trained three carrion crows to handle sticks and retrieve food pellets placed inside a transparent Plexiglas box. From beaks...

Tetrapods are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/over-half-of-the-worlds-vertebrates-reside-in-the-tropics/">vertebrates</a> (backboned animals) that have four limbs or leg-like structures. They include all amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals and are thought to have evolved from lobe-finned fish way back in the Devonian Period, some 400 million years ago. The earliest tetrapods were aquatic and adapted to life in the water, but over time new species evolved that became more terrestrial and less dependent on watery environments for feeding, breeding and surviving.



In a study published in the journal Science Advances, researchers from the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a>, Barcelona’s Universitat Pompeu Fabra and University College London investigated the skulls of over 100 living and fossil tetrapods to understand how skull bone arrangements had changed during the evolution of this important group. The scientists found that the skulls of tetrapods had far fewer bones than are found in the skulls of fish, both extinct and living, but that these bones had more complex connections between them than are found in fish skulls.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Tetrapod skulls generally have fewer skull bones than their fish ancestors, but simply counting the number of bones misses some important data," said study lead author James Rawson. "We used a technique called network analysis, where the arrangement of skull bones – which bones connect to which – is recorded in addition to bone number.”



“Traditionally, anatomy research has been mostly descriptive or qualitative. Network analysis provides a sound mathematical framework to quantify anatomical relations among bones: a kind of data often overlooked in most studies on morphological evolution," explained study co-author Dr. Borja Esteve-Altava.&nbsp;



One might expect that having fewer bones would make skull organization simpler, but this is not what the researchers found. They concluded that, for tetrapods, having fewer skull bones actually made the organization of their skulls more complex.



“It might seem strange, but having fewer bones means each of those bones must connect with more of its neighbors, resulting in a more complex arrangement," said Rawson. "Modern frogs and salamanders had the most complex skulls of all the animals we studied.” The skulls of the earliest tetrapods also became more consolidated into a single unit, whereas their fish ancestors had skulls made of several distinct sections.



By looking at the variety of skull bone arrangements over time, the authors also discovered that the origin of tetrapods coincided with a decrease in this variety. “We were surprised to find these changes to the skull seemed to limit tetrapod evolution, rather than promoting radiation to new habitats on land," said study senior author Professor&nbsp;<a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/people/person/Emily-Rayfield-940480df-c468-4e85-b0ba-1473e6b9f540/">Emily Rayfield</a>. "We think that the evolution of a neck, extinction events or a bottleneck in skull development may be responsible.”&nbsp;



“We also see a similar drop in structural variability for the limb bones in early tetrapods, but the drop in the limbs happens 10 million years earlier," said Rawson. "It seems that different factors were affecting skull and limb evolution in early tetrapods, and we have so much more to learn about this crucial time in our own evolutionary history.”



The authors of the study conclude that the cranial evolution of tetrapods is characterized by increasing complexity in terms of bone arrangements but decreasing variety. They say that, rather than promoting the diversification of life on land, these changes in skull anatomy actually limited the evolution of tetrapods for millions of years.&nbsp;



Image Credit: Science Photo Library / Alamy Stock Photo image ID (2G70HK2) Original artist: Mark Garlick



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Earliest land animals had fewer skull bones than fish

Tetrapods are vertebrates (backboned animals) that have four limbs or...

Sampling near Penn State’s Fruit Research and Extension Center shows a decline in bee populations. The results of the study, published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ece3.9190">Ecology and Evolution</a> are worrying to researchers.



“Bees are one of the most important groups of pollinators, but previous research has found troubling declines among wild bees,” said study lead author Nash Turley, a postdoctoral scholar at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Penn State</a>. “For example, the range and abundance of some species have shrunk substantially, especially bumble bees in North America and Europe. Tracking changes in bee biodiversity is important for developing pollinator management plans that can help sustain wild plant communities and maximize crop yields.”



The researchers intended for their study to characterize bee community changes from 2014 to 2019 (the period when they sampled bees). Bees were collected continuously from eight sampling spots near four orchards from April to October of each year.&nbsp;



“These orchards are in a landscape that has high diversity and abundance of native plants and pollinators,” said study co-author Professor David Biddinger. “Only about 8% of the landscape is active orchards, and all of them are successfully pollinated only by wild pollinators.”



Overall, 26,700 bees from five families, 30 genera and 144 species were collected, representing 33 percent of the bee species known to live in Pennsylvania. The researchers found that the composition of bees was different in almost every month. Abundance of individuals as well as species of bees increased from April to June, for instance.



These seasonal changes are important, according to study co-author Professor Margarita López-Uribe.



“These groups of bees provide unique ecological functions,” said Professor López-Uribe. “For example, many of the early emerging bee species are of critical importance for early flowering plants such as spring ephemeral wildflowers, and these bee-plant interactions may be particularly sensitive to disruptions from climate change. And many crops, such as apples and blueberries, rely on pollination by early emerging wild bees.”



Unfortunately, the researchers found that some of these bees are in decline. They determined that 26 of the bee species had stable populations over time, while 13 species showed a decline over time. This is about one-third of the species with good data.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Wild bee communities are diverse and dynamic, and little is known about what species or groups have the greatest conservation needs,” said Professor López-Uribe. “Our findings could help to quantify the effects that different aspects of environmental change have on bee communities and to identify species of conservation concern.”



Image Credit: Nash Turley/Penn State



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Bee populations in Pennsylvania are on the decline

Sampling near Penn State’s Fruit Research and Extension Center shows...

A team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.univ-poitiers.fr/en/">University of Poitiers</a> has identified a new, giant species of long-extinct otter in Ethiopia that was likely the size of a modern lion. While contemporary otters weigh between four and 100 pounds, Enhydriodon omoensis weighted an estimated 440 pounds, making it the largest otter discovered until now. This creature lived between 3.5 and 2.5 million years ago, and was a fierce terrestrial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-eddies-help-marine-predators-find-food/">predator</a>.



Traditionally, otters of the genus Enhydriodon were considered to be semi-aquatic animals, feeding on a variety of species common in African freshwater environments, including mollusks, turtles, catfish, or even crocodiles. The scientists analyzed stable oxygen isotopes and carbon in the tooth enamel of the newly discovered member of this group to clarify what type of environment it was inhabiting and what was it was feeding on. Presumably, the relative values of these isotopes should have been close to those of fossil hippopotami and other semi-aquatic animals. However, the researchers were surprised to discover that this giant otter occupied quite a different habitat from its relatives, and had a different diet.



“The peculiar thing, in addition to its massive size, is that [isotopes] in its teeth suggest it was not aquatic, like all modern otters,” said study co-author Kevin Uno, a geochemist at <a href="https://www.columbia.edu/">Columbia University</a>. “We found it had a diet of terrestrial animals, also differing from modern otters.” Most probably, E. omoensis was able to hunt prey that consumed a large variety of terrestrial plants, ranging from tropical grasses to vegetation from trees.&nbsp;&nbsp;



In future research, the scientists plan to sample a larger variety of African otter fossils and conduct studies of tooth enamel and the shape and structure of long bones, in order to better understand which place these gigantic creatures occupied in ancient ecosystems, and what was the cause of their extinction about 200 million years ago.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://sciencepress.mnhn.fr/fr/periodiques/comptes-rendus-palevol/21/30">Comptes Rendus Palevol</a>. In addition, the authors presented their findings in a short video on <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9V2Oc_ihdpY&amp;t=11s&amp;ab_channel=LaboratoirePALEVOPRIM">YouTube</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Gigantic prehistoric otter discovered in Ethiopia

A team of scientists led by the University of Poitiers...

An,Upward,View,Of,A,Japanese,Maple,Tree,Canopy,In

There are only three known fossil specimens of the long extinct gliding lizard named Coelurosauravus elivensis. Dated to the late Permian Period – between 260 million to 252 million years ago&nbsp;– this unusual reptile inhabited the wetlands and forests of Madagascar when conditions were temperate, warm and humid. The species is striking because of its patagium – a membranous flap of skin stretching between front and hind limbs – that enabled it to glide; this makes it the oldest known gliding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/past-climate-change-drove-the-rapid-evolution-of-reptiles/">reptile</a> in the world.&nbsp;



The three fossils were discovered between 1906 and 1907, and the species was described to science in 1926. Since then, however, scientists have debated about how exactly the patagium was supported and used, and how this lizard moved about in it environment. A team of researchers has now examined in great detail the three fossils of&nbsp;C. elivensis from Madagascar, as well as a number of related specimens, all belonging to the same reptile family (Weigeltisaurida), in order to understand more about this unusual lizard.&nbsp;



Experts from the French National Museum of Natural History in Paris (Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle) and the Staatliches Museum für Naturkunde Karlsruhe in Germany further hypothesize that this remarkable lizard most likely evolved its flying ability in response to changes in the forests of the time.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Pennsylvanian [late Carboniferous] forests, while taxonomically and vertically heterogeneous, had rather open canopy strata with spatially separated arborescent taxa resulting in little crown overlap. In contrast, Cisuralian [early Permian] forests show evidence of denser communities suggestive of more continuous canopy strata. Such change in forest structure could explain why no gliders have been reported prior to weigeltisaurids although several arboreal or scansorial amniotes have been described from Pennsylvanian and Cisuralian deposits," said study lead author Valentin Buffa, from the Centre de Recherche en Paléontologie at the French Natural History Museum.



“These dragons weren’t forged in mythological fire, they simply needed to get from place to place. As it turned out, gliding was the most efficient mode of transport and here, in this new study, we see how their morphology enabled this.”



The researchers were particularly interested in understanding how all the bits of the C. elivensis skeleton fitted together, and so they focused on the postcranial portions – the body, including the torso, limbs, and remarkable gliding apparatus, the patagium. Previous analysis of the reptile had assumed that its patagium was supported by bones that extended from the ribs, as they do in modern gliding lizards of the genus&nbsp;Draco&nbsp;that are found in Southeast Asia.



Since there was no complete specimen among the fossils, the researchers had to piece together the existing parts of the fossils in order to get a better picture of the lizard’s skeletal structure. Their thorough investigation suggested that the patagium of&nbsp;C. elivensis&nbsp;was not supported by extensions from the ribs. Instead, the approximately 29 pairs of long, rod-shaped bones that supported the gliding membrane were proposed to originate either simply from the animal’s skin and trunk musculature, or from its gastralia.



Gastralia are dermal bones found in the skin covering the stomach region of some reptiles, including the crocodilians, the tuatara and the dinosaurs. If these bones in C. elivensis were modified gastralia, they would have been positioned more towards the lower lateral surface of the body, and not towards the dorsal side as is seen in modern Draco lizards. The researchers concluded that the bony rods were flexible and that furling and unfurling of the flight membrane would probably have been controlled by the abdominal muscles.&nbsp;



Combining these findings with others derived from the bone structure observed in the fossils, the researchers came up with a more refined vision of how this agile creature moved through its arboreal habitat.



“Sharp, curved claws and compressed body form support the idea that C. elivensis was perfectly adapted to moving vertically up tree trunks. The similarity in length of the forelimbs and hind limbs further indicates that it was an expert climber – their proportional length assisted it in remaining close to the tree’s surface, preventing it from pitching and losing its balance. Its long, lean body and whiplike tail, also seen in contemporary arboreal reptiles, further supports this interpretation,” explained Valentin Buffa.



An analysis of the similarities and differences between C. elivensis&nbsp;and living gliding lizards from the genus Draco found that the fossil species was likely less efficient at gliding than modern&nbsp;Draco&nbsp;species due to its larger body size. Its estimated wing loading of around 107.9 N/m2 is 4.5 times higher than that of the&nbsp;Draco species, which would likely lead to a substantial drop in height per glide and correspond with a steep descent angle of more than 45 degrees.



“C. elivensis&nbsp;does bear a striking resemblance to the contemporary genus Draco,” said Valentin Buffa. “While its habits were likely similar to those of its modern counterpart, we do see subtle differences though.”



“Like&nbsp;Draco&nbsp;lizards,&nbsp;Coelurosauravus&nbsp;was able to grasp its patagium with its front claws, stabilize it during flight, and even adjust it, allowing for greater maneuverability. An additional joint in one finger, though, may have enhanced this capability. This may have been a necessary compensation for the lower positioning of the patagium, which likely made it more unstable.”



The research is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02724634.2022.2108713">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Changes in tree canopy supported the earliest gliding lizards

There are only three known fossil specimens of the long...

Bullfrogs are considered the world’s leading <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/managing-invasive-species-can-improve-climate-resilience/">invasive</a> amphibian. The American bullfrog (Aquarana catesbeiana) is native to North America and was first brought to Rio de Janeiro in Brazil in 1935 to produce meat. Now, it is farmed throughout the South and Southeast of Brazil, but has also spread into the wild, negatively impacting local ecosystems by competing with native species for food and other resources, feeding on other frogs, as well as snakes, birds, and even some mammals, and spreading fungal and viral diseases against which local species have little or no immunity.&nbsp;



Recently, a team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.fearp.usp.br/en/index.php/where-we-are/university-of-sao-paulo">University of São Paulo</a> (USP) and the <a href="https://www.unicamp.br/unicamp/english">State University of Campinas</a> (UNICAMP) has conducted the most comprehensive genetic analysis of the American bullfrog, and found that there are two populations of this species in Brazil, living on frog farms or invading local ecosystems.



“We confirmed the existence of at least two different populations of bullfrogs. One probably descends from the first bullfrogs introduced into Brazil. This population is present in practically all the South and Southeast. The other is basically confined to the state of Minas Gerais, but occurs in small numbers in other states,” said&nbsp;study lead author Gabriel Jorgewich-Cohen, a former master student in Biology at the USP, and currently a doctoral fellow at the <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html">University of Zurich</a>.



“Our results show that captive and invasive bullfrogs are genetically indistinguishable, reinforcing the importance of preventing escape from frog farms,”&nbsp;added study senior author Taran Grant, a professor of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at the same university.&nbsp;



By analyzing specific genes in 324 tissue samples from 38 sites where captive and feral bullfrogs are found, the scientists discovered that the vast majority belonged to the same population descending from the animals brought from North America in 1935. The other population descended from a batch of bullfrogs brought in the 1970s to Minas Gerais.



“The results of the genetic analyses match these two more well-documented introductions, although there’s anecdotal evidence of others in the 1980s and 2000s, and isolated initiatives by some producers. If there were other introductions, the animals concerned could have had the same origin or may have interbred and merged with the existing population. Alternatively, we simply didn’t collect samples from these individuals,” Jorgewich-Cohen explained.



Since these bullfrogs can transmit pathogens, such as amphibian chytrid fungi or ranoviruses – which often end up decimating local, immunologically naïve populations - it is highly important to stop farm bullfrogs escaping from farms and to enforce high sanitary standards by both producers and consumers.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-13870-2">Nature Scientific Reports</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Brazil’s native ecosystems under threat from American bullfrogs

Bullfrogs are considered the world’s leading invasive amphibian. The American...

Endangered,Hawaiian,Green,Sea,Turtle

Besides climate change, one of the most serious threats to wildlife biodiversity is the illegal killing and trafficking of animals and plants. Although many existing laws aim to stop <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-sunscreens-lose-effectiveness-and-become-harmful/">wildlife trade</a>, it still remains one of the most lucrative illicit industries worldwide, with many endangered animals being exploited for their pelts, or used as medicine, aphrodisiacs, spiritual artifacts, or simply curiosities.&nbsp;



A research team led by the <a href="https://www.asu.edu/">Arizona State University</a> (ASU) has now estimated that over 1.1 million sea turtles have been illegally killed and trafficked between 1990 and 2020, with as many as 44,000 turtles exploited each year during the past decade in 65 countries or territories, and in 44 of the world’s 58 major sea turtle populations. Surprisingly though, the study also revealed that the illegal exploitation of turtles has in fact declined by 28 percent over the last decade.



“The decline over the past decade could be due to increased protective legislation and enhanced conservation efforts, coupled with an increase in awareness of the problem or changing local norms and traditions,” said study co-first author Kayla Burgher, a doctoral student in Environmental Life Sciences at ASU.



Moreover, most of the poaching during the last ten years occurred in large, stable, and genetically diverse sea turtle populations. “What this means is that most of these sea turtles came from healthy, low-risk populations, which suggests that, with a few exceptions, current levels of illegal exploitation are likely not having a major detrimental impact on most major sea turtle populations throughout the world’s oceans,” explained study co-first author Jesse Senko, an assistant professor of Ecology and Animal Behavior at ASU.



However, according to Professor Senko, this apparent silver lining should be approached with caution. “Assessing any illegal activity is difficult, and the take and trade of sea turtles is no exception, especially when it becomes organized or connected to crime syndicates. Our assessment also did not include eggs or turtle products, such as bracelets or earrings made from sea turtle shells that could not be easily attributed to individual turtles.”



The scientists found that Vietnam was the most common country of origin for illegal turtle trafficking, while China and Japan were the main destination for the trafficked turtle products. During the three decades investigated, 95 percent of poached sea turtles came from two species, the green and hawksbill turtles, both of which are currently endangered.



“Our assessment is an important foundation for future research and outreach efforts regarding illegal sea turtle exploitation. We believe this study can help conservation practitioners and legislators prioritize conservation efforts and allocate their resources to best help protect sea turtle populations from harmful levels of exploitation worldwide,”&nbsp;Burgher concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/gcb.16378">Global Change Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Over one million sea turtles poached in the last three decades

Besides climate change, one of the most serious threats to...

White-necked jacobins are a charming species of hummingbird common to neotropical lowlands and cloud forests. When they’re juveniles, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/woodpeckers-and-other-birds-can-taste-sugar-but-how/">birds</a> all sport tri-color plumage with blue heads, green backs and white bellies. As the birds become adults, their coloration changes.&nbsp;



Male jacobins retain the stunning tricolor pattern, but females generally become a dull green with white bellies. Surprisingly, 20 percent of females buck the trend and remain brightly colored like males.&nbsp;



A new study published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2022.0332">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a> has explored the mystery of why some females look like males. Do the females colored like males act like them, and is there a benefit to their appearance?



Male white-necked jacobins are aggressive and territorial but the researchers saw none of this behavior among the females with male plumage. Males and females also exhibit different feeding behaviors. Males tend to hang around a few feeding spots for long times while females, regardless of plumage type, visit more feeding locations for briefer intervals.



“Females with male-like plumage don’t seem to be behaving any differently than other females. All evidence instead indicates that females that look like males are engaging in deceptive mimicry,' said study lead author Jay Falk, a postdoctoral researcher at University of Washington.



Beyond observing behaviors, Falk and other scientists measured the birds and found no difference between the average size of females with different plumage. The results showed that both were slightly smaller than males. 



The researchers also measured the birds' strength by testing their ability to lift a small chain of beads while flying. Both types of females had the same strength on average, while males could lift more weight.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



One possible benefit of the mimicry is that females that look like males experience less aggression than other females. In a previous study published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(21)01033-2">Current Biology</a>, Falk and colleagues showed that females with male-like coloration were able to spend longer periods eating at feeders.  



Going forward, the team wants to look at the genetics of the birds to see what differences there may be and how these changes have evolved. There are some reports that different species of hummingbirds might display the same mimicry, which means it may be more common than we know.&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Female hummingbirds mimic males to avoid violence

White-necked jacobins are a charming species of hummingbird common to...

A new study published in the journal Nature describes how marine predators utilize anticyclonic (clockwise-rotating) ocean eddies to obtain food. The research suggests that marine predators follow anticyclonic eddies as they move throughout the open <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-insights-into-the-day-night-cycle-of-the-global-ocean/">ocean</a> - in pursuit of the biomass they contain. 



Study lead author Dr. Martin Arostegui is a postdoctoral scholar at the <a href="https://www.whoi.edu/">Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution</a> and the University of Washington Applied Physics Laboratory.



"We discovered that anticyclonic eddies - rotating clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere - were associated with increased pelagic predator catch compared with eddies rotating counter-clockwise and regions outside eddies," explained Dr. Arostegui. "Increased predator abundance in these eddies is probably driven by predator selection for habitats hosting better feeding opportunities."



The study's data consisted of over 20 years of commercial fishery information and satellite data from the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre. This nutrient-poor region sustains marine predators that are important to the Pacific Island nations.



The scientists studied marine predators in various latitudes and depths, including an ecologically diverse sample of warm and cold-blooded fishes. The team concluded that the anticyclonic eddies have an expansive effect on the food chain, from top to bottom.&nbsp;



"The idea that these eddies contain more food means they're serving as mobile hotspots in the ocean desert that predators encounter, target and stay in to feed," said Dr. Arostegui.



The study also highlights the interconnectedness between the surface and deep ocean, which is essential to consider when contemplating deep sea fishery management. Knowing more about deep sea prey fisheries and the ecosystem benefits of deep ocean eddies will help managers make more informed decisions.



"The ocean benefits predators, which then benefit humans as a food source," said Dr. Arostegui. "Harvesting the food that our food eats, is something we need to understand in order to ensure the methods are sustainable for both the prey and the predators that rely on them. That is critical to ensuring both ocean health and human wellbeing as we continue to rely on these animals for food."



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ocean eddies help marine predators find food

A new study published in the journal Nature describes how...

The pine rockland ecosystem of southern Florida evolved atop ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-played-a-key-role-in-shifting-ancient-coral-reefs/">coral reef</a> systems and came to support an abundance of rare plant and animal species. The limestone substrate of the dead corals is good for trees but, unfortunately, it’s a good foundation for houses as well. Human development has led to the destruction of much of the pine rocklands and poses a threat to the wildlife that makes them home.&nbsp;



The rim rock crowned snake, Tantilla oolitica, is one of the rare species to live in the pine rocklands. Since 1975, the small snake has been listed as threatened in Florida, and efforts are ongoing to list it federally.&nbsp;



Given the rareness of the snake, it was a surprise when a rim rock crowned snake was found dead, and with prey still sticking out of its mouth. The small snake, it seems, was trying to swallow a giant centipede when it died.



“I was amazed when I first saw the photos,” said study co-author Coleman Sheehy, herpetology collection manager at the Florida Museum of Natural History. “It’s extremely rare to find specimens that died while eating prey, and given how rare this species is, I would never have predicted finding something like this. We were all totally flabbergasted.”



The snake was discovered by a visiting hiker in John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park on Key Largo, and was given to the Florida Museum for analysis.



It seemed likely that the snake died of asphyxiation from swallowing a too large prey animal, but the scientists couldn’t be sure without looking closer. A traditional autopsy would require cutting the snake open and damaging a valuable specimen. Modern technology, however, offers some alternatives, and the experts chose to conduct a CT scan.&nbsp;



The results of the CT scan showed that the centipede bit the predatory snake but it was choking that likely caused the reptile’s demise. The CT scans were made <a href="https://www.morphosource.org/concern/media/000435339?locale=en">available</a> online for free and the scientists hope that others will glean more valuable information from them.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ecy.3857">Ecology</a>.



Image Credit: Photo by Drew Martin/ <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/science/north-americas-rarest-snake-found-biting-off-more-than-it-could-chew/">https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/science/north-americas-rarest-snake-found-biting-off-more-than-it-could-chew/</a>



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Rare snake found with last meal in its mouth

The pine rockland ecosystem of southern Florida evolved atop ancient...

Shouting,A,Angry,Chimpanzee.,The,Chimpanzee,(pan,Troglodytes),Shouts,In

Rainforest trees are supported by massive roots forming large flat buttresses. Male <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-use-surprisingly-complex-vocal-sequences/">chimpanzees</a> often drum with their hands and feet on these roots, sending messages that can be heard across over a kilometer through these dense, humid forests. Now, a team of scientists from the <a href="https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/">University of St Andrews</a> has found that chimpanzees in Uganda’s Budongo Forest have their own signature style when drumming on these three roots.&nbsp;



These specific rhythms allow the chimpanzees to send information revealing who is where, and what they are doing. Interestingly, only drumming activities performed while traveling appear to carry specific signatures, suggesting that chimpanzees can control whether they want to reveal their identity and location to conspecifics.&nbsp;



“We could often recognize who was drumming when we heard them, and it was a fantastic way to find the different chimpanzees we were looking for – so if we could do it, we were sure they could too. It’s lovely to finally show how it works,” said study senior author Catherine Hobaiter, a primatologist at St Andrews.



“One thing that has always been a puzzle is why chimpanzees greet each other but very rarely seem to say goodbye. Our results might help to explain this – chimpanzees are rarely really out of contact, even when kilometers apart these long-distance signals allow them to keep in touch with who is where. It’s as though they have their own social media that allows them to check in through the day.”



The investigation revealed that chimps use different patterns of beats, with some individuals having a regular rhythm resembling that of rock or blues drummers, while others having more syncopated and variable jazz-like rhythms. They often combine these drums with long-distance calls, called “pant-hoots.”



“This really looks like chimp social media. Indeed, we also found that chimpanzees drum more often when they’re alone or in small groups. This means that they drum to know where others are and decide whether to join them or not,” said study lead author Vesta Eleuteri, a PhD student in the evolution of cognition and communication at the <a href="https://www.univie.ac.at/en/">University of Vienna</a> and visiting researcher at St Andrews.&nbsp;



&nbsp;“I was surprised that I was able to recognize who was drumming after just a few weeks in the forest. But their drumming rhythms are so distinctive that it’s easy to pick up on them. For example, Tristan – the John Bonham (Led Zeppelin) of the forest – makes very fast drums with many evenly separated beats. His drumming is so fast that you can barely see his hands! Ben, the alpha male, also has a peculiar style: he makes two closely following beats separated by one or two more distant beats.”



In future research, the scientists aim to investigate group differences to clarify whether there are different drumming “cultures” among different chimpanzee populations.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2022.07.013">Animal Behavior</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Chimpanzees use distinctive drumming styles to communicate

Rainforest trees are supported by massive roots forming large flat...

Long have humans gazed at birds with a mix of envy and awe. It was these feathered fliers that first inspired us to take to the air in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-worlds-largest-flying-dinosaur-jumped-before-takeoff/">flying</a> machines. Still, even now, much of how birds are able to move across the skies with such grace remains largely mysterious.&nbsp;



In a new study, engineers have explored how birds can maneuver so well in flight. Study lead author Christina Harvey is an assistant professor in the Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering at the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/">University of California, Davis</a>.



“Birds easily perform challenging maneuvers and they’re adaptable, so what exactly about their flight is most useful to implement in future aircraft?” said Professor Harvey.&nbsp;



After earning a bachelors of science in engineering, Harvey focused her research on gulls as she pursued a master's degree in zoology. “Gulls are very common and easy to find, and they’re really impressive gliders,” she said.&nbsp;



Harvey’s professional interest in gulls has continued as she finished her PhD in aerospace engineering and carried out more research on the birds.&nbsp;



In a paper published earlier this year in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-04477-8">Nature</a>, Harvey and other scientists looked at flight dynamics of 22 bird species. Unlike most studies that focus on aerodynamics, the researchers looked at other factors as well.&nbsp;



Some airplanes are designed to be stable - like a jetliner that returns to steady flight after turbulence. Planes like fighter jets that must maneuver quickly are better being designed as unstable. The research shows that birds are capable of both unstable and stable flight, unlike planes.&nbsp;



Harvey’s new research builds upon this previous study. The team used 3D models of gulls and gull wings inside a wind tunnel to look at how the birds respond to perturbations while in flight. The research is important in understanding how gulls fly, but also in how we might design an airplane modeled after birds.&nbsp;



Professor Harvey expressed one of the lingering questions that is raised by her research: “The flight qualities analysis asks: if you built an aircraft exactly like a gull, would a human be able to fly it?”



Many other questions about bird flight and its application to engineering still remain as the researchers continue their studies.&nbsp;



The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2204847119">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Bird flight inspires the design of future aircraft

Long have humans gazed at birds with a mix of...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk/">University of Edinburgh</a> has found that some prehistoric mammals were born almost independent from their parents and grew up twice as fast as most of today’s mammals, features which gave them a significant edge over other animals after the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-impact-crater-dates-back-to-the-end-of-the-dinosaurs/">dinosaurs</a> went extinct.&nbsp;



The scientists used dental analysis to uncover the life history of Pantolambda bathmodon, a member of the earliest known group of herbivores from the post-dinosaur era which grew to approximately the size of a sheep. By examining razor-thin sections of this animal’s teeth, and using laser to vaporize the teeth to expose their chemical constitution, the experts identified the mammal’s daily growth lines, known as “bands.”



The analyses revealed major transitions in P. bathmodon’s early life, such as high levels of zinc deposited at birth, and enrichment with barium during the suckling period, providing evidence that these animals’ mothers were pregnant for under seven months and gave birth to single, well-developed infants, sporting a mouthful of teeth. They were most likely mobile from the first day after birth, and suckled for less than two months before becoming fully independent.



Although the gestation period is similar to that of today’s mammals, P. bathmodon has probably lived and died more rapidly. According to the researchers, they were ready to mate before their first birthday, and lived only three to four years on average – a rather short lifespan compared to the roughly 20 years lifespan of modern mammals of similar size.



“When the asteroid knocked off the dinosaurs 66 million years ago, some mammals survived, and they ballooned in size really quickly to fill the ecological niches vacated by T. rex and Triceratops and other giant dinosaurs,” said study senior author Steve Brusatte, a professor of Paleontology and Evolution at the University of Edinburgh.



“Being able to produce large babies, which matured for several months in the womb before being born, helped mammals transform from the humble mouse-sized ancestors that lived with dinosaurs to the vast array of species, from humans to elephants to whales, that are around today.”



“Our research opens the most detailed window to date into the daily lives of extinct mammals. This unprecedented level of detail shows the kinds of lifestyles that make placental mammals special evolved early in their evolutionary history,” added study lead author Gregory Funston, a paleontologist at the same university.



“We think that their babies’ longer gestation period could have nurtured large body sizes faster than other mammals, which may be why they became the dominant mammals of today,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-05150-w">Nature</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;

Prehistoric mammals grew fast and died young

A new study led by the University of Edinburgh has...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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