Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

For the first time, scientists have shown that global warming has overtaken every other human-caused pressure on wildlife protected by the Endangered Species Act. 



Drawing on a new analysis of 2,766 at-risk plants and animals across the United States and its territories, researchers report that 91 percent of federally listed species are now harmed by symptoms of climate change including rising temperatures, shifting rainfall, and other climate-linked disruptions.



“With the addition of comprehensive climate sensitivity data, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-climate-change-and-biodiversity-loss-are-one-indivisible-global-health-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> is just as prevalent a stressor to ESA-listed species as land and sea use change; this trend likely applies more broadly as well,” the authors wrote.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-threats-to-endangered-species">Climate threats to endangered species</h2>



The study, led by <a href="https://defenders.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Defenders of Wildlife</a> scientist Talia E. Niederman, set out to determine how the five dominant drivers of biodiversity loss - climate change, land and sea use change, pollution, invasive species and overexploitation - interact across taxonomic groups.



Previous national syntheses relied heavily on the threats listed in original ESA documents or in the global <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN Red List</a>, both of which can lag behind current knowledge. To correct that shortfall, the team merged those data with a suite of recent climate-sensitivity assessments that evaluate species’ exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity to warming.



Incorporating this third layer revealed thousands of cases in which climate stress had gone unreported, vaulting global warming to the top of the threat ledger. 



The researchers caution that historical listing decisions and many IUCN accounts vastly underrepresent the number of species affected by climate change and urge agencies to explicitly include climate sensitivity in ESA listing decisions and management plans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cascading-risks-for-endangered-species">Cascading risks for endangered species</h2>



Although climate change now dominates, it is rarely acting alone. Over 86 percent of the species in the data set face two or more of the five drivers at once, creating dangerous feedbacks that can accelerate decline.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/without-tackling-climate-change-coral-restoration-efforts-are-insufficient/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Corals</a> and other cnidarians are hit by an average of almost five threats each, while bivalves and amphibians typically contend with more than three. Habitat conversion remains the number-one menace to freshwater organisms, whereas marine species suffer most from overexploitation.



Overall, land and sea use change still endangers 82 percent of U.S. imperiled species, and invasive species trouble more than half. Pollution and direct exploitation each jeopardize roughly a third, but their true influence may be larger because both pressures are chronically under-documented.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-numbers-stack-up"><a></a>How the numbers stack up</h2>



Among terrestrial vertebrates, 75 percent of birds, 92 percent of mammals and 83 percent of reptiles are already affected by a warmer, less predictable climate. Freshwater groups are equally vulnerable: 88 percent of assessed fish and 75 percent of amphibians show high sensitivity to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-temperatures-will-cut-world-gdp-by-a-staggering-40-percent-if-nothing-changes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperature</a> or hydrological shifts.



Even <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predicting-how-climate-change-will-alter-plant-growth-cycles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant</a> taxa, sometimes assumed to be more buffered, reveal striking exposure, with nearly 78 percent of flowering plants and over 90 percent of conifers triggered under at least one climate-sensitivity metric.



By contrast, initial ESA listings cited climate threats for fewer than half of these groups, and the IUCN captured only about a quarter, largely because many U.S. species have never been reassessed under the Red List’s newer climate criteria.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgent-need-for-updated-assessments"><a></a>Urgent need for updated assessments</h2>



The authors highlight glaring information gaps: echinoderms, corals, and mollusks suffer from outdated or missing IUCN evaluations, while federal five-year reviews - required under the ESA - often arrive late or omit emerging climate data.



Without current assessments, managers can underestimate extinction risk and fail to deploy adaptive conservation tools such as assisted migration, habitat corridors or proactive fire management. 



Expanding rapid, standardized climate-vulnerability screenings, they argue, would give agencies a clearer map of where limited resources can do the most good.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-policy-pathways-to-prevention"><a></a>Policy pathways to prevention</h2>



Even under today’s daunting statistics, the team stresses that decisive action can still prevent losses. They recommend targeting the full suite of human pressures at once - curbing greenhouse-gas emissions while also restoring degraded habitats, controlling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/growing-threat-of-invasive-species-requires-immediate-action/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">invasive species</a>, reducing pollution and enforcing sustainable harvests.



Doing so, they contend, will yield co-benefits for people, from safeguarding fisheries and water supplies to buffering communities from extreme weather. 



"We need no further research to know that biodiversity is facing multiple persistent threats. Addressing the five drivers of biodiversity loss promptly across all affected taxa will be critical to preventing further extinction," the researchers concluded. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-climate-affects-endangered-species">How climate affects endangered species</h2>



The findings arrive as the United States prepares its first National Nature Assessment, a report intended to guide conservation investment through the mid-century. 



By demonstrating that climate change has already become the most pervasive danger for endangered species, the new study provides a sobering benchmark - and a potent call to integrate climate adaptation into every level of species recovery planning. 



Whether policymakers heed that call may determine how many of today’s imperiled species can still be saved for future generations.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/advance-article/doi/10.1093/biosci/biaf019/8115311?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth System Dynamics</a>.



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Climate change is the largest threat to U.S. endangered species

For the first time, scientists have shown that global warming...

Plastic waste has woven itself into the fabric of our oceans, threatening marine life, disrupting ecosystems, and impacting global economies. For decades, attempts to solve this crisis struggled with the sheer size of the problem and the complexity of working in constantly changing environments. 



Now, a powerful new force is emerging to confront the challenge head-on: artificial intelligence (AI). A transformative new study presents a pathbreaking way to supercharge <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-our-power-our-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean</a> cleanup.



The research shows how AI algorithms can increase the efficiency of plastic removal by more than 60 percent - a significant leap that brings the dream of plastic-free oceans closer to reality.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-could-revolutionize-ocean-cleanup">AI could revolutionize ocean cleanup</h2>



Until now, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/surprise-study-some-scientists-call-for-halting-ocean-plastic-cleanup-efforts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean</a> cleanup efforts operated on relatively simple and manual routing strategies. Ships trawling for floating plastic followed straightforward paths, often without adapting to shifting plastic densities or unpredictable weather.



This new research, conducted between 2022 and 2024, radically reimagines the process. The team developed a nonlinear, dynamic optimization model that finds the most effective plastic collection routes within seconds, even when managing vast <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coca-cola-may-dump-1-3b-pounds-plastic-into-oceans-by-2030/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean</a> areas. 



The method accounts for changes in plastic density, weather patterns, and the system's own impact on the environment, delivering significantly improved outcomes without raising operational costs.



"With analytics, we can dramatically improve plastic removal efforts in the ocean," said Dick den Hertog of the <a href="https://www.uva.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Amsterdam</a>. "By optimizing routes in real time, we ensure every sweep collects as much plastic as possible, making cleanup operations significantly more effective."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-models-find-paths-to-remove-plastic">AI models find paths to remove plastic</h2>



At the core of this innovation is a sophisticated mathematical model. The researchers framed the routing problem as a "longest path" problem in a graph representing the ocean, where nodes are locations and edges represent possible movements between them.



The challenge was not just to navigate from one point to another but to maximize plastic collection over time. Every decision about where the ships moved influenced future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/remote-sensing-can-help-prevent-plastic-from-reaching-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastic</a> distributions, creating a highly complex, nonlinear optimization problem.



To tackle this, the team designed a search-and-bound method supported by dynamic programming. Their system could find high-quality solutions within 6% of the theoretical optimum in practice. 



On a one-year dataset of ocean conditions and plastic densities, the AI-powered routing increased plastic collection efficiency by more than 60% compared to traditional methods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-plastic-pollution-needs-new-solutions">Ocean plastic pollution needs new solutions</h2>



Plastic pollution in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-innovation-takes-the-lead-in-environmental-action/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oceans</a> has reached catastrophic levels. Recent estimates indicate over 170 trillion plastic particles floating at sea. Despite global conversations about climate change, ocean plastic pollution remains an urgent but often overlooked crisis.



"Our work demonstrates that AI and operations research aren't just for finance or tech - they can actively solve environmental challenges," said Jean Pauphilet of <a href="https://www.london.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">London Business School</a>.



"With smarter analytics, we can make ocean cleanup efforts far more effective and get closer to a plastic-free future."



The timing could not be more critical. Legacy plastic emissions persist in ocean gyres like the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, where plastic densities are twenty times higher than the surrounding seas. 



Without aggressive intervention, plastic accumulation will continue rising by four percent each year.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-cleanup-missions-are-already-using-ai">Ocean cleanup missions are already using AI</h2>



Unlike many academic innovations that remain trapped in theory, this AI model has moved swiftly into real-world application. 



The <a href="https://theoceancleanup.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ocean Cleanup</a> has already integrated the routing algorithm into its operational software. Active deployments in the Pacific Ocean show tangible improvements, helping crews extract larger amounts of waste while minimizing downtime.



The system uses two ships dragging a large U-shaped screen that captures plastic without trapping marine life. 



Careful scheduling is critical, as the retention zone has limited capacity and must be regularly emptied under strict weather constraints. The AI-driven model optimizes not only the collection routes but also extraction schedules, ensuring seamless operations even during rough sea conditions.



The initiative directly supports the <a href="https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">United Nations Sustainable Development</a> Goal 14 (Life Below Water) by enhancing the efficiency of cleanup operations without the need for extensive new infrastructure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-helps-overcome-weather-challenges">AI helps overcome weather challenges</h2>



One fascinating discovery from the study is how seasonal changes impact cleanup effectiveness. During winter, when high waves frequently disrupt operations, the AI model delivered even greater improvements over traditional methods.



The model's ability to predict and adapt to difficult weather conditions proved essential. Without optimization, idle time during bad weather could cripple collection efforts. By contrast, the AI-driven approach doubled plastic collection efficiency in the harshest months compared to older strategies.



This finding highlights that maximizing cleanup efficiency is not only about having more ships or larger nets. Smart planning that anticipates environmental obstacles can make the most significant difference.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-systems-for-faster-plastic-removal">Improving systems for faster plastic removal</h2>



Beyond boosting current cleanup operations, the researchers also explored how their optimization model could inform future technology development.



The study evaluated two major design options: increasing the span of the plastic collection system and reducing the time needed to perform extractions. While enlarging the collection area yielded some gains, it quickly faced diminishing returns, especially during stormy seasons when extraction opportunities become rare.



By contrast, improving extraction efficiency - such as by shortening the time needed to empty collected plastic - had a much larger impact. Reducing extraction time by just a few hours could double weekly collection rates in summer and boost winter collection rates by more than 60%.



"Our research proves that AI-driven optimization can be a game-changer for environmental efforts," said Bruno Sainte-Rose of The Ocean Cleanup. "This is a tangible step toward solving one of the planet's most pressing ecological crises."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-can-boost-cleanups-beyond-oceans">AI can boost cleanups beyond oceans</h2>



The lessons from this work extend far beyond ocean cleanup. The research shows that AI optimization techniques can radically amplify the impact of existing environmental initiatives.



The study challenges the idea that solving global environmental problems always demands massive investments. Instead, smarter coordination, better data use, and real-time adaptive decision-making can deliver significant results with available resources.



By creating open-access tools and frameworks, the research team also ensures their innovations can be adapted for other missions. Whether cleaning river systems, responding to oil spills, or managing disaster recovery logistics, the principles behind this AI model hold broad promise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-toward-a-plastic-free-future">Toward a plastic-free future</h2>



The oceans represent Earth's life support system, regulating climate, providing food, and sustaining countless ecosystems. Yet they are under unprecedented threat from plastic pollution.



This pioneering work shows that artificial intelligence can shift the balance. By integrating real-time optimization with environmental action, the dream of plastic-free oceans moves from idealism to practical reality.



Science, technology, and visionary problem-solving are now working hand-in-hand to heal the blue heart of our planet.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/epdf/10.1287/opre.2023.0515" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Operations Research</a>.



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AI algorithms can increase ocean plastic cleanup efficiency 

Plastic waste has woven itself into the fabric of our...

High above the crowded plains and winding rivers of Asia, the Hindu Kush-Himalayan mountains have always stood as guardians of life. 



Their snow-covered peaks store nature’s most precious resource: water. Each year, as temperatures rise, the melting snow feeds rivers that nourish nearly two billion people across the continent.



Now, that ancient cycle faces an unprecedented disruption. A new report reveals that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rain-and-snow-are-difficult-to-forecast-at-near-freezing-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">snowfall</a> across this mighty mountain range has fallen to its lowest level in 23 years. 



The implications are profound, threatening agriculture, drinking water, and the very survival of millions. Scientists warn that the changes are not only immediate but could shape the region’s future in devastating ways.



The Hindu Kush-Himalayan range stretches across eight countries - Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan. These mountains hold the largest reserves of ice and snow outside the polar regions.



They have earned the name "Third Pole" for a reason: they sustain life on a continental scale.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-snowfall-drops-across-hindu-kush-himalayas">Snowfall drops across Hindu Kush-Himalayas</h2>



According to the International Center for Integrated Mountain Development (<a href="https://www.icimod.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ICIMOD</a>), the region’s snow persistence - the duration snow stays on the ground - has dropped by 23.6% compared to normal levels. This marks the lowest snowfall observed in over two decades.



"This trend, now in its third consecutive year, threatens <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-snow-complexity-can-improve-winter-safety/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water</a> security for nearly two billion people," the ICIMOD report stated, emphasizing the gravity of the situation.



Reduced snow levels mean less meltwater feeding the twelve major river basins that countless communities rely on. These rivers, including the Ganges, Indus, and Brahmaputra, are vital arteries for drinking water, agriculture, and hydroelectric power. 



The Hindu Kush-Himalayan <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-sea-ice-hits-record-winter-low-raising-global-alarm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">region</a> does not just affect those living on its slopes; it impacts hundreds of millions downstream.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-low-snowfall-weakens-rivers">Low snowfall weakens rivers</h2>



The new Snow Update Report from ICIMOD paints a stark picture. Lower snowfall this year will likely lead to weaker river flows, deeper reliance on already strained groundwater supplies, and a heightened risk of droughts.



Sher Muhammad, the lead author of the ICIMOD report, explained the unusual snowfall patterns. "This year the snowfall started late in January and remained low in the winter <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-ice-caps-may-only-exist-because-of-unusual-climate-shifts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">season</a> on average," he told AFP.



This delay and reduction mean that spring and summer seasons will bring smaller and weaker rivers. Farmers depending on regular meltwater for irrigation could face catastrophic harvest losses. In cities, water shortages could become more frequent and severe.



Several countries have already issued drought warnings, bracing for the compounded threats of heatwaves, water scarcity, and food insecurity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rivers-face-major-water-loss">Rivers face major water loss</h2>



The loss of snow cover is not uniform across the Hindu Kush-Himalayas. Some areas are experiencing even sharper declines. The ICIMOD report highlights the Mekong and Salween river basins, which have lost nearly half of their snow cover.



These rivers are lifelines for millions in Southeast Asia, particularly in China and Myanmar. The drastic reduction in snow threatens the very foundation of agriculture, fisheries, and daily life in these regions.



Without significant snow reserves to replenish them, the rivers will run lower, warmer, and less able to sustain the communities that depend on them. This will intensify competition over water resources and strain regional relationships already tested by climate stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-call-for-regional-action">A call for regional action</h2>



Faced with these alarming trends, ICIMOD is urging its member nations to act swiftly. The organization emphasizes the urgent need for improved water management strategies, stronger drought preparedness, better early warning systems, and more robust regional cooperation.



Although the Hindu Kush-Himalayan region spans diverse political landscapes, the shared threat of water insecurity demands collective solutions. 



No single country can address these challenges alone. Joint investment in climate-resilient infrastructure, early detection systems, and cooperative agreements will be essential to avoid deepening crises.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hindu-kush-himalayas-face-irreversible-change">Hindu Kush-Himalayas face irreversible change</h2>



Pema Gyamtsho, ICIMOD's director general, did not mince words when discussing the long-term implications of current climate trends.



"Carbon emissions have already locked in an irreversible course of recurrent snow anomalies in the HKH (Hindu Kush-Himalayas)," Gyamtsho said.



This sobering statement reflects a reality many scientists have warned about for years. Even if carbon emissions were to drop tomorrow, the effects already set in motion will continue to reshape the region’s environment for decades to come. 



Future generations in Asia will inherit a world with less snow, weaker rivers, and greater struggles for water.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-broader-climate-warning">A broader climate warning</h2>



The snowfall crisis is not an isolated incident but part of a broader and accelerating trend. The UN's <a href="https://wmo.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">World Meteorological Organization</a> reported that Asia has experienced the most rapid glacier retreat on record in five of the past six years.



This relentless loss of ice and snow is rewriting the hydrological maps of Asia. It is making once-reliable water sources unpredictable and exposing millions to the twin dangers of floods and droughts.



As the snowpacks shrink and glaciers retreat, the ancient relationship between mountain, river, and community frays. Scientists and policymakers alike must recognize this as not just an environmental issue but a humanitarian one.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hindu-kush-himalayas-need-quick-action">Hindu Kush-Himalayas need quick action</h2>



The Hindu Kush-Himalayas are sounding an unmistakable alarm. The crisis unfolding in these heights is a warning not only for Asia but for the world. 



Water scarcity, food insecurity, and climate migration could soon grow far worse without bold, coordinated action.



The time to respond is now, before snowmelt - once a symbol of renewal and hope - becomes a memory of the past.



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Snowfall drops in Hindu Kush-Himalayas, water crisis may follow

High above the crowded plains and winding rivers of Asia,...

In a world increasingly shaped by virtual reality, the way humans interact is changing. Avatars have quickly become vital players in online communication, from professional meetings to shopping experiences. 



Yet, how deeply they influence our thoughts and decisions is still being uncovered. One critical aspect now gaining attention is how avatars affect risk-taking behavior.



Recent research led by Dr. Toshiko Tanaka and Dr. Masahiko Haruno at the National Institute of Information and Communications Technology (<a href="https://www.nict.go.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NICT</a>) reveals that avatars play a powerful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-avatars-are-making-people-take-more-risks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">role</a> in shaping human behavior. 



The study, published in PLOS Biology, offers fresh insights into how expecting feedback from an avatar can encourage people to take greater risks compared to feedback from real human faces.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-avatars-make-humans-take-more-risks">Avatars make humans take more risks</h2>



The study by Tanaka and Haruno highlights an important psychological shift. Participants showed an increased tendency toward risky behavior when interacting with avatars rather than real people. 



The key mechanism behind this shift lies in how the brain’s amygdala <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/older-adults-often-understand-emojis-but-hesitate-to-use-them/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">processes</a> uncertainty in feedback from avatars.



"Participants were more likely to take risks when facial expressions (such as admiration or contempt) were displayed by avatars than when the same expressions were shown on real human faces," the authors noted.



Their work fills a critical gap. Previous research mainly focused on how using one's own avatar impacts behavior. Few studies addressed how a communication partner appearing as an avatar might alter decision-making. 



With avatar-based communication expanding rapidly across industries, these insights arrive at an essential time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-avatar-and-human-reactions">Testing avatar and human reactions</h2>



To explore these dynamics, the researchers designed a task where participants engaged in a gambling game. 



Participants received dynamic facial-expression feedback either from an observer's real face or their avatar representation after each trial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sending-the-right-message-emojis-can-be-misinterpreted/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">outcome</a>. This creative setup allowed the team to alternate between avatar and human interactions in a natural and controlled way.



A total of 28 individuals participated in behavioral experiments, while 51 individuals underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scanning. 



During the task, participants faced decisions between a guaranteed small reward and a larger, riskier reward. Each time they made a choice, their communication partner's expression reflected success or failure, either through a real human face or an avatar.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-avatar-feedback-leads-to-more-risk-taking">Avatar feedback leads to more risk-taking</h2>



Results from the experiments revealed something striking. When participants anticipated receiving feedback from an avatar, they chose the riskier option more frequently. This trend held true both in behavioral studies and during fMRI scans.



“We found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/personality-has-a-profound-influence-on-gene-expression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">people</a> tend to take more risks when their partner responds through an avatar rather than showing their real face. This seems to be driven by a change in how they process uncertainty - and interestingly, that change is reflected in the amygdala,” noted co-author Masahiko Haruno.



The fMRI data supported these behavioral observations. It showed that expecting avatar feedback created changes in how the amygdala responded to uncertainty. When interacting with avatars, participants viewed uncertain feedback more favorably, making them more willing to gamble.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-communication-partners-and-brain-function">Communication partners and brain function </h2>



The computational modeling revealed that the increased gambling behavior was directly linked to an altered valuation of uncertainty. 



Specifically, a negative amygdala response to feedback uncertainty facilitated this heightened risk-taking. This brain-based response occurred both in avatar and human conditions but had a stronger effect when avatars were involved.



This finding highlights the amygdala’s importance not only in emotional reactions but also in decision-making during virtual interactions. It reveals that even subtle differences in how we perceive communication partners - avatars versus humans - can significantly alter brain function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-personality-and-risk-sensitivity">Personality and risk sensitivity</h2>



Another fascinating discovery from the study was the link between personality traits and sensitivity to feedback uncertainty. Individual differences in emotional consideration for others predicted variations in both behavioral and neural responses to avatar interactions.



Those with stronger interpersonal emotional sensitivity exhibited different amygdala activity patterns. They were also more prone to changing their risk-taking behavior depending on whether they faced an avatar or a human.



Study co-author Toshiko Tanaka elaborated on the complexity of the experiments: “Using the same confederate and having them pass as just another participant every time wasn’t easy - it took a lot of effort to keep things feeling real for each new person.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-for-virtual-society">Broader implications for virtual society</h2>



As avatars continue to blend into our professional, educational, and social lives, understanding their psychological effects becomes crucial. The research provides evidence that avatars are not neutral mediums. They can actively shape how people assess risks and rewards, driven by deep neural processes.



With virtual environments becoming more realistic and immersive, the line between real and virtual communication partners will keep blurring. Designing systems that acknowledge these psychological impacts could lead to better, safer virtual interactions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-studies-on-avatars-and-humans">Future studies on avatars and humans</h2>



The study opens new avenues for research. Tanaka and Haruno plan to explore how other factors, like avatar gender and age or the type of decision-making task, influence outcomes. 



The experts aim to investigate how avatars can support informed decision-making in real-world applications, such as education, counseling, and commerce.



Understanding these influences will be critical for creating healthy digital environments. It will also help avoid unintended consequences where avatar-based interactions encourage reckless decisions.



This research was supported by the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.jst.go.jp/moonshot/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JST Moonshot R&amp;D Program</a>, the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.jst.go.jp/kisoken/crest/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JST CREST Program</a>, and a&nbsp;<a href="https://www.jsps.go.jp/english/e-grants/grants01.html">Grant-in-Aid for Transformative Research Areas</a>.​<a href="https://www.jsps.go.jp/english/e-grants/grants01.html?utm_source=chatgpt.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Japan Social Security Agency</a>.​



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://plos.io/43MGr63" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Biology</a>.



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People take more risks when talking to avatars

In a world increasingly shaped by virtual reality, the way...

Every few decades, technology reshapes how humanity understands itself. The AI revolution, unfolding rapidly over the last three years, stands as one of those pivotal moments. Now, it is not just words, but the speech and melody behind them that technology is beginning to uncover and understand.



With large language models like ChatGPT gaining prominence, it has become clear that machines can mimic human communication impressively well. Yet, a deeper layer of interaction has remained untouched - one that is not found in words alone.



A recent study from Professor Elisha Moses's lab at the <a href="https://www.weizmann.ac.il/pages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Weizmann Institute of Science</a> is now bringing this missing dimension into focus. 



The research reveals that the melody of speech - known as prosody - is a structured, independent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-people-are-born-to-enjoy-music-more-than-others/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">language</a> in its own right. It has vocabulary, semantics, and syntax, waiting to be deciphered.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-speech-is-more-than-words">Speech is more than words</h2>



In everyday life, words form only a part of human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/babies-hear-far-more-speech-at-home-than-music/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interaction</a>. Prosody - the music of speech - encompasses pitch changes, variations in loudness, tempo shifts, and tonal quality.



This expressive toolkit adds emotional and functional depth to communication, influencing meaning even when the words remain the same.



This is not a recent development. Studies show that both chimpanzees and whales use prosodic structures in their communication, suggesting that prosody predates language itself. In humans, a pause can change meaning dramatically. 



A subtle rise in tone can signal curiosity or challenge. Speech without prosody, as in robotic voices, sounds unnatural and flat.



"Our study lays the foundation for an automated system to compile a 'dictionary' of prosody for every human language and for different speaker populations," noted the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-hidden-language-of-speech-melodies">The hidden language of speech melodies</h2>



Dr. Nadav Matalon and Dr. Eyal Weinreb, leading the research from Moses’s lab, decided to study prosody like an unknown language. 



The experts turned to vast databases of spontaneous English conversations: the CallHome Corpus and the Santa Barbara Corpus. Instead of relying on written or rehearsed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-reveal-how-music-can-heal-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">speech</a>, they sought the chaotic beauty of real-life conversations.



The team's method involved breaking speech into Intonation Units (IUs). Each IU usually consists of one to four words, marked by coherent melody and rhythm. This structure allowed the team to represent each IU as a pitch-intensity vector and to cluster similar melodies without any prior assumptions.



"When the University of Oxford was tasked with compiling one, it asked the public to help with the workload by sending quotes showing the historical changes in the meaning of words," explained the researchers.



"One of the main contributors was a prisoner who spent more than 20 years reading books and sending quotes. In our study, instead of collecting information by ourselves over the course of decades, we analyzed massive collections of audio recordings, using AI."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-basic-speech-melody-patterns">Basic speech melody patterns</h2>



From this clustering, the researchers uncovered roughly 200 distinct prosodic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/upright-walking-may-have-sparked-human-creativity-and-music/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a>. This number stands in stark contrast to the thousands of words in the core verbal vocabulary of English. Each prosodic pattern, lasting around a second, acted like a "word" in the hidden language of melody.



Despite the differences in individual voices, these melodic shapes appeared consistently across spontaneous conversations. Each shape could have several linguistic functions depending on context, yet typically expressed a dominant emotional attitude such as enthusiasm, skepticism, or curiosity.



"We discovered that each pattern has several linguistic functions," explained Matalon. "For example, depending on the context, a pattern can define whether someone is asking a question or making a statement." 



"However, each pattern typically conveys one specific attitude of the speaker - such as curiosity, surprise or confusion - toward what's being said."



Understanding these prosodic patterns offers more than simple emotional coloring. It hints at a deeper, structured system where the melody itself carries grammatical-like information.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-speech-melodies-follow-simple-rules">Speech melodies follow simple rules</h2>



Beyond identifying basic prosodic "words," the researchers discovered rules for how these melodic units combine. They found that certain prosodic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-triggers-unique-prediction-zones-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a> tend to appear in pairs, with one IU predicting the next through simple, memory-friendly rules resembling a Markov process.



"We noticed that there are patterns that tend to appear next to each other, in pairs, in spontaneous speech," explained Weinreb.



"It's a simple statistical system, in which the correct choice of the next unit in a sequence depends solely on the previous one. This system works well for spontaneous conversation because it requires planning only a few seconds ahead, which is just as long as short-term memory lasts."



Unlike written grammar, where sentences unfold over multiple clauses and ideas, spoken language often plans just one or two seconds ahead. This dynamic allows humans to communicate flexibly in real time, yet still follow an underlying structure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spontaneous-speech-vs-scripted-speech">Spontaneous speech vs. scripted speech</h2>



One of the study’s more striking findings is the contrast between spontaneous and scripted speech. When the researchers analyzed professional audiobooks, they found that scripted speech lacked the natural prosodic pairings common in conversation.



While spontaneous speech relied on short IU pairs to build meaning, audiobooks showed longer, more rigid melodic sequences. Even amateur audiobook readings had more dynamic prosody than polished professional recordings.



These differences underscore the need to study real-world conversations, not just polished texts, to understand human communication fully. It also suggests that if AI systems are trained only on written or scripted language, they will miss essential elements of how humans really talk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-ai-could-hear-feelings">Future AI could hear feelings</h2>



Teaching AI to grasp prosody could profoundly change how machines interact with people. The researchers envision future systems that not only process words but also pick up emotional cues from the melodies in speech.



"Imagine if Siri could understand from the melody of your voice how you feel about a certain subject, what's important to you or whether you think you know better than her, and that she could adapt her response to make it sound enthusiastic or sad," said Weinreb.



"We already have brain implants that convert neural activity into speech for people who can't speak. If we can teach prosody to a computer model, we'll be adding a significant layer of human expression that robotic systems currently lack."



Prosody may even enhance brain-computer interfaces, making synthetic speech generated from neural activity sound more human and emotionally rich.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-and-future-directions">Challenges and future directions</h2>



The study acknowledges that human speech carries intrinsic noise. Everyday conversation is filled with interruptions, repairs, and overlapping voices. Clustering prosodic patterns must navigate this chaos, and perfect separation of prosodic "words" remains elusive.



Still, the researchers are optimistic. Expanding datasets, refining clustering methods, and integrating prosodic and textual data may allow future models to predict both what is said and how it is meant. 



They also see opportunities to apply their methods to other languages, cultures, and special groups like children or elderly speakers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unlocking-speech-secrets">Unlocking speech secrets</h2>



This work was made possible by a collaborative team including Dr. Dominik Freche, Dr. Erez Volk from NeuraLight Inc., Dr. Tirza Biron, and Professor David Biron from the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Chicago</a>. 



Together, they combined expertise in physics, linguistics, neuroscience, and computer science to unveil this hidden dimension of language.



Their collective effort now points to a future where machines might not just understand words but truly hear human beings - emotion, intent, and all.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2403262122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Our speech is full of melodies that create language-like patterns

Every few decades, technology reshapes how humanity understands itself. The...

Imagine walking through a field where plants could tell farmers when they’re thirsty. Imagine farmers signaling back, warning their crops about an incoming dry spell so they could start conserving water. This idea, once confined to science fiction, is now a growing reality.



Researchers at the Center for Research on Programmable Plant Systems (CROPPS) at <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell University</a> have taken a huge step toward making plant communication a two-way street. 



The team's latest study, published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, unlocks a century-old mystery about how plants internally signal stress.



This breakthrough offers new possibilities for developing plants that not only "talk" to people but also respond to specific environmental cues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-talk-through-signals">Plants talk through signals</h2>



Inside every plant, negative pressure holds <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/its-the-timing-of-water-that-matters-to-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water</a> within its stems, roots, and leaves. This balance keeps them healthy, especially during dry conditions. 



When stressors disturb this pressure, it sets off a movement in the plant's internal fluids. These motions then carry mechanical and chemical signals throughout the plant to help restore balance.



"We are trying to build a foundational knowledge of understanding how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-have-complex-biochemical-communication-networks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">communication in plants</a> happens," said Vesna Bacheva, a postdoctoral associate at CROPPS and a Schmidt Science Fellow. 



"Our framework provides a mechanistic understanding of what drives signals from one place to another and explains how mechanical and chemical signals could propagate."



Bacheva works alongside Abe Stroock, a professor of chemical and biomolecular engineering, and Margaret Frank, associate professor of plant biology.



"It's a very important step forward in an area that is surprisingly nascent in terms of true mechanistic understanding," noted Stroock.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solving-a-mystery-from-over-100-years-ago">Solving a mystery from over 100 years ago</h2>



Scientists have long debated how plants send <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sensors-monitor-the-health-of-plants-by-interpreting-distress-signals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">distress signals</a>. Some believed they used hormones or chemicals, while others thought mechanical forces were at play. Until now, a clear answer remained elusive.



The Cornell team developed a predictive model that explains how pressure changes within a plant can transmit both mechanical and chemical signals. Their work shows that the plant's vascular system - a series of pressurized tubes - plays a key role.



When a plant is wounded, such as when a caterpillar chews on a leaf, the pressure changes. This shift can cause a mass flow of water that carries stress chemicals to distant parts of the plant. These chemicals might, for example, prompt the plant to produce a toxic acid that fends off insects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pressure-calcium-and-defense-responses">Pressure, calcium, and defense responses</h2>



Beyond carrying chemicals, pressure changes might also open mechanosensitive channels near the plant’s vasculature.



 When these channels open, they release ions like calcium. A surge of calcium, known as a calcium flux, could trigger defensive genes to activate.



The team’s findings suggest a coordinated system in which mechanical forces and chemical signals work hand in hand. This discovery gives scientists new tools to think about how to enhance <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-sophisticated-defense-system-when-pathogens-attack/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants' natural defenses</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-that-talk-and-listen">Plants that talk and listen</h2>



"We are trying to develop reporter plants that will tell us what they're experiencing at the moment," Bacheva said. These experimental organisms might change color when they are thirsty. Others might glow under special lights when they experience stress.



The vision doesn’t stop there. Future systems could allow farmers to send signals to their crops. For example, a farmer could alert plants about upcoming dry conditions, prompting them to ration their water.



"We're at a point at CROPPS where we are simultaneously investigating the molecular biology, biophysics, engineering design and integration toward agronomic reality with brand-new concepts and technologies," Stroock said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-step-toward-smarter-healthier-farms">A step toward smarter, healthier farms</h2>



The ability for plants to send and receive signals opens up exciting possibilities for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birth-of-farming-driven-by-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">farming</a>. If they can tell farmers exactly when they need help, it could lead to healthier crops and less wasted resources. 



Farmers might be able to act faster, water more efficiently, and protect them before problems get worse.



The researchers hope this new understanding will inspire even more ways to connect with plants in the future. As the science moves forward, the dream of truly smart, responsive farms - where plants and people work together - feels closer than ever.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2422692122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Plants could soon 'talk' to farmers - and listen too

Imagine walking through a field where plants could tell farmers...

Among the animal kingdom’s many mysteries, few are as fascinating as bonobos' social lives. 



Often called the "hippies" of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-and-chimps-express-empathy-much-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primate</a> world, bonobos have long intrigued scientists with their peaceful societies and strong female alliances. Unlike their more aggressive chimpanzee cousins, bonobos embrace cooperation over conflict.



Yet, a deeper puzzle hides within their gentle reputation. Female bonobos dominate social structures, even though males are physically larger and stronger. This unusual dynamic stands in stark contrast to most mammals, where strength usually rules. 



Recent research finally sheds light on how bonobo females turned the tables.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-female-bonobos-control-social-bonds-nbsp">Female bonobos control social bonds&nbsp;</h2>



In bonobo groups, females take the lead in reproduction. They decide when and with whom they mate. If a male attempts an unwanted advance, the female easily parries him. Males know better than to push further, respecting the females' decisions without violence.



This female control extends beyond the bedroom. High-value <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobo-communication-shares-many-structural-similarities-with-human-language/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resources</a>, like fresh kills or prized fruits, also rest in female hands. They feed leisurely on the ground while males hover anxiously in the trees. 



Martin Surbeck from <a href="https://www.harvard.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard University</a> noted that this behavior is "totally bizarre for an animal like a bonobo."



Normally, larger body size would give males the upper hand. In most mammals, males dominate food, mating, and status by sheer force. Bonobos, however, defy this rule in surprising and illuminating ways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-three-ideas-explain-female-power">Three ideas explain female power</h2>



Understanding bonobo <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-say-no-to-unfair-trades-even-if-it-costs-rewards/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">society</a> required examining three competing ideas. First is the self-organization hypothesis. It suggests that males could lose dominance over time due to repeated conflict losses.



In addition, the reproductive control hypothesis argues that female hidden ovulation limits male control over mating. Furthermore, the female coalition hypothesis proposes that solidarity among females built power.



"There were competing ideas for how, none of which had ever been tested in wild bonobos living in the jungles in which they evolved," said Barbara Fruth of the <a href="https://www.mpg.de/institutes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute</a>. To settle the debate, the researchers turned to long-term field data.



Over thirty years, scientists collected observations from six bonobo communities across the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-bonobo-day-a-celebration-of-love-peace-and-conservation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a> they uncovered would finally bring clarity to this evolutionary enigma.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-female-alliances-turn-the-power-balance">Female alliances turn the power balance</h2>



The evidence pointed overwhelmingly to one answer: coalitions. Female bonobos gained their power not by physical strength or reproductive tricks but through alliance-building. In 85% of observed coalitions, females banded together to target males.



"It’s exciting to find that females can actively elevate their social status by supporting each other," explained Surbeck. These alliances were not casual. They formed quickly, often within seconds of a triggering event, such as male aggression toward infants.



Once a coalition formed, its effect was loud and unmistakable. Screams pierced the forest so sharply that "you have to block your ears," Fruth recalled. Targeted males faced not just humiliation but sometimes severe injuries, forcing them to flee <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-are-more-endangered-than-previously-known/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">groups</a> for days or weeks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-female-power-varies-between-bonobo-groups">Female power varies between bonobo groups</h2>



Despite the strength of female coalitions, dominance was not absolute. Researchers found wide variation across bonobo communities. In some years, a male even held the top rank, particularly when supported by a powerful mother.



"It's more accurate to say that in bonobo societies, females enjoy high status rather than unchallenged dominance," said Fruth. Mothers played a crucial role. In communities where adult males had living mothers, males sometimes rose higher in the hierarchy.



Other communities, especially those with frequent female coalitions, saw females consistently outranking males. The key factor was the frequency and strength of female alliances, not the number of males or other demographic shifts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-theories-to-explain-female-dominance">Theories to explain female dominance</h2>



The researchers thoroughly tested the alternative hypotheses but found little support. The self-organization hypothesis suggested that a higher proportion of males would lead to female dominance. However, the data showed no significant relationship.



Likewise, the reproductive control hypothesis, based on hidden ovulation and prolonged fertility signals, did not fully explain the female advantage. Synchronization of sexual swelling among females did not correlate with greater female power.



While hidden ovulation may reduce male aggression overall, it does not guarantee female dominance. It is coalition-building, not mating strategies, that most consistently empowers bonobo females.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-female-bonobos-rise-through-alliances">Female bonobos rise through alliances</h2>



Female coalitionary aggression showed a strong association with female power across communities. Where females more often banded together, they won more conflicts against males and held higher ranks.



This finding highlights a striking evolutionary strategy. In most mammals, including primates, females rarely form aggressive alliances. Bonobos stand apart, using group action rather than individual strength to tilt power dynamics.



Interestingly, even in the absence of kinship ties, immigrant bonobo females built strong social bonds. This behavior challenges long-held assumptions that cooperation depends on genetic relatedness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consequences-for-male-behavior-and-society">Consequences for male behavior and society</h2>



Bonobo males, facing strong female alliances, shift their strategies accordingly. Instead of aggression, males invest in maintaining peaceful relationships with females. Coercive mating, common in many primates, is rare among bonobos.



Males gain reproductive success by staying close to receptive females and avoiding conflict. In this environment, violence backfires while cooperation wins mates. Such dynamics reveal an evolutionary route where peace, not aggression, yields greater success.



In communities with strong female coalitions, males sometimes become isolated after aggressive incidents. Some males even leave the community temporarily after facing intense female retaliation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unity-beats-physical-strength">Unity beats physical strength</h2>



The bonobo case challenges the traditional view that strength alone governs social structures. Instead, social support networks play a vital role in shaping dominance hierarchies.



Surbeck’s research adds to a growing body of evidence suggesting that female empowerment in mammals can arise through multiple pathways. In spotted hyenas, for example, female dominance stems from social support and reproductive control.



Fruth reflects, "I'm still puzzled why, of all animals, bonobos were the ones to form female alliances." Although the reasons remain mysterious, the findings offer hope. They hint that even in fiercely competitive environments, solidarity can surpass force.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-bonobo-research">The future of bonobo research</h2>



While much progress has been made, questions linger. How do individual personalities affect coalition formation? Why do some communities show stronger female solidarity than others? What environmental or historical factors shaped these behaviors?



Future studies will aim to unravel these complexities. Researchers also hope to explore how these findings could shed light on human social evolution. After all, bonobos, along with chimpanzees, are our closest living relatives.



Understanding the roots of power, cooperation, and gender relations in bonobos might help us reflect on our own evolutionary journey.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-different-kind-of-power">A different kind of power</h2>



In the end, bonobo societies remind us that power does not always stem from size, strength, or aggression. Sometimes, it arises from unity, shared purpose, and rapid, courageous action.



Among bonobos, females carved a unique path - one built not through fear but through collective strength. It is a path that challenges assumptions, sparks wonder, and perhaps, whispers lessons to our own species across the evolutionary gulf.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-025-07900-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Biology</a>.



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Female bonobos stay in charge even though males are stronger

Among the animal kingdom’s many mysteries, few are as fascinating...

Over the years, aquarists and biologists have marveled at the dramatically thick lips of several African cichlid species. These unique fish, found in lakes Victoria, Malawi, and Tanganyika, have puzzled researchers who seek to understand how and why such large lips evolved.



This fascination has led to fresh investigations by scientists comparing lip structures, tissue composition, and gene expression in these fish. 



The research effort is led by Dr. Nagatoshi Machii from the <a href="https://www.isct.ac.jp/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tokyo Institute of Technology</a>, whose group has examined microscopic details and molecular data to pinpoint what drives lip enlargement in certain cichlids.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cichlid-lips-and-parallel-evolution">Cichlid lips and parallel evolution</h2>



Researchers have documented that cichlids across different lakes display similar traits, even though they are not closely related. Such repeated emergence of shared features is known as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/parallel-evolution" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parallel evolution</a>, a process often fueled by environmental pressures.



“Parallel evolution is evidence of natural selection that drives adaptive solutions to the environment,” wrote Jonathan Losos, an evolutionary biologist based at Harvard.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lakes-as-natural-laboratories">Lakes as natural laboratories</h2>



The isolated ecosystems of Lake Victoria, Malawi, and Tanganyika act like nature’s own research stations. Each lake evolved its own line of cichlid species, yet many developed the same traits independently - a perfect setup to study parallel evolution.



By comparing species across these lakes, scientists can spot patterns that might be missed in a single location. It’s a rare opportunity to test how evolution repeats itself under similar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-stress-harms-the-brains-of-low-status-fish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental conditions</a> but with different starting points.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unmasking-the-lip-building-proteins">Unmasking the lip-building proteins</h2>



Detailed analyses indicate that thick cichlid lips contain a proteoglycan-rich layer (a structural element found in various tissues, including bone, cartilage, tendons, and skin, that play crucial roles in tissue organization, hydration, and mechanical properties) not seen in normal-lipped fish. 



Proteoglycans are large molecules with attached sugar chains, sometimes linked to extra water retention.



One study on cichlids with enlarged lips showed that certain proteins, including chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans, were in high abundance. This composition may give these hefty lips their signature plumpness by increasing connective tissue volume.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lip-growth-starts-young">Lip growth starts young</h2>



The team found that differences in gene expression begin earlier than expected. Even in juvenile cichlids, before their lips fully thicken, the genes responsible for building extracellular matrix components are already more active in species that develop larger lips.



This suggests the groundwork for lip hypertrophy is laid early in life and then reinforced as the fish matures. The continuous expression of these genes throughout development points to a tightly regulated system that ensures these lip traits persist across generations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-behind-oversized-cichlid-lips">Genes behind oversized cichlid lips</h2>



Scientists also noted changes in genes involved in the Wnt signaling network (a complex network of proteins that plays a critical role in how cells grow, divide, move, and develop. 



It’s especially important during embryonic development, but it also helps maintain and repair tissues in adults). This pathway influences a wide array of growth and developmental processes in many animals.



Some cichlids with oversized lips showed heightened expression of Wnt-related genes at both juvenile and adult stages. This suggests the pathway may stay active over time, nudging tissues to expand and accumulate more extracellular material.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tissue-connection-mirrors-human-biology">Tissue connection mirrors human biology</h2>



Recent findings have drawn an unexpected link between the oversized lips of cichlids and conditions seen in humans. The same proteoglycans found in fish lips are also involved in human skin disorders like <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/keloid-scar" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">keloids</a>, where excess connective tissue causes raised, fibrous scars.



In both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-fish-coelacanth-presumed-extinct-for-60-million-years-before-rediscovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> and humans, these molecules seem to attract and hold large amounts of water, helping tissues expand. Researchers believe that understanding how these proteins behave in cichlids may offer new insights into how connective tissues grow - or overgrow - in other animals, including us.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-possible-role-in-cichlid-feeding">Possible role in cichlid feeding</h2>



Biologists have long debated the ecological benefits of bulky lips. Past <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8025722/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> suggests these lips might help fish probe rocky crevices or minimize tissue damage as they forage.&nbsp;



Another line of research hints that extra lip surface could boost contact with environmental cues. This might aid in locating prey, which would be especially useful in the maze-like habitats of the African Great Lakes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-not-all-cichlids-have-big-lips">Why not all cichlids have big lips</h2>



Despite the shared environments of the East African Great Lakes, not every cichlid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-evolve-rapidly-by-switching-between-simple-and-complex-teeth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> ends up with hypertrophied lips. That’s because this trait appears to be polygenic, meaning it depends on many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-fix-faulty-genes-before-birth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genes</a> working together - each with a small influence.



Environmental pressures like foraging style or diet likely interact with genetic tendencies. In species where the benefit of thick lips isn’t strong enough, the genes driving lip growth may remain quiet or develop differently, even if the molecular tools are present.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



Genetic studies have pinpointed multiple points in the cichlid genome that may influence lip thickness. Each locus seemingly offers a small push toward fuller lips, forming a broad and complex mechanism for the trait.&nbsp;



Investigations into parallels between enlarged fish lips and certain human connective tissue conditions have also started. Some scientists hope comparisons might clarify how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-molecules-collagen-discovered-in-66-million-year-old-dinosaur-bones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">collagen</a> and other structural molecules work in different organisms over many generations.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/articles/99160" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eLife</a>.



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The molecular secret behind the giant lips of African cichlids

Over the years, aquarists and biologists have marveled at the...

Some ancient periods in Earth's history challenge our assumptions about what our planet can endure. The earliest global glaciation event of the Neoproterozoic Era, known as the Sturtian glaciation, lasted 56 million years and turned the planet into a "snowball" all the way to the equator. 



A second snowball glaciation, the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1342937X23003210" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marinoan glaciation</a> has been more difficult to pin down in terms of duration and extent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evidence-of-global-glaciation">Evidence of global glaciation </h2>



In 2025, a research team led by <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=K1m-rEMAAAAJ&amp;hl=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Adrian R. Tasistro-Hart</a> from the Department of Earth and Planetary Science, McCone Hall, at the University of California, presented findings that link the structure of certain rock layers to this second massive chill in the Neoproterozoic Era. 



The study provided direct dating evidence of this widespread freeze, and helped tackle a puzzle that has long intrigued geologists.



Clues from rock formations in Namibia, southwestern Africa, suggested that long-lasting sheets of ice reached these areas that were previously thought to have been spared. This enabled the researchers to date the onset and duration of the Marinoan glaciation event. 



The field data suggested an unexpected stability in the frozen surface that lasted around 4 million years. This raises questions about how life managed to persist during these extreme times.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-about-a-frozen-earth">Clues about a frozen Earth</h2>



Scientists have spent decades studying ancient sediments to understand the causes behind major planetary cool-downs. Some layers reflect glacial activity in places as distant as southwestern Africa, with rugged terrain that extends for about 11 miles (18 kilometers) in certain study zones.



Evidence from drone imagery and core samples in this area hints at ice piles that never budged even when orbital changes caused the usual shifts in climate. This pattern suggests a stability in conditions that leaves researchers wondering why none of the typical fluctuations were recorded.



Such steadiness separates this period from shorter glacial intervals that were seen in more recent times. It also indicates that small differences in volcanic activity might lead to dramatic changes in how our planet traps or reflects heat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-caused-the-global-glaciation-event">What caused the global glaciation event?</h2>



Earth radiates much of the Sun's energy back out into space under normal circumstances. Sometimes, volcanic activity can produce clouds of gas and dust that increase albedo (the proportion of solar radiation that is reflected) and block incoming solar radiation. 



This would have cooled the Earth and potentially triggered a run-away glaciation event. As more ice formed and began to cover not just polar regions, the incoming solar radiation was likely insufficient to counteract the reflective nature of this white covering, which led to the Earth's becoming locked in a long cycle of freezing temperatures. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tipping-point-in-the-atmosphere">A tipping point in the atmosphere</h2>



Volcanoes kept pumping CO2 into the atmosphere, but the thick ice would have hampered normal silicate weathering. This is a chemical reaction in which rainwater - slightly acidic from the presence of dissolved carbon dioxide - interacts with silicate minerals in rocks and helps remove CO2 from the atmosphere to be stored in the ocean. 



By slowing this process, the removal of CO2 was reduced and the levels of this greenhouse gas gradually increased. A buildup of CO2 in the air eventually led to global warming which caused surface temperatures to rise, though it took a huge concentration to break free from the extended freeze. 



<a href="https://www.scirp.org/reference/referencespapers?referenceid=1945298" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers</a> suspect that minor factors, like the dustiness of the ice sheets, could have accelerated the meltdown by decreasing reflectivity.&nbsp;



This shift challenges typical models that focus on gradual geological changes over shorter spans. The planet may have lingered in an icy standstill until the atmosphere reached a tipping point, which set off a dramatic thaw.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-patterns-found-in-rock-and-volcanic-ash">Patterns found in rock and volcanic ash </h2>



The researchers chose to study an area in Namibia where sediments provide a rare record of snowball onset during the Marinoan glaciation. Drone mapping revealed sedimentary layers stacked in ways that show minimal vertical shifts. 



The contact points between distinct rock beds appear consistent, implying that grounded ice stayed in place during the Marinoan glaciation for ages.



No large scouring marks or abrupt breaks were identified, and that silence in the record indicates subdued glacial motion. Researchers interpreted one zone of minimal erosion to mean the grounding line never bounced around, which is rare in studies of prolonged ice coverage.



Patterns in buried volcanic ash lend further clues. A single layer might become entombed, signifying calm accumulation rather than the usual push and pull of warmer spells. 



Isotopic dating of the ash layers in various locations indicated that the Marinoan glaciation onset began 639 million years ago and lasted around 4 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-did-life-survive-global-glaciation">How did life survive global glaciation?</h2>



A global freeze of that scale raises questions about how organisms survived beneath thick ice. Anaerobic communities could have lived off chemical nutrients, but others may have endured near cracks or in sheltered marine pockets.



Researchers debate whether oxygen levels dropped enough to challenge more complex life forms. The resilience of certain species appears remarkable, given the extreme conditions that blocked sunlight and isolated habitats.



An abrupt rebound in temperatures could have triggered bursts of evolution, setting the stage for <a href="https://science.org/doi/10.1126/science.281.5381.1342" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ediacaran ecosystems</a> to emerge. Scientists continue to explore how these expansions followed such a prolonged ice event.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-refuge-beneath-the-ice">A refuge beneath the ice</h2>



Some scientists believe that pockets of liquid water beneath the ice provided refuge for early life. These subglacial ecosystems could have been sustained by geothermal heat, allowing microbial life to persist even in the absence of sunlight.



Chemical nutrients released by hydrothermal vents or rock-water interactions may have fed these organisms, setting the stage for survival during global freezes. Once the ice retreated, these life forms could have re-emerged and diversified rapidly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-to-other-worlds">Looking to other worlds</h2>



Researchers mention that findings like these expand discussions about habitability on exoplanets that are locked in ice. If a planet undergoes a global glaciation, the accumulation of greenhouse gases might eventually spark an intense thaw.



That thaw could reshape its atmosphere and allow liquid water, paving the way for more complex chemistry. Another planet might remain stuck in an icy state if certain tipping points are never reached.



“The disparity in durations [between the Sturtian and Marinoan glaciations] demonstrates different routes to deglaciation,” said Tasistro-Hart. 



The researchers noted that every icy scenario can have its own exit strategy. This study offers a fresh perspective on the dynamic relationship between geology and climate. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2418281122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Science</a>.



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Frozen Earth: Global glaciation event lasted 4 million years

Some ancient periods in Earth's history challenge our assumptions about...

Researchers and healthcare workers have seen a rapid rise in reports of the alpha-gal food allergy, which is linked to bites by certain ticks. The number of confirmed cases jumped from just 24 in 2009 to more than 34,000 in 2019.



“Red meat allergy caused by tick bites might be increasing in association with fragmented habitats,” noted Dr. Brandon D. Hollingsworth, from <a href="https://www.unchealth.org/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNC Health</a>, who was lead lead author of a new study in the mid-Atlantic region. 



Dr. Hollingsworth has explored how environmental features might be tied to these tick-borne <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-making-allergy-season-worse-and-longer-lasting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reactions</a>.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tick-bites-and-red-meat-allergies">Tick bites and red meat allergies</h2>



Alpha-gal syndrome (AGS) affects people who have developed a specific immune response triggered by substances present in tick saliva. After being bitten, they react negatively to certain sugars in mammalian meat, and develop symptoms that include hives, stomach distress, and sometimes serious <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-therapy-may-help-reduce-peanut-allergies-in-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reactions</a>.



Health specialists have noted that neurotoxins and other biological cues in tick saliva may help these creatures to latch onto humans, increasing exposure for people in areas where wildlife and urban zones overlap.



Those who live near forest edges, or in suburban spots with scattered trees, may be at higher risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broken-forests-and-suburban-lawns">Broken forests and suburban lawns</h2>



Fragmented lands often bring deer, raccoons, and other tick-carrying animals into contact with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oak-trees-show-that-allergy-season-is-becoming-longer-and-more-intense/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human</a> communities. Large lawns that border wooded patches create a patchwork of grass and trees, which many ticks seem to favor.



Recent investigations found that open space development and low-intensity construction might be associated with more tick bites.



Arachnologist field surveys have shown that some of the densest populations of the tick <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8352541/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Amblyomma americanum</a> occur where small forests and developed lots meet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-coastlines-to-mountains">From coastlines to mountains</h2>



Scientists who mapped the distribution of alpha-gal syndrome in North Carolina, South Carolina, and Virginia observed a general shift in case frequency from coastal plains to mountainous zones. 



Some analyses showed patchy spots in coastal lands, but the highest likelihood of cases was often in places with low-density sprawl.



Low-density suburban settings offer enough shade, leaf litter, and wild animal life to allow ticks to flourish. Even properties with scattered white-tailed deer traffic may give these ticks the chance to drop off and find new hosts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lack-of-awareness">Lack of awareness </h2>



Diagnosing <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/alpha-gal-syndrome/about/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alpha-gal syndrome</a> isn't easy. Unlike most food allergies, symptoms don’t appear right after eating. They can take 3 to 6 hours to show up, which makes it hard for people to connect their symptoms to something they ate.



Even worse, most doctors still aren’t familiar with the condition. A 2023 CDC <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/72/wr/mm7230a1.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">report</a> found that 77% of U.S. healthcare providers were either unaware of AGS or unsure how to diagnose it. 



Without proper testing and awareness, thousands of people may go undiagnosed or misdiagnosed, often enduring months of unexplained <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-peanut-consumption-could-prevent-100000-allergy-cases-each-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">symptoms</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protection-from-tick-borne-meat-allergies">Protection from tick-borne meat allergies</h2>



Reports of alpha-gal syndrome could keep rising if habitat changes continue and warmer temperatures <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0150180" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extend</a> the active season for ticks. Simple habits, such as using insect repellents, wearing light-colored clothing, and promptly checking for ticks after yard work can reduce exposure risks.



Healthcare professionals also suggest that individuals track any reactions linked to beef, pork, or other red meats. 



Test positivity rates in certain regions have approached 30% of screened patients, which means vigilance is important for anyone experiencing odd, food-related issues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tick-bites-can-spark-lifelong-allergies">Tick bites can spark lifelong allergies</h2>



“We found evidence that suggests repeated tick bites can set off the allergic response,” wrote Gary Crispell, who studied tick-induced IgE patterns in North American patients. Surprisingly, a single tick bite is sometimes enough to spark alpha-gal sensitivity in certain people.&nbsp;



Although this condition can affect day-to-day life for some, awareness among doctors and patients is still catching up. 



Early and correct diagnosis can help steer people away from foods that might trigger severe meat allergy events, leading to more confident meal choices and fewer unwelcome surprises after sitting at the dinner table.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limitations-and-future-research-directions">Limitations and future research directions </h2>



One of the main limitations in current research is that tick exposure is estimated based on where a person lives, not on the location where they were actually bitten. Many people spend time in parks, on trails, or visiting family in different areas, so the models can't pinpoint exact exposure sites.



Researchers also noted that wealthier individuals in suburban areas might be more likely to seek medical help and testing, which could also skew case data. 



To improve accuracy, future studies may need to incorporate patient travel histories and broader seroprevalence surveys across different income and age groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recognizing-the-influential-factors">Recognizing the influential factors</h2>



Many counties across the mid-Atlantic are adding public health alerts to help folks recognize the signs of alpha-gal syndrome. 



Researchers have expressed hope that timely recognition of these habitat factors will lead to targeted education, so that fewer individuals end up with frustrating or even dangerous allergic reactions.



Some people worry that fewer forest corridors might mean fewer ticks, but partial deforestation and selective development sometimes backfire by providing more edges for tick proliferation. 



Land planners aiming to reduce tick-human contact may need to balance green space with better pest-management practices.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/climate/article?id=10.1371/journal.pclm.0000528" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Climate</a>.



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Tick bites can trigger lifelong red meat allergies

Researchers and healthcare workers have seen a rapid rise in...

Human beings have always relied on more than speech to communicate. Thankfully, we can understand a person's intention from their gaze with just a look. Long before the first spoken word, our ancestors navigated danger, formed bonds, and shared meaning through glances and gestures. 



Among these silent exchanges, eye contact holds a unique power. A single look can connect minds, signal warning, or offer comfort. But how much can we really know from someone’s gaze?



A recent study from <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McGill University</a> brings science closer to answering this age-old question. The findings suggest that intentional eye movements - those chosen freely by a person - send out subtle signals that others can sense and interpret rapidly.



These tiny, often imperceptible differences <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mothers-affection-shapes-a-childs-personality-into-adulthood/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">influence</a> how quickly we respond to what someone else is looking at. In a world that often relies on words, this study reminds us that silence can still speak volumes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-we-read-intent-through-eyes">We read intent through eyes</h2>



In human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/personality-has-a-profound-influence-on-gene-expression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a>, silence could mean survival. Making a sound might have alerted predators, but eyes offered a way to share information without speaking. As groups grew more complex, humans became increasingly skilled at reading facial cues, especially those from the eyes.



“Humans have a long history of living in complex groups and social situations. It has been theorized that this has led our brains to develop a heightened ability to focus on social cues from faces, and especially from eyes,” said Jelena Ristic, a professor in McGill’s psychology department.



“It’s a system that has evolved to support very quick exchanges of complex social information.”



This insight ties into something we experience every day. Whether in conversation, walking down a street, or sitting in a room, our eyes constantly seek out the gaze of others to determine their intention. 



We look where they look. We try to see what they see. And even infants - just months old - follow the gaze of their caregivers.



“Gaze-following is thought to provide a foundation for our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-have-unique-personalities-that-determine-whether-they-sting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social development</a> and behavior. It helps us to understand what others are thinking, looking or wanting, as well as to connect with them mentally, so we follow where others are looking quickly and spontaneously. Even young human infants and primates do it,” said Ristic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-eye-movements">Different eye movements</h2>



To better understand how gaze reveals intention, researchers at McGill created a unique experimental setup. Participants viewed videos where people looked either to the left or right. 



In some clips, the on-screen individuals decided for themselves where to look. In others, they were directed by a computer. The twist? Observers didn’t know whether the gaze was chosen or instructed.



Videos paused just before the eye movement began. Participants were then asked to guess the direction the person would look next. 



What the researchers found was compelling: when the gaze was self-chosen, participants responded faster - even if their guesses weren’t always more accurate. This suggests that people subconsciously picked up on something in the eyes before the gaze shift occurred.



This phenomenon became the focus of three detailed experiments led by Florence Mayrand, Sarah D. McCrackin, and Jelena Ristic. The results confirm that we are quicker to respond when we sense the intention behind a glance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-we-react-faster-to-an-intentional-gaze">We react faster to an intentional gaze</h2>



The first experiment measured how fast participants could predict gaze direction. In the second and third experiments, the researchers explored whether the gaze also affected how quickly people responded to targets appearing in the gazed-at direction. 



The answer was yes - targets that matched the direction of an intentional gaze prompted faster responses. Importantly, this was not just about where the eyes moved. It was about how they moved. 



A detailed analysis using optical flow techniques revealed more subtle motion in the eye region when the gaze was intentional. These small changes, although nearly invisible to the naked eye, were enough to affect how people responded.



“The speed of the observers’ responses suggests that they implicitly recognize and respond more quickly to intentional eye movements. It also told us how sensitive we are to information about the mental state and intentions conveyed by the eyes,” Mayrand explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-of-seeing-intention-through-gaze">Science of seeing intention through gaze</h2>



This sensitivity doesn’t seem to stem from deliberate thought. Instead, it appears automatic - something wired into our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/personality-type-can-accurately-predict-your-relationship-status/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biology</a>. Experiment 1 showed that people respond faster to intentional looks even before any visible shift occurs. 



This supports the theory that mental state information is conveyed through the eyes, and that others pick up on it before movement is complete. Subsequent experiments explored the timing of gaze-related cues.



In Experiment 3, the researchers varied the delay between the moment the eyes moved and when the target appeared. They found that the effect of intentional gaze was strongest when participants had time to process the cue - suggesting that even subtle signals need a short moment to influence behavior.



Interestingly, while directionality affected how quickly people noticed targets, it did not significantly interact with the perception of intent. This indicates that the brain may process where someone is looking and why they are looking there using different systems, possibly in parallel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-eye-motions-speak-volumes">Tiny eye motions speak volumes</h2>



In their analysis, the researchers measured the motion around the eyes in self-chosen versus instructed trials. They found that even before the actual gaze shift, intentional eye movements created slightly more motion in the eye region.



These micro-movements may be the signals that observers unknowingly detect and respond to. This motion pattern is so subtle that it’s not consciously visible, yet it still changes behavior. 



The study used Optical Flow Analysis to measure these movements, offering a new method for understanding how gaze communicates mental states. The results open up possibilities for future research using high-speed eye tracking or neuroimaging to examine this phenomenon more closely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gaze-shapes-how-we-connect">Gaze shapes how we connect</h2>



The findings have broader relevance. In real life, we often make quick judgments based on a look. These split-second decisions might be influenced by motion cues we don’t even realize we’re seeing. 



This also explains why some people appear more expressive than others - even when they don’t speak. The research team now hopes to explore how these cues function across different populations.



Can people with autism or ADHD pick up on the same signals? How do different gazer identities influence observer response? And does gender affect the perception of intention?



In future studies, researchers aim to test more diverse gazers and contexts. They may examine how intention detection works in natural settings, such as live conversations or social environments. They also plan to investigate how auditory cues or timing instructions affect our ability to recognize intentions behind a person's gaze.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eyes-as-messengers-of-the-mind">Eyes as messengers of the mind</h2>



This study confirms what poets, artists, and parents have known for centuries: our eyes carry meaning far beyond sight. The research shows that even the smallest eye movement can transmit intent, emotion, and attention. 



What’s new is the scientific understanding of how, when, and why that happens. At its core, this work redefines what it means to “see” someone. 



A look is never just a look - it’s a signal. And now, thanks to this research, we know that signal is not only visible but measurable. In a noisy world, the quiet power of a glance still speaks the loudest.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s44271-024-00137-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Psychology</a>.



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Gaze and intention: The unspoken language of survival

Human beings have always relied on more than speech to...

Microscopic particles are useful in many areas of technology. These tiny helpers are often smaller than a grain of pollen, yet they promise many possibilities that could address specific medical needs or environmental challenges.



Janus particles are nano- or micro-sized materials that have distinctly different properties on the opposite sides of each particle. 



The particles can carry out more than one function at the same time. This special property, which is related to their asymmetry, makes them candidates for smart tasks, such as moving substances around in specific ways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-janus-particles-caught-attention">Why Janus particles caught attention</h2>



A couple of decades ago, a Penn State team developed <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsnano.4c05076" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Phoretic Janus particles</a>, which are small structures covered by two different chemical surfaces. One side can push fluid away, while the other side does the opposite.



Scientists consider these particles interesting because they can power themselves using simple fuels. This feature allows them to swim along microscopic pathways, carry <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robots-with-space-to-think-will-become-more-useful/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">materials</a>, and respond to signals like changes in acidity



“A major problem with designing anything that moves, both large and small, is how its motion is altered when placed in a confined environment,” said Stewart Mallory, assistant professor of chemistry and chemical engineering at <a href="https://www.psu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a>.



His team explored these concerns through theoretical and computational approaches, targeting ways to manage and harness particle <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robots-can-now-learn-from-humans-by-watching-how-to-videos/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">motion</a> when space is restricted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-janus-particles-for-smart-tasks">Controlling Janus particles for smart tasks</h2>



Single-file movement appears in microscopic and daily life situations. When particles line up without the option to pass, researchers call it <a href="https://journals.aps.org/pre/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevE.110.024118" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">single-file dynamics</a>.



For microscale designs, predicting how far these particles will travel over time becomes vital. Mallory’s group recently published a study, revealing a new way to handle this problem in tiny <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-smallest-robot-could-transform-minimally-invasive-surgery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">channels</a>.



The researchers aim to fine-tune the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-soft-robot-crawls-moves-like-origami-folds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior</a> of these particles for various uses. By adjusting the chemical nature of the two surfaces, it becomes possible to control the direction, speed, and timing of their movements.



These tiny swimmers could someday move inside the body, delivering medication to specific spots. Another application involves targeting pollutants, such as unwanted plastics in water, by programming the particles to bind to those pollutants and carry them away.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-need-to-predict-motion-precisely">Why we need to predict motion precisely</h2>



Microscale environments are unpredictable. Fluids behave differently, surfaces become obstacles, and minor changes can throw off expected behavior. If we want reliable machines the size of a cell, we need to account for every bit of delay, drift, or redirection.



That’s why the Penn State team focused so much on <a href="https://docs.mdanalysis.org/2.0.0/documentation_pages/analysis/msd.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mean square displacement</a> - a measure of how far a particle tends to move over time.



The new formula factors in restrictions like narrow pathways and traffic-like build-ups, which helps engineers design devices that can meet medical or environmental deadlines without getting stuck or stalled.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-group-behavior-of-janus-particles">Group behavior of Janus particles</h2>



Microscopic workers sometimes act together. This leads to <a href="https://journals.aps.org/prresearch/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevResearch.6.013118" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">collective behavior</a>, a phenomenon where large groups of self-propelled particles produce effects that extend beyond individual motions.



Once these particles interact in confined environments, the crowded setting can slow them or change their patterns. 



Learning how Janus particles cluster under different conditions paves the way for practical applications such as localized treatment or smart <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robot-buddies-encourage-children-to-stay-physical-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">material</a> assembly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prospects-for-targeted-treatments">Prospects for targeted treatments</h2>



Some nanoparticles, made from materials like <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562303/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">calcium carbonate</a>, can respond to unique markers from diseased cells, allowing them to gather in the affected area. These tiny machines might deliver medication straight to cancer cells or other unhealthy tissue.



Fine control is crucial. Engineers need to predict how quickly the particles will reach their destinations, whether they will remain stable in the bloodstream, and how to stop them from clustering when unnecessary.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-janus-particles-for-material-building">Janus particles for material building</h2>



Mallory’s team also investigated how smaller building blocks might form more extensive structures on their own. Natural processes inspire this work, showing that self-assembly can arrange molecules into organized clusters.



If the right pieces are placed in a fluid with active particles, researchers think they can coax those pieces into forming patterns. This approach might save costs and time by letting the system organize itself, thus cutting down on human interference.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-computational-models-and-future-paths">Computational models and future paths</h2>



Mallory and his colleagues developed complex simulations that focus on both single particles and swarms. The goal is to blend these methods so that the microscopic actions of each particle add up to a predictable whole.



These simulations matter because every change in environment affects how the particles swim or assemble. By building reliable models, the team hopes to create functioning micro-robots that can handle tasks ranging from medicine to pollution control.



Interest in these tiny movers is steadily growing. Scientists want to ensure their designs are safe, efficient, and precise before they are put to the test.



Some experts think these developments may transform how diseases are treated or how we deal with ecological threats. Every step in understanding single-file motion or boosting the abilities of Janus particles moves the field closer to helpful outcomes.



The study is published in <a href="https://pubs.aip.org/aip/jcp/article-abstract/162/16/164902/3344885/Single-file-diffusion-of-active-Brownian-particles?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Journal of Chemical Physics</a>.



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Tiny particles may help cure disease and clean up pollution

Microscopic particles are useful in many areas of technology. These...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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