Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Climate change is altering life at every scale, from ice caps to insect wings. But beyond the well-known shifts in temperature and weather patterns, there is another, less obvious change underway. 



A new study published in the journal National Science Review&nbsp;reveals that rising levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) are scrambling the reproductive instincts of one of the world’s most destructive agricultural pests - the cotton bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera).



By throwing off these insects’ ability to select the best egg-laying sites, the shift could ripple through ecosystems, affect food security, and rewrite pest management <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-are-still-disappearing-and-there-are-hundreds-of-reasons-why/">strategies</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-co2-matters-to-insects">Why CO2 matters to insects</h2>



Insects have survived mass extinctions, ice ages, and volcanic winters thanks to their adaptability. Yet their fine-tuned sensory systems make them vulnerable to environmental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urbanization-causes-massive-decline-in-insect-pollinators/">shifts</a>. Many species use chemical cues to locate food, mates, or egg-laying spots.



For&nbsp;H. armigera, CO2 is not just background atmosphere - it is a guidepost. Female moths can detect tiny differences in plant-emitted CO2, homing in on younger leaves that produce slightly more of the gas. These leaves tend to offer better nutrition for developing larvae.



From 1750 to 2023, atmospheric CO2 climbed from 278 parts per million (ppm) to about 420 ppm, largely due to human activity. Scientists now project levels could reach 1000 ppm by 2100. The concern is that such a jump may overwhelm insects’ CO2 “signal,” replacing a clear guide with confusing noise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-young-leaves-give-off-more-co2">Young leaves give off more CO2</h2>



The research team - led by experts at the <a href="https://www.caas.cn/en/">Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences</a> - began by confirming the bollworm’s preference for young cotton leaves. 



In semi-natural enclosures, mated females deposited the majority of their eggs on these tender leaves rather than older ones.



The choice is not cosmetic. Larvae feeding on young leaves had higher survival rates, longer bodies, and greater weights after a week compared to those on older leaves. Measurements showed young leaves emitted about 200 ppm more CO2 than mature <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-farming-is-causing-many-insect-species-to-collapse/">leaves</a> - a signal strong enough for moths to track.



This makes evolutionary sense: laying eggs where food is fresh and nutritious boosts the odds of offspring survival, a fundamental driver of insect behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-co2-confuses-moths">High CO2 confuses moths</h2>



Researchers grew cotton and bollworms in normal and high CO2. At high CO2, females lost their strong preference for young leaves.



Instead, moths laid more eggs on older leaves - less nutritious sites that could compromise larval health. 



“This disruption is akin to confusing a key olfactory cue from a GPS system,” said study co-author Professor Guirong Wang. “Without accurate CO2 signals, the insects struggle to find ideal egg-laying sites, which could affect pest population dynamics and agricultural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-heat-shrinking-habitats-insects-face-hidden-threats/">damage</a>.”



Only mated females reacted to CO2 in experiments. Virgin females and males detected it but did not act on it, hinting that hormonal or brain-level changes shape how the signal is used.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moths-have-three-co2-sensors">Moths have three CO2 sensors</h2>



The bollworm’s CO2 sense comes from three gustatory receptor genes - HarmGR1, HarmGR2, and HarmGR3 - expressed in a small sensory organ called the labial palp. From there, nerve signals travel to a specific processing center in the brain called the labial pit organ glomerulus.



While many insects use just two CO2 receptors,&nbsp;H. armigera&nbsp;needs all three. The team used CRISPR/Cas9 to delete each receptor individually. Any loss broke the insect’s ability to respond to CO2, both in lab tests and in naturalistic settings.



Interestingly, receptor loss did not change the total number of eggs laid - just where they were placed. Mutant moths spread their eggs more randomly, ignoring the young leaves they would normally target.



The trimeric receptor setup may give bollworms finer sensitivity to different CO2 concentrations. This could be an evolutionary edge in complex environments where atmospheric and plant-emitted CO2 levels fluctuate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insects-use-more-than-co2">Insects use more than CO2</h2>



Even without CO2 detection, mutant moths showed a faint preference for young leaves. That suggests other cues - perhaps smell, taste, touch, or even visual signals - help guide oviposition. The redundancy makes sense; in nature, relying on one sense can be risky.



Still, CO2 appears to be a major driver. Its disruption could throw insect reproductive strategies out of alignment with the environments their larvae need to thrive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-stakes-beyond-cotton-fields">Ecological stakes beyond cotton fields</h2>



H. armigera&nbsp;feeds on over 200 plants and causes huge crop losses. Lower reproduction might reduce larvae, but pests can adapt or spread, making outcomes uncertain for farmers.



On a larger scale, altered oviposition behavior could affect the balance between pests, their predators, and pollinators. 



Changes in plant chemistry under high CO2 - such as shifts in volatile compounds - could compound these effects, influencing not just bollworms but entire insect communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blocking-co2-sense-in-insects">Blocking CO2 sense in insects </h2>



For decades, scientists have explored ways to manipulate insect senses to manage populations. CO2 is already used to lure mosquitoes and soil pests into traps. The bollworm’s reliance on CO2 for oviposition opens a similar door.



“By targeting the CO2 receptors, we can explore novel, eco-friendly pest control strategies,” said Dr. Qiuyan Cheng, first author of the study. 



One promising approach is RNA interference (RNAi), which can silence specific genes. Disabling CO2 receptors could make bollworms misplace their eggs, reducing their impact without pesticides.



Such strategies would need to be carefully tested to avoid unintended consequences for non-target species and ecosystems. But as chemical pesticides lose effectiveness due to resistance, sensory-based controls are gaining appeal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-as-a-sensory-disruptor">Climate change as a sensory disruptor</h2>



This study adds to a growing body of evidence that climate change does not just push species poleward or alter breeding seasons - it can fundamentally interfere with how animals perceive their world. 



For insects, whose survival often depends on chemical cues, this could be especially disruptive.



As atmospheric CO2 heads toward unprecedented levels, the signals insects evolved to follow may become unreliable. That means adaptation will be essential - for insects, ecosystems, and agriculture.



For the cotton bollworm, a scrambled CO2 compass might lead to lower reproductive success, but it could also drive unpredictable shifts in where and how it attacks crops. 



For farmers and ecologists, understanding these sensory changes will be key to anticipating future pest pressures.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/nsr/advance-article/doi/10.1093/nsr/nwaf270/8196188" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Science Review</a>.



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How rising CO2 levels threaten insect reproduction

Climate change is altering life at every scale, from ice...

Stress hormones do not surge in one long wave, they arrive in steady pulses that tick through the day and steer metabolism. A new study in mice and rats shows that the brain cells driving those pulses fire on an almost clock-like hourly schedule, even when no threat is in sight.



Professor Karl Iremonger and colleagues at the <a href="https://www.otago.ac.nz/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Otago</a> discovered the pattern by watching stress neurons glow in real time inside freely moving animals.



Their findings link these hourly bursts to brief spikes in the stress hormone <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-stress-makes-us-take-more-risks-in-financial-decisions/">cortisol</a> and to short bouts of wakefulness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-s-precise-stress-rhythm">Brain’s precise stress rhythm</h2>



An ultradian rhythm repeats more than once in 24 hours, and cortisol follows that rule by spiking about 12 to 18 times each day in healthy adults. 



The team shows that corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) neurons in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus march in lockstep with that rhythm. They switch from quiet to active roughly every 60 minutes.



Hourly pulses have been reported in blood samples for decades, yet skeptics argued they were a quirk of laboratory measurements. Direct brain recordings reveal a constant cell rhythm matching hormone patterns during both day and night.



Such precision hints at an internal timer that is independent of the master <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stress-hijacks-the-brain-disrupting-sleep-and-memory/">circadian clock</a> in the suprachiasmatic nucleus. 



Exactly how this shorter timer works remains an open question. Computer models suggest feedback loops between CRH cells and downstream adrenal signals could create a self-sustaining oscillator.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-animal-stress-pulses">Tracking animal stress pulses</h2>



To peek inside a living brain without restraint, the researchers used fiber photometry. This technique delivers and collects light through a hair-thin optic cable.



The team engineered CRH neurons to produce a calcium-sensitive fluorescent protein so that each burst of activity produced brief flashes detectable through the fiber.



Light pulses were recorded continuously for up to three days while animals ate, slept, and explored. The signal rose sharply for a few minutes every hour, then faded - a pattern that mirrored hourly blips in the animals’ core temperature and movement.



Because mice are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nighttime-buzz-insect-activity-increases-by-31-4-at-night/">nocturnal</a>, bursts clustered during the night when the animals roamed, yet the hourly spacing never broke.



That consistency allowed the team to predict upcoming activity peaks with simple statistics. This is a step toward forecasting stress reactivity in real time.



Chemogenetic tools offered a second line of evidence. When the group artificially forced CRH neurons into an “on” state, resting animals snapped to attention and began frantic grooming within seconds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stress-bursts-prompt-sudden-waking">Stress bursts prompt sudden waking</h2>



“These bursts of brain cell activity seem to act like a natural ‘wake-up’ signal and often lead to a rise in stress hormones, or cortisol,” said Iremonger. 



Each neural flare preceded a brief switch from quiet rest to alert scanning, suggesting the stress system doubles as a rapid response alarm that keeps animals ready for change.



The optical recordings also showed that some hormone pulses followed the neural peaks while others did not. That mismatch implies additional checkpoints, perhaps in the pituitary or adrenal glands, that decide whether a neural warning should translate into a systemic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stress-eats-away-our-brains-cognitive-defenses/">hormone</a> surge.



Earlier work in the nucleus accumbens found that activating local CRH neurons can flip mice from sleep to wakefulness in milliseconds. Taken together, the evidence positions CRH cells as key players that manage both body chemistry and behavioral state.



“Our new research is helping us to understand how the brain controls these normal rhythms of stress hormone release,” said Iremonger. Mapping that network could explain why some people feel alert at night or tired during the day.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hormones-tied-to-mood-disorders">Hormones tied to mood disorders</h2>



Chronic stress is a hallmark of depression, and many patients show overactive CRH signaling and flattened hormone rhythms. 



Drug developers have chased CRH receptor 1 blockers for years, and a recent structure-guided screen produced compounds that eased depressive behaviors in mice.



Hourly brain pulses may be the physiological target those drugs must tame. If the rhythm turns erratic, patients could face unpredictable swings in energy, sleep, and emotion - a scenario often reported in mood disorders.



Disrupted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stress-hormones-rise-during-sleep-to-prepare-your-body-for-the-day/">ultradian patterns</a> also appear in adrenal insufficiency. Standard three-times-a-day steroid pills create long plateaus instead of sharp pulses.



The PULSES clinical trial showed that delivering hydrocortisone in brief microdoses improved fatigue and emotional processing in such patients.



Taken with the Otago findings, the trial suggests that mimicking the natural hourly beat matters as much as the total daily dose. Endocrinologists are now testing wearable pumps that release cortisol in programmable bursts to restore both circadian and ultradian balance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-frontiers-in-stress-rhythms">New frontiers in stress rhythms</h2>



Future work will probe the molecular gears behind the hourly switch, from ion channels on CRH neurons to feedback from circulating cortisol and brainstem arousal centers.



Genetic screens could reveal why stress rhythms shift with age, sex, and early-life adversity - factors already known to reshape hormone patterns.



The Otago team also plans to study humans using noninvasive neuroimaging paired with fast saliva sampling. Showing that the same brain hormone choreography exists in people would pave the way for rhythm-based diagnostics in psychiatry and sleep medicine.



In the future, simple <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forever-chemicals-found-in-fitness-trackers-and-smartwatch-bands/">wearables</a> could detect erratic stress patterns early - before symptoms develop - much like smartwatches that alert users to irregular heartbeats.



Behavioral interventions, timed light exposure, or low-dose CRH blockers could then nudge the rhythm back on track with fewer side effects than blunt hormone suppression.



Ultimately, the research suggests that good health depends not just on maintaining cortisol levels within a safe range, but on allowing those levels to fluctuate at the right times.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2510083122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Stress hormones keep an hourly rhythm, shaping mood and energy

Stress hormones do not surge in one long wave, they...

Forests don’t plant themselves. In fact, the survival of many forests depends on a hidden network of animal workers that most people never think about. Birds, mammals, fish, and even a few amphibians are nature’s original gardeners, moving seeds from place to place and giving forests a chance to grow.



But this quiet system is breaking down. Populations of seed-dispersing animals are shrinking. Without them, many trees won’t survive, forests will lose their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-rich-tree-diversity-adapt-better-changing-climate/">diversity</a>, and the fight against climate change will become even harder.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-rely-on-animals-to-grow">Forests rely on animals to grow</h2>



In the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-vanishing-in-the-amazon-represent-a-global-shift-in-biodiversity/">Amazon</a> and Atlantic Forest, about 90 percent of trees depend on animals to spread their seeds. In the Cerrado, the number is 60 percent. 



These creatures aren’t just helping forests regenerate - they’re also indirectly helping the planet store carbon. When seed-dispersing animals disappear, forests change. Their ability to absorb carbon dioxide weakens, reducing their role in controlling global warming.



Yet, despite their importance, seed-spreading animals rarely get the attention they deserve in large-scale forest restoration plans. That’s a big oversight, noted an international team of researchers.



Mauro Galetti is co-director of the Center for Research on Biodiversity Dynamics and Climate Change (CBioClima), based at the Institute of Biosciences of <a href="https://www.international.unesp.br/">São Paulo State University</a> (IB-UNESP) in Rio Claro, Brazil.



“There’s a lot of talk today about carbon credits and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-restoration-aids-humans-nature-climate-together/">forest restoration</a>, but who ‘plants’ the carbon? It’s the toucan, the agouti, the tapir, the jacutinga," said Galetti. "To have a copaiba tree, for example, the forest needs toucans and monkeys to disperse its seeds."



"Therefore, we need to include frugivorous animals in the restoration equation, as there’s already enough science to quantify how much forest carbon is planted by animals.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-alarming-decline-of-seed-movers">The alarming decline of seed movers</h2>



A growing collection of research warns that the loss of frugivorous animals - animals that eat fruit - could sabotage efforts to protect and restore ecosystems.



A study published in the journal Science found that the worldwide loss of birds and mammals has already reduced seed dispersal by 60 percent.



“We’ve made great strides in addressing these problems of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-europes-plants-at-risk-due-to-decline-in-seed-dispersers/">seed disperser</a> loss, and although Brazil is the country with the most scientific studies on seed dispersal, we need to delve deeper into the problem," the researchers said. "In addition, we need to identify which strategies best restore seed dispersal.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-digestion-boosts-seed-success">Animal digestion boosts seed success</h2>



When an animal eats a fruit, the seed goes on a journey. It might get softened by stomach acids, scratched by a bird’s gizzard, or carried to a safer location. This treatment increases the seed’s chances of sprouting - and thriving away from its parent tree.



“Therefore, seeds consumed by animals will germinate more, faster, and will establish themselves in safer places to grow," said Galetti. "And if there’s no animal to ‘bruise’ the seed and take it away from the mother plant, it won’t germinate."



“The Brazil nut, for example, has only one disperser: the agouti. If the agouti becomes extinct locally, the Brazil nut’s seed-dispersal service will succumb. We therefore depend on a fundamental ecological service provided by the agouti."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-overlooked-partners-in-restoration">The overlooked partners in restoration</h2>



Like bees, seed-dispersing animals are vital for plant reproduction. Both groups face threats from habitat loss and human activity. 



But their challenges differ: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-face-extinction-risk-due-to-climate-change/">pollinators</a> are more impacted by pesticides, while seed dispersers are hit harder by habitat destruction and hunting.



The loss of pollinators often gets more attention because the consequences for food production are immediate and measurable. The decline of seed dispersers is slower and less visible, but the long-term effects on biodiversity and carbon storage are severe.



“Both are important and should be taken into account in restoration and conservation projects, Galetti said. 



"However, the decline of pollinators is more easily measured in the short term, generating immediate economic impacts such as loss of crop productivity, while the effects of seed-disperser loss occur slowly and broadly, compromising the functionality and resilience of ecosystems.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-forest-needs-more-than-just-trees">A forest needs more than just trees</h2>



Right now, the economic costs of losing seed-dispersing animals remain largely unknown. What is clear is that restoration won’t work without them.



“Restoration isn’t just about planting trees; you have to consider who will maintain the future of that forest, which are the dispersing animals," Galetti said. "A few years ago, it was believed that by planting the forest, these animals would come to it."



"But that’s not how it works. It’s much more complex to have a restored forest functioning.” 



The researchers stress that ignoring seed dispersers could lead to forests that fail to recover from fires, degrade more quickly, and lose biodiversity.



“Addressing the decline of seed dispersers is critical to preserving animal biodiversity, ensuring forest connectivity, and balancing plant communities,” concluded Galetti.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s44358-025-00053-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Reviews Biodiversity</a>.



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Forests at risk as seed-spreading animals disappear

Forests don’t plant themselves. In fact, the survival of many...

Electric vehicles (EVs) are often touted as a climate solution. But new research shows that even if every gas-powered car in the U.S. were swapped for an EV, the country wouldn’t see the full benefit - unless we also fix a hidden but critical part of the equation: the power grid.



This is the conclusion of a new study by a team of scientists at <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northwestern University</a>. The research reveals a surprising roadblock in the race to cut emissions. Electricity is not always able to travel from where it’s generated to where it’s needed. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-electric-vehicles-using-dirty-power">Electric vehicles using dirty power</h2>



The power grid is overloaded. And that bottleneck could make electric vehicles far dirtier than expected.



"Vehicle electrification, alongside renewable energy integration, is a long-term strategy toward zero carbon emissions. However, transitioning to fully renewable electricity may take decades - during which electric vehicles may still rely on carbon-intensive electricity," wrote the researchers.



Adilson Motter, who led the study, noted that even if the U.S. fully adopts EVs and generates enough renewable electricity to charge them, it still won’t be enough.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-power-grid-strained-by-ev-demand">Power grid strained by EV demand</h2>



The power grid functions like a highway system. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/harvesting-electricity-with-nature-inspired-techniques/">Electricity</a> is generated at power plants, moves across long-distance transmission lines, then drops into local networks to serve homes, businesses, and charging stations.



But as EV adoption ramps up, so does the demand for electricity - especially in densely populated areas. 



That’s a problem, because the cleanest power sources, like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wind-energy-potential-could-drop-as-climate-changes/">wind</a> and solar, tend to be far from where most people live. These renewable energy sources include rural wind farms in the Midwest and massive solar installations in the Southwest.



The team modeled different scenarios of vehicle electrification and renewable energy generation. In every scenario where electric vehicles played a major role, one thing stood out: the grid kept getting in the way.



In places where the grid couldn’t deliver clean power from distant wind or solar farms, local utilities had to rely on whatever was nearby. Often, that meant fossil fuel plants. The emissions savings from EVs were wiped out - sometimes by as much as a third.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smart-charging-is-not-enough">Smart charging is not enough</h2>



Planners and automakers often tout “smart charging,” where EVs juice up at times that align with wind and solar production. But that approach only works if clean power can get where it’s needed.



“The charging schedule of EVs can be optimized to align with intermittent renewable generation,” Motter said. 



“But even with smart charging, efficient use of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/continuous-clean-energy-scientists-are-pulling-power-out-of-thin-air/">clean energy</a> still depends on having enough transmission capacity to deliver it where it’s needed.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modest-grid-boost-cuts-emissions">Modest grid boost cuts emissions</h2>



The good news? The solution is surprisingly modest. According to the study, increasing the grid’s transmission capacity by just three to 13 percent would open up access to far more clean energy. 



That’s enough to cut congestion and avoid losing much of the emissions savings. The upgrades could involve adding new high-voltage lines or improving existing ones. There’s no need to tear it all down and start over.



“Power grids began as local networks, where consumption was close to generation,” Motter said. “Over time, they evolved into nationwide - even continent-wide - systems."



"It was a gradual growth process built on existing infrastructure. No one wants to redesign it from scratch, but we do need targeted upgrades that reflect the large-scale reach of today’s grid.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-cleaner-future-with-electric-vehicles">A cleaner future with electric vehicles </h2>



The U.S. power grid is divided into three primary regions - the Eastern, Western, and Texas grids - which function largely independently from one another. In other words, we have limited ability to transfer electricity across these regional boundaries.



Improving the connections between them would allow clean energy to flow where it’s needed most, regardless of regional boundaries.



Switching to electric vehicles is necessary, and so is scaling up wind and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/which-is-better-planting-forests-or-building-solar-farms/">solar</a>. But without investing in the power lines that connect it all, the U.S. won’t get the full climate benefit.



A cleaner future isn’t just about what we drive - it’s about how power gets from point A to point B.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-61976-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Electric vehicles can’t help the planet without a smarter power grid

Electric vehicles (EVs) are often touted as a climate solution....

Lions have shared the world with us for thousands of years, roaring through our myths, flags, and countless stories. 



On World Lion Day 2025, we’re reminded that they need more than admiration - they need protection. The survival of lions now depends on the choices we make and the actions we take.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lions-keep-nature-in-balance">Lions keep nature in balance</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lions-and-hyenas-change-behavior-when-tourists-are-nearby/p">Lions</a> are more than hunters. They control herbivore numbers, protect grasslands, and keep ecosystems healthy. Remove them and you create chaos - prey populations explode, plants disappear, and other species struggle to survive.



They also stand out among big cats for their social lives. A pride works together to hunt, defend territory, and raise cubs. Without those bonds, they can’t survive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lions-face-many-threats">Lions face many threats</h2>



Wild lions face shrinking space. Farms, towns, and roads eat away at their range. When they go after livestock, the response is often a bullet. Poachers target them for trophies. Climate change makes prey harder to find.



In some places, numbers have fallen by half within a few decades. For a species once spread across Africa, Asia, and Europe, that’s a sharp and dangerous decline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-lions-need-to-survive">What lions need to survive</h2>



Researchers are learning that a lion’s social life plays a bigger role in survival than anyone expected.



A <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a> team studied over 30 years of Serengeti lions. They found that females’ bonds with other females drop steadily with age, while males reconnect more with other males later in life. 



The pattern matters - females with strong friendships live longer, and males with bigger networks <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-and-female-lions-have-different-social-strategies-for-survival/">survive longer too</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conflict-and-changing-ecosystems">Conflict and changing ecosystems </h2>



In Namibia, <a href="https://www.uga.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Georgia</a> scientists tracked human-lion conflict around Etosha National Park. From 1980 to 2018, 698 lions were killed outside its borders. 



The park acts as a safe zone, but nearby lands are what researchers call an “ecological trap.” <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-lions-and-farmers-coexist-experts-are-cautiously-optimistic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lions</a> leave for prey and water - and meet armed farmers instead. Young males are hit hardest.



Another study from the <a href="https://www.adelaide.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Adelaide</a> looked far back in time. Fossil DNA showed how climate change pushed lions out of parts of North America long before humans were involved. 



Warming altered vegetation, herbivores died off, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-led-ancient-lions-and-bears-to-extinction/">predators</a> followed. The lesson is that ecosystems can shift fast, and predators struggle to adapt. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-action-on-world-lion-day-2025">Action on World Lion Day 2025</h2>



In Africa today, conservationists and communities are working to keep lions wild. Protected reserves and wildlife corridors give them space to move. Eco-tourism, when run well, gives local people an income and a reason to protect lions instead of kill them.



Because lions cross national borders, many projects link multiple countries. Survival depends on that kind of cooperation.



You don’t have to travel to Africa to make a difference for lions. Start by supporting wildlife groups that work directly on lion conservation. 



Many of these organizations fund anti-poaching patrols, restore habitats, and help local communities live safely alongside lions. Your donation, no matter the size, can help keep rangers in the field and give prides a fighting chance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-awareness-can-create-change">Awareness can create change</h2>



You can also use your voice. Share news articles, documentaries, or even personal posts on social media to spark conversations about the threats lions face. Awareness creates pressure for change - and it can inspire others to take action too.



If you plan to visit a country where lions live, look into where your travel money will go. Choose safaris and tours that follow ethical practices, employ local people, and reinvest in conservation. 



Responsible tourism can bring in vital funds and give communities more reason to protect lions rather than hunt them.



Every action counts. The more people who understand the pressures on lions, the stronger the support for solutions - and the better their chances of surviving in the wild.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-is-uncertain">The future is uncertain</h2>



If lions disappear from the wild, the loss will be far greater than a single species. We will be losing an animal that has shaped human culture for thousands of years, appearing in ancient carvings, religious symbols, and national emblems. 



To survive, lions need vast, connected landscapes that are free from the constant threat of poaching and human-wildlife conflict. They depend on healthy ecosystems, where their role as apex predators keeps nature in balance. 



Protecting lions means safeguarding entire habitats - and the countless other species that share them. Their absence would leave a gap in nature that no other species could fill. It would also mark a failure to protect one of the planet’s most iconic predators.



Future generations would grow up knowing lions only from pictures, books, and recordings instead of seeing them roam the grasslands or hearing their calls at night.



On World Lion Day 2025, the choice is clear and urgent. We must decide whether the roar of the lion remains a living sound in the wild or fades into something remembered only from the past.



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World Lion Day 2025: The science of survival

Lions have shared the world with us for thousands of...

Humans and dogs share a very old story, but the plot is changing. Instead of wolves taming themselves on the edges of camps, a growing body of evidence points to people taking very young wolf pups and raising them.



This shift matters because it ties the origin of dogs to choices our ancestors made, not just to wolves hanging around. It casts <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hungry-wild-boars-the-surprising-story-of-pig-domestication/">domestication</a> as a long, hands-on relationship that began deep in prehistory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-raising-pups-for-generations">Raising pups for generations</h2>



The human-initiated model argues that hunter-gatherers routinely collected pre weaned pups, socialized them in camp, and, over generations, favored the friendliest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">animals</a>.



The human initiated model is supported by research from the Australian Research Centre for Human Evolution at Griffith University (<a href="https://www.griffith.edu.au/research/sciences/australian-research-centre-human-evolution" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ARCHE</a>), the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences (<a href="https://eurogoos.eu/member/royal-belgian-institute-of-natural-sciences/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">RBINS</a>), the <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sydney</a>, and the Australian National University (<a href="https://www.anu.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ANU</a>).&nbsp;



Their work suggests that early mobile foragers in Late Pleistocene Eurasia may have routinely taken very young wolf pups from wild dens. 



These ancient humans socialized the pups within their camps and gradually favored animals that were more suited to living alongside humans.



A present day anchor helps frame the scale of human-dog relations. About 70 percent of the world’s dogs roam freely, showing most still live outside pet households.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-lived-with-humans-early">Dogs lived with humans early</h2>



Dog-like skulls from the Pleistocene push the association between people and canids well before the advent of farming. 



One striking case comes from Goyet Cave in Belgium, where a dog like cranium dated to roughly 36,000 to 31,700 years ago shows features unlike typical wolves.



Another specimen from Razboinichya Cave in Siberia, about 33,000 years old, has been described as an incipient dog and later supported by ancient DNA work.



These early finds do not replace the well-known Late Glacial dog from Bonn-Oberkassel, Germany, buried with humans about 14,200 years ago. However, they do show that dog-like canids lived alongside people long before villages appeared.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-people-tamed-friendly-wolf-pups">People tamed friendly wolf pups </h2>



Wolves are born blind and only open their eyes around two weeks, a window when handling can shape later behavior in powerful ways.



Modern work also shows that hand reared wolves can form strong attachments to human caregivers, a trait that would have made pup raising workable for ancient foragers.



This approach differs from the old self-domestication story, which leans on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/domesticating-wild-plants-may-result-in-more-resilient-crops/">scavenging</a> at trash heaps. It posits active care, repeated selection, and, eventually, breeding among tamer canids close to camp.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-and-friendship-leave-traces">Food and friendship leave traces</h2>



Biochemistry and tooth wear offer a check on the behavioral story. Stable isotope analyses from the Gravettian megasite of Předmostí show that dog-like canids ate more reindeer and muskox. 



Wolves, by contrast, consumed more mammoth - a pattern suggesting humans fed dogs leaner cuts and bones.



Dental microwear texture analysis at the same site finds distinct chewing signatures between wolf and dog like groups, again hinting at different food sources and roles near people.



These data do not prove domestication on their own. They show that some large canids associated with humans were eating differently and using their teeth differently than nearby wolves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pup-raising-traditions-continue">Pup raising traditions continue</h2>



Ethnography from Australia adds a living analogy. Aboriginal communities long practiced taking dingo pups from dens, nursing them in camp, and later letting many disperse as they matured. It's a cycle that could still shape the genetics of nearby free living canids over time.



This pattern answers a key objection. Even if many socialized animals left camp at breeding age, people often took new pups from dens in the border zone between camps and wild territories. Over time, this practice could shape which pups became companions the next season.



Over many generations, that habit can favor lines with calmer temperaments and stronger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tickled-rats-reveal-how-human-animal-bonds-form-in-the-brain/">human bonds</a> without a fenced kennel or a permanent village. It is a cultural practice with biological consequences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wolf-pups-were-early-companions">Wolf pups were early companions</h2>



Archaeology also records emotional closeness before formal domestication. A 16,000-plus-year-old grave in Jordan holds a human burial with a <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0015815" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">red fox</a>, signaling that some foragers kept carnivores as companions or ritual partners well before agriculture.



Scale helps the process. Seasonal aggregation camps with abundant food would have increased contact with socialized canids, boosted the odds of nearby den re-use, and made it easier to find pups again.



Seen together, the timeline in the bones, the chemistry in the collagen, the wear in the teeth, and the logic of pup raising hang together. 



People did not wait for wolves to wander in, they went out each spring and chose their companions.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1082338/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Psychology</a>.



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Early humans turned wolf pups into the first domesticated dogs

Humans and dogs share a very old story, but the...

Excessive screen time might be doing more than just straining young eyes. A new study suggests it could also raise the risk of serious heart and metabolic problems later in life.



The researchers found that children and teens who spend more hours on recreational screen use - like watching TV, gaming, or scrolling on phones - tend to show higher signs of cardiometabolic risk. 



That includes factors like higher blood pressure, elevated cholesterol, and insulin resistance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-linking-screen-time-to-heart-health">Linking screen time to heart health</h2>



The scientists analyzed data from over 1,000 children and adolescents who took part in two long-running studies. The participants were either ten years old in 2010 or 18 years old in 2000.



The researchers measured screen time based on leisure activities such as TV, movies, video games, and personal devices.



They then compared that with a “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-can-improve-cardiometabolic-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cardiometabolic score</a>.” This score is a composite measure of risk factors including waist size, blood pressure, cholesterol, triglycerides, and blood sugar. A score of zero meant average risk, while each additional “standard deviation” above zero indicated greater risk.



“Limiting discretionary screen time in childhood and adolescence may protect long-term heart and metabolic health,” said study lead author Dr. David Horner, a researcher at the Copenhagen Prospective Studies on Asthma in Childhood (COPSAC) at the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Copenhagen</a> in Denmark.



“Our study provides evidence that this connection starts early and highlights the importance of having balanced daily routines.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-much-screen-time-matters">How much screen time matters</h2>



The research showed that every extra hour of screen time increased the cardiometabolic score by about 0.08 in 10-year-olds and 0.13 in 18-year-olds.



“This means a child with three extra hours of screen time a day would have roughly a quarter to half a standard deviation higher risk than their peers,” explained Dr. Horner.



“It’s a small change per hour, but when screen time accumulates to three, five, or even six hours a day, as we saw in many adolescents, that adds up. Multiply that across a whole population of children, and you’re looking at a meaningful shift in early cardiometabolic risk.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleep-explains-screen-effects">Sleep explains screen effects</h2>



The study also revealed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-quality-could-be-the-key-to-better-metabolic-health/">sleep</a> plays a big role in the screen time–health connection. Kids who slept less, or stayed up later, had higher risks for the same amount of screen time.



“In childhood, sleep duration not only moderated this relationship but also partially explained it: about 12 percent of the association between screen time and cardiometabolic risk was mediated through shorter <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-counteracts-negative-effects-of-sleep-deprivation/">sleep duration</a>,” said Dr. Horner.



“These findings suggest that insufficient sleep may not only magnify the impact of screen time but could be a key pathway linking screen habits to early metabolic changes.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-fingerprint-in-the-blood">A “fingerprint” in the blood</h2>



Machine learning identified a specific set of blood markers that may be tied to screen time.



“We were able to detect a set of blood-metabolite changes - a ‘screen-time fingerprint’ - validating the potential biological impact of screen time behavior,” said Dr. Horner.



Using the same metabolomics data, the researchers assessed how screen time influenced predicted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/walkable-neighborhoods-help-reduce-cardiovascular-risk/">cardiovascular risk</a> in adulthood.



They found a positive trend in childhood and a significant association in adolescence. This suggests that screen-related metabolic changes may carry early signals of long-term heart health risk.



“Recognizing and discussing screen habits during pediatric appointments could become part of broader lifestyle counseling, much like diet or physical activity," Horner said. "These results also open the door to using metabolomic signatures as early objective markers of lifestyle risk.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tackle-nighttime-screen-use">Tackle nighttime screen use</h2>



Dr. Amanda Marma Perak, chair of the American Heart Association’s Young Hearts Cardiovascular Disease Prevention Committee, noted that one way to cut back is to focus on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/childrens-sleep-can-be-disrupted-by-even-dim-light-at-bedtime/">bedtime</a> first.



“If cutting back on screen time feels difficult, start by moving screen time earlier and focusing on getting into bed earlier and for longer,” said Perak, who was not involved in the study.



“All of us use screens, so it’s important to guide kids, teens, and young adults to healthy screen use in a way that grows with them."



Parents can model healthy screen use by showing when to put devices away, use them, and avoid multitasking. As children grow, it's best to explain why you put away devices during dinner or other shared time, noted the researchers.



“Make sure they know how to entertain and soothe themselves without a screen and can handle being bored," Perak said. "<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/boredom-can-make-children-more-creative-and-teach-new-skills/">Boredom</a> breeds brilliance and creativity, so don’t be bothered when your kids complain they’re bored."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-research-is-needed">Further research is needed</h2>



The researchers emphasize that the study shows correlation, not direct cause and effect. 



Since parents reported their children’s screen time, there’s also a chance that the actual hours spent may be under- or overestimated.



Still, Dr. Horner suggests future research could explore whether reducing screen use before bedtime might lower heart risk. Light from devices at night may interfere with sleep.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/JAHA.125.041486" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of the American Heart Association</a>.



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Too much screen time could put kids’ hearts at risk

Excessive screen time might be doing more than just straining...

People with Alzheimer’s disease have been found to have lower lithium levels in their brains. A recent study showed that giving lithium to mice with Alzheimer’s-like symptoms helped restore their memory and thinking skills.



The research suggests that maintaining sufficient lithium levels might be important for healthy brain function and potentially for preventing or treating Alzheimer's. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-previous-studies-were-unclear">Previous studies were unclear</h2>



Past research hinted at this connection. A <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8929585/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">2022 study</a> reported that patients who were taking lithium had nearly half the risk of developing Alzheimer’s compared to those who were not. Another study linked lithium in drinking water with a lower risk of dementia.



However, the studies faced uncertainty. “The trouble with these studies is that other hidden factors might explain the associations,” said Bruce Yankner of <a href="https://www.harvard.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard University</a>.



Yankner noted that other metals, such as magnesium, could be influencing dementia risk instead.



To investigate further, his team examined brain samples from 285 deceased individuals. Of these, 94 had Alzheimer’s, 58 had mild cognitive impairment, and the rest showed no <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-blood-test-can-track-the-progression-of-alzheimers/">cognitive decline</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lower-lithium-in-alzheimer-s-brains">Lower lithium in Alzheimer’s brains</h2>



The prefrontal cortex, vital for memory and decision-making, showed lithium levels about 36 percent lower in people with Alzheimer’s compared to healthy individuals. For mild cognitive impairment, the drop was about 23 percent. 



“We suspect that’s due to a number of environmental factors: dietary intake, genetics and so forth,” Yankner said.



An unexpected finding emerged. Amyloid plaques in Alzheimer’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-blood-test-can-help-detect-early-signs-of-alzheimers-disease/">brains</a> contained nearly three times as much lithium as plaque-free regions. 



“Lithium becomes sequestered in these plaques,” noted Yankner. “We have two things going on: impaired uptake of lithium very early on and then, as the disease progresses, the lithium that is in the brain is further diminished by being bound to amyloid.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-memory-loss-tied-to-low-lithium">Memory loss tied to low lithium</h2>



To understand the effects of low lithium, the team fed a lithium-deficient diet to 22 genetically engineered mice prone to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-drug-helps-protect-memory-in-brain-diseases-like-alzheimers/">Alzheimer’s-like symptoms</a>.



After eight months, these mice performed worse on memory tests compared to 16 mice on a normal diet. 



In a water maze, lithium-deficient mice took around 10 seconds longer to find a hidden platform, even after several days of training. Their brains had nearly 2.5 times more amyloid plaques.



Genetic analysis revealed increased activity in genes associated with neurodegeneration. The mice also showed greater brain inflammation and a reduced ability to clear plaques - changes similar to those seen in humans with Alzheimer’s disease.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lithium-aids-brain-performance">Lithium aids brain performance</h2>



The team tested various lithium compounds for their tendency to bind to amyloid. Lithium orotate, a naturally occurring compound in the body, appeared least likely to get trapped in plaques. Nine months of treatment with lithium orotate significantly reduced plaques in Alzheimer’s-like mice.



These treated mice performed as well as healthy mice on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/built-in-memory-janitor-helps-your-brain-forget-some-things-on-purpose/">memory tests</a>, showing marked improvements in learning, spatial navigation, and recall. The compound also preserved synaptic integrity and reduced inflammation in the brain.



The treatment improved myelin maintenance, supported healthier neuronal connections, and enhanced the microglial ability to clear amyloid deposits.



Researchers believe its lower plaque-binding tendency allows more lithium to remain available in brain tissue, enhancing its protective and restorative effects over time and slowing disease progression.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-safe-lithium-awaits-human-trials">Safe lithium awaits human trials</h2>



Lithium is already used in high doses to treat conditions like bipolar disorder, but those doses can harm the kidneys and thyroid. 



“One major limitation of lithium treatment in aging individuals is that, given the high doses that are used, people often run into kidney and thyroid toxicity,” Yankner said. 



The doses in the mice study were about 1,000 times lower than psychiatric treatment doses, and no kidney or thyroid problems were observed during the study. Clinical trials will be essential before any human application. 



"The challenge is, how do you determine whether somebody needs lithium?” said Rudolph Tanzi of Massachusetts General Hospital. “Because you wouldn’t want to overload the body with lithium. That could lead to severe side effects.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preventing-cognitive-decline">Preventing cognitive decline </h2>



A growing body of evidence suggests that lithium plays a critical role in brain health, influencing processes that protect against Alzheimer’s-related damage. Lithium orotate, with its ability to evade plaque sequestration, stands out as a promising low-dose therapeutic option.



By preserving lithium availability in the brain, it may help reduce toxic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleeping-may-lower-levels-of-alzheimers-abnormal-proteins/">protein buildup</a>, curb inflammation, and protect neural connections. 



While these findings in mice are encouraging, translating them into safe, effective treatments for humans will require carefully designed clinical trials.



If successful, this approach could provide a new strategy to slow - or even prevent - the devastating cognitive decline associated with Alzheimer’s disease.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09335-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Common drug shows potential to treat Alzheimer’s

People with Alzheimer’s disease have been found to have lower...

Natural processes on land and in the ocean already remove carbon dioxide from the air, but they do not work in isolation. A new paper argues that these processes must be seen as one connected system, a weathering continuum that stretches from high terrain to the deepest seabed and controls how much CO2 is locked away over time.



This perspective matters because many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-is-on-pace-to-surpass-1-5c-global-temperature-increase-for-second-year-in-a-row/">climate</a> ideas aim to speed up weathering to pull more CO2 from the atmosphere. If the pieces of the chain are tightly linked, pushing on one part can tug on another in ways that help or hurt the total carbon removed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-linking-land-and-ocean-matters">Why linking land and ocean matters</h2>



Dr. Gerrit Trapp-Müller of the <a href="https://www.gatech.edu/">Georgia Institute of Technology</a> led the study, which was completed during his time at Utrecht University. 



The team brings reactions in soils, rivers, coasts, and marine sediments into one model so we can view the whole system, not just scattered parts.



In this framework, the direction and size of a local flux depend on the material’s origin, how it has been transported and altered, and the surrounding conditions. That is a practical shift, because it changes how we should place, size, and verify interventions meant to boost <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astonishing-global-heat-in-january-2025-defied-climate-expectations/">carbon</a> removal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-silicate-weathering-stores-co2">How silicate weathering stores CO2</h2>



At the center is silicate weathering - the set of reactions where acidic water breaks down silicate minerals, releasing cations and bicarbonate that ultimately store carbon as carbonate minerals. 



Over geologic time, silicate weathering acts as a negative feedback that steadies climate by consuming more CO2 as temperatures rise.



This thermostat effect is real but slow on human timescales. It scales with factors such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-telescope-reveals-climate-never-before-seen-in-our-solar-system-pluto-haze/">temperature</a>, runoff, rock type, and how quickly fresh mineral surfaces are exposed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oceans-can-release-co2">Oceans can release CO2</h2>



There is a twist called <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0408-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reverse weathering</a>. In marine sediments, the formation of authigenic clays can consume alkalinity, release acidity, and shift carbon back toward the atmosphere.



When reactions that consume alkalinity dominate parts of the chain, the net sink can shrink or even flip. That means the ocean side of the system can throttle what the land side achieves.



Not all settings pull equal weight. Recent <a href="https://goldschmidtabstracts.info/2024/23364.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> highlights deltas and beaches as marine weathering hotspots that can shape the balance between forward and reverse reactions along the transport path from rivers to the shelf and beyond.



Studies in delta muds, using both field data and models, show that where the sediment comes from and how it was deposited determine whether chemical reactions add or remove alkalinity - and by how much - at different depths and over time. These factors decide whether the area is a strong sink or only a weak one.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-much-co2-weathering-removes">How much CO2 weathering removes</h2>



So how much carbon does chemical weathering handle today. A global <a href="https://epic.awi.de/id/eprint/20640/1/Har2009d.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">analysis</a> finds total CO2 consumption by chemical weathering near 237 million metric tons of carbon per year, with silicates accounting for roughly 63 percent of that budget, on the order of 149 million tons of carbon annually.



Within the silicate share, basaltic terrains have an outsized impact, contributing on the order of 25 to 35 percent of the silicate weathering CO2 sink because they weather quickly where <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S000925410300247X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">runoff</a> is high. 



That concentration of flux in a small fraction of the landscape explains why placement of interventions matters so much.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-we-could-boost-weathering">How we could boost weathering</h2>



Analyses suggest that spreading finely crushed silicate rock on croplands could remove on the order of 0.5 to 2.0 billion tons of CO2 per year, comparable to other land-based options if done at scale and with the right logistics. 



This is a large range, and it depends on climate, soils, farm practices, and supply chains.



Recent <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40323084/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evaluations</a> also warn that removal efficiency varies widely and can be overestimated if you ignore side fluxes, carbonate dynamics, or downstream processes in the ocean that offset gains on land. Measuring the whole chain is not optional, it is the only way to know the real net.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-weathering-research">The future of weathering research </h2>



"The main conclusion from our work is that the various CO2 fluxes on land and in the ocean are very closely linked. This governs the efficiency of the removal of CO2 from the atmosphere," said Trapp-Müller.



Treating weathering as one system forces three practical habits. Site selection should consider downstream coupling, monitoring must track products beyond the field edge, and models need to include both forward and reverse reactions across <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-temperatures-will-cut-world-gdp-by-a-staggering-40-percent-if-nothing-changes/">environments</a>.



Future studies may map which river basins, coastlines, and sedimentary settings deliver the biggest net gains once ocean processes are included. That includes quantifying how fast material moves along the conveyor from hills to seabed and how reaction balances change en route.



The new perspective also invites better stress tests for proposed projects, from agricultural basalt applications to coastal alkalinity additions, against the actual carbon accounting of the full chain.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-025-01743-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Geoscience</a>.



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Earths natural weathering system removes millions of tons CO2

Natural processes on land and in the ocean already remove...

For decades, scientists assumed that as women age, their egg cells collect genetic damage, just like the rest of the body. But new research suggests that human eggs might be playing by their own rules.



In a study spanning women aged 20 to 42, researchers discovered that the tiny power plants inside our cells - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-map-of-the-brains-mitochondria-may-explain-cognitive-decline/">mitochondria</a> - keep their genetic material remarkably pristine in eggs, even as the years pass. 



These same energy makers in blood and saliva do pick up more damage with age. But in eggs? The mutation rate barely budges.



“When we think about age-related mutations, we think about older people having more mutations than younger people,” said Kateryna Makova at <a href="https://www.psu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State University</a>. “But expectation is not necessarily the truth.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-women-s-eggs-store-clean-dna">Women’s eggs store clean DNA</h2>



Mitochondria pass exclusively from mother to child. Their DNA is short, circular, and essential for making energy. Damage to it can sometimes trigger devastating disorders, especially in tissues with high energy demands like muscles and the brain.



“The oocyte [egg] provides this stockpile,” said Ruth Lehmann, professor of biology at the <a href="https://www.mit.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a>, referring to the generous stash of mitochondria inside each egg cell.



To see how these precious packages fare over time, the team used a cutting-edge method called duplex sequencing. It can spot even the rarest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cellular-cleanup-helps-preserve-eggs-and-fertility/">mutations</a> - changes present in less than one percent of a cell’s mitochondrial copies. 



This was no small undertaking: they sequenced 80 single eggs, plus blood and saliva samples, from 22 women.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eggs-resist-aging-mutations-in-women">Eggs resist aging mutations in women</h2>



The study revealed a clear difference between eggs and other tissues. Blood and saliva from older women contained more mitochondrial mutations than those from younger women, showing the expected age-related increase.



Egg cells, however, showed no such rise. In fact, they consistently had 17 to 24 times fewer mutations than blood or saliva, regardless of the woman’s age.



Within the mitochondrial genome, vulnerability was uneven. In eggs, most mutations appeared in the D-loop, a noncoding control region, while the crucial protein-coding sections remained mostly untouched.



This pattern points to a protective mechanism that directs <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/subtle-dna-changes-shaped-human-brain-evolution/">genetic changes</a> away from regions essential for energy production.



By protecting these critical genes, eggs help preserve the functional integrity of mitochondria, ensuring they can perform their energy-supplying role for decades. This built-in protection could be a key reason eggs maintain reproductive potential well into later stages of a woman’s life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-natural-filter-removes-harmful-dna">Natural filter removes harmful DNA</h2>



A woman may inherit some mitochondrial DNA variants from her mother, which then appear in both her eggs and other tissues. These shared variants, called inherited heteroplasmies, often exist at lower levels in eggs than in blood or saliva.



This difference points to a natural quality-control system within the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-humans-to-hens-the-diabetes-drug-that-boosts-fertility/">reproductive</a> process that reduces potentially harmful mitochondrial changes before they are passed to future generations.



Researchers also measured the “germline bottleneck” - the sharp reduction in the number of mitochondrial DNA copies that are actually transmitted during egg development. This bottleneck acts as a filter, determining which variants survive to the next generation. 



For high-frequency variants, the team estimated the bottleneck size to be around 30 mitochondrial DNA units, which is consistent with earlier findings from family-based genetic studies. 



This small number helps explain how reproduction can effectively minimize harmful mutations, protecting offspring from potential mitochondrial disorders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unlocking-fertility-s-genetic-secret">Unlocking fertility’s genetic secret</h2>



The study challenges the long-held assumption that egg cells deteriorate genetically in step with the rest of the body. Instead, they appear to have protective systems that guard their mitochondrial DNA well into a woman’s reproductive years.



“I think that we evolved a mechanism to somehow lower our mutation burden, because we can reproduce later in life,” said Makova.



It’s a finding with big implications. If we can understand - and maybe even mimic - this natural preservation system, we might unlock new ways to improve <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sperm-have-a-heat-activated-switch-that-may-be-key-to-fertility/">fertility treatments</a> and reduce the risk of passing on mitochondrial disorders.



For now, the message is surprisingly optimistic: while the rest of the body’s cells may bear the marks of time, women's eggs seem to have found a way to keep part of their genetic story young.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/sciadv.adw4954" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Women's egg cells shield DNA from the effects of aging

For decades, scientists assumed that as women age, their egg...

Keeping quiet about nagging worries often feels like the polite thing to do. However, new evidence shows that this habit may carry a hidden cost, slowly wearing down the memory centers that help us keep track of names, appointments, and the story of our lives.



Researchers followed 1,528 Chinese Americans aged 60 and older for roughly six years, asking detailed questions about how often they felt hopeless, overloaded, or personally to blame for life’s hassles. 



The study was led by neurologist Michelle Chen of the <a href="https://ifh.rutgers.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rutgers</a> Institute for Health, Health Care Policy and Aging Research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bottling-stress-damages-memory">Bottling stress damages memory</h2>



Older Asian Americans are the fastest growing senior group in the United States, projected to reach nearly eight million by 2060. Many came of age believing that enduring hardship in silence is a virtue - a stance that researchers call stress internalization.



In Chen’s study, each standard deviation jump on that scale translated to about 0.024 standard deviations of extra memory loss per year - a pace similar to the impact of a small stroke. 



In other words, people who kept <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stress-hijacks-the-brain-disrupting-sleep-and-memory/">feelings</a> bottled up lost ground almost four times faster than peers who talked things out.



The research team reports that neither neighborhood friendliness nor outside help from family changed the trajectory, demonstrating that the damage stems from how stress is processed, not how much support is on offer. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-memory-worsens-faster-with-stress">Memory worsens faster with stress</h2>



The study was focused on annual interviews, paper and pencil <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-stress-harms-the-brains-of-low-status-fish/">memory</a> tests, and medical histories completed in Mandarin, Cantonese, or Toisanese. 



By analyzing results from these three waves of data, the investigators could separate ordinary forgetfulness from true cognitive decline, the downhill trend that often precedes dementia. 



The experts found that memory slipped in step with internalized strain, while reasoning speed and attention held steady.



Earlier work in multi ethnic cohorts has linked perceived <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-links-stress-management-ability-with-positive-personality-traits/">stress</a> to faster cognitive losses across age, sex, and income brackets. The new analysis strengthens that link by showing the effect inside one cultural group, ruling out language bias as the main driver.



The team’s statistical model accounted for age, education, income, stroke history, and hearing loss - confirming that the stress effect was not just a by-product of poorer health. 



Even participants with college degrees and active social calendars exhibited the same stress-memory link when worry turned inward.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stereotypes-stop-people-from-sharing">Stereotypes stop people from sharing </h2>



Asian American elders grew up under the model minority stereotype, a belief that their community is uniformly healthy and successful. That label makes it harder to admit hardship, leading many seniors to swallow anxiety rather than seek help.



Chen thinks that constant self pressure may echo a coping style social scientists call John Henryism, first described in Black Americans who work tirelessly to disprove prejudice. 



Pushing hard without the safety valve of open conversation taxes the cardiovascular and hormonal systems that also feed the brain.



“Stress and hopelessness may go unnoticed in aging populations, yet they play a critical role in how the brain ages,” said Chen. She hopes the findings prompt frank discussions about mental strain during routine check ups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stress-shrinks-brain-parts">Stress shrinks brain parts</h2>



Chronic stress floods the bloodstream with cortisol, a hormone that in high doses shrinks the hippocampus, the brain’s filing cabinet for new memories. Over time, smaller hippocampal volume predicts quicker slippage in everyday recall.



In one classic study, older adults who reported heavy stress showed sharper memory declines over five years than relaxed peers. Chen’s work suggests the same biological path is at play in Chinese American seniors.



By contrast, neighborhood warmth, social visits, and hobby clubs did not slow memory loss in the Rutgers analysis. That surprising null result mirrors mixed <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10034713/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">findings</a> in other racial groups, where social engagement sometimes helps and sometimes fails to budge cognition.



Animal <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5683934/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> show that high cortisol can prune branches off hippocampal neurons, trimming the surface area available for forming new memories. Although rodents are not people, the cellular changes line up with the memory patterns seen in Chen’s volunteers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-families-can-spot-hidden-stress">Families can spot hidden stress</h2>



Chen recommends that families listen for phrases like “it’s hopeless” or “I don’t want to bother you,” which signal inward turned stress. Early counseling or community workshops can teach breathing skills, group storytelling, and brief mindfulness routines.



Randomized trials show that eight weeks of Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction (<a href="https://palousemindfulness.com/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MBSR</a>) can blunt cortisol related immune changes in adults over 65, hinting at a biological brake on stress damage. Culturally adapted versions of that program are now being piloted in New York, San Francisco, and Honolulu.



Community programs like the On Lok PACE centers in California already weave Cantonese speaking counselors and exercise classes into day long elder care, reporting longer life and lower hospital bills for participants. Similar wrap-around models could offer safe places for seniors to air stress before it settles in.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-ways-to-protect-aging-brains">New ways to protect aging brains</h2>



Chen’s team plans to examine saliva cortisol and brain scans in the PINE cohort to see whether stress linked memory loss shows the same neural fingerprint seen in lab studies. They are also partnering with Chinatown clinics to test five minute breathing breaks that can be taught during check in.



For families, Chen suggests a simple rule: if an elder says “I’m fine” while showing worry lines, ask again, then offer to walk together or share a meal. Those small invitations can open space for feelings before they harden into internal stress.



Policy makers can help by funding bilingual counseling services and dementia screenings in Asian American enclaves. Such steps may prove cheaper than treating advanced Alzheimer’s later, and they reaffirm that emotional pain deserves care no matter how quietly it is carried.



Stress may start in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-stress-makes-us-take-more-risks-in-financial-decisions/">mind</a>, but it ends up in the memory ledger. Letting it out early could keep that ledger balanced well into old age.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.jpreventionalzheimer.com/current-issue.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Journal of Prevention of Alzheimer’s Disease</a>.



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Bottling up stress may accelerate memory loss in older adults

Keeping quiet about nagging worries often feels like the polite...

In many animal societies, individuals of one sex, or sometimes both, eventually leave their birth group to join another. In a smaller number of species, including humans and gorillas, individuals can change between groups multiple times. 



This process, known as dispersal, helps avoid inbreeding, spreads genetic diversity, and shapes social bonds. But how do individuals decide where to go?



A new study from the University of Zurich offers rare insight, thanks to over 20 years of continuous monitoring of wild mountain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-gorillas-rely-on-old-friends-to-choose-new-homes/">gorillas</a> in Rwanda by the <a href="https://gorillafund.org/">Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund</a>. 



The findings reveal a surprising mix of instinct, memory, and social intelligence guiding these life-changing moves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-female-gorillas-dodge-certain-males">Female gorillas dodge certain males </h2>



The research shows that female gorillas do not move at random. Group size or sex ratio didn’t seem to sway them. Instead, past social experiences shaped their choices. 



Females consistently avoided joining groups that included males they had grown up with, and sought out females they already knew.



Study lead author Victoire Martignac is a Ph.D. student in the Department of Evolutionary Anthropology at the <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html">University of Zurich</a>.



“Because female mountain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gorillas-adjust-their-aggression-based-on-risk-and-reward/">gorillas</a> do not know with certainty who their fathers are, they might rely on a simple rule like ‘avoid any group with males I grew up with’ as the likelihood of them being related will be higher than with males they did not grow up with,” said Martignac.



Interestingly, this rule isn’t about mere familiarity - it’s about context. Because females can disperse multiple times, they will become familiar with many males from different groups, noted Martignac. 



“Yet, when choosing their next group, they only avoid males they grew up with. This really tells us that it’s not just who they know that matters but how they know them.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-females-follow-old-friends">Females follow old friends</h2>



Even more important than avoiding certain males was the draw of known female <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mountain-gorillas-climb-trees-despite-their-massive-size/">companions</a>. A shared history appeared to make the daunting leap into a new gorilla group less intimidating.



“Going into a new group could feel pretty scary, with individuals usually entering at the bottom of the social hierarchy. A familiar female might help reduce this, providing a social ally,” said Dr. Robin Morrison, senior author of the study.



“It could also act like a recommendation from a friend - if a female they know has chosen to stay in this group, it could indicate positive things about the group as a whole or the dominant male leading that group.”



The most influential relationships were those where females had spent at least five years together and had seen each other in the past two years. 



“Investing in these relationships clearly matters. Spatial separation can be ephemeral with individuals being reunited in the future, easing the difficult process of starting over in a new social group,” said Dr. Morrison.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gorilla-bonds-last-across-groups">Gorilla bonds last across groups</h2>



These patterns show that dispersal among gorillas is not only about survival and reproduction. It also helps maintain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-gorillas-self-aware-new-research-challenges-old-assumptions/">connections</a> that may have formed years earlier. 



The fact that individuals move multiple times, and that groups often overlap and interact, means social bonds can extend far beyond immediate companions. This trait is strikingly similar to human societies, where close ties can persist across different communities.



“This is a reminder of the meaningfulness of social relationships kept across boundaries and how this extended network of relationships might have played a key role in the evolution of larger and more cooperative societies,” the researchers noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-gorillas-avoid-inbreeding">How gorillas avoid inbreeding </h2>



Understanding these subtle decision-making patterns isn’t just a fascinating scientific insight - it could influence how conservation programs are designed. 



If female gorillas rely on past relationships and familiarity to choose new groups, relocating or protecting these networks could help ensure healthier populations.



By preserving both the habitats and the social structures of these animals, conservationists can support not just their survival, but their well-being.



The research offers a rare glimpse into how memory, trust, and social preference guide one of the most important decisions in a gorilla’s life - when and where to start anew.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2025.0223" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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Mountain gorillas have their own strategy to avoid inbreeding

In many animal societies, individuals of one sex, or sometimes...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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