In a remarkable medical breakthrough, engineers have developed a light-activated pacemaker so tiny that doctors can inject it into the body through a syringe. Remarkably, the device simply dissolves after it’s no longer needed.&nbsp;



Designed for newborns, the pacemaker could transform temporary heart care after congenital defect surgeries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-the-heart-with-light">Controlling the heart with light</h2>



The new pacemaker is smaller than a grain of rice. It's wirelessly activated through pulses of light which are delivered by a soft, wearable device mounted on the patient’s chest.



The external controller detects abnormal rhythms and sends light through the body to activate the pacemaker and restore heartbeat. The study demonstrates the device’s effectiveness across animal and human donor hearts.&nbsp;



The development of the pacemaker was led by John A. Rogers, a professor of material science, biomedical engineering, and neurological surgery at <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northwestern University</a>.&nbsp;



“We have developed what is, to our knowledge, the world’s smallest pacemaker,” said Professor Rogers.



“There’s a crucial need for temporary pacemakers in the context of pediatric heart surgeries, and that’s a use case where size miniaturization is incredibly important. In terms of the device load on the body - the smaller, the better.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solution-designed-for-newborns">Solution designed for newborns</h2>



Though the light-activated pacemaker can function in patients of all sizes, its miniaturized design was motivated by the needs of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/infant-speech-is-driven-by-heart-rate-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infants</a>. 



Igor Efimov is a co-leader of the study and experimental cardiologist at Northwestern.&nbsp;



“About 1% of children are born with congenital heart defects. The good news is that these children only need temporary pacing after a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-smallest-robot-could-transform-minimally-invasive-surgery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surgery</a>. In about seven days or so, most patients’ hearts will self-repair. But those seven days are absolutely critical," said Efimov.



Traditional pacemakers require surgery and have wires sticking out of the chest to connect to an external device. When they are no longer needed, the wires are removed - risking bleeding, tissue damage, or even death.



“Wires literally protrude from the body, attached to a pacemaker outside the body,” Efimov explained. “When the pacemaker is no longer needed, a physician pulls it out. The wires can become enveloped in scar tissue. That’s actually how Neil Armstrong died.”



The new injectable pacemaker addresses these risks. All of its components are biocompatible and bioresorbable, meaning they safely dissolve in the body’s fluids without needing surgical removal. Once the device has served its purpose, it simply disappears.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-refining-the-light-activated-pacemaker">Refining the light-activated pacemaker</h2>



This innovation builds on <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41587-021-00948-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">earlier work</a> by Rogers and Efimov, who developed a quarter-sized dissolvable pacemaker in 2021. Surgeons asked for a smaller version to allow easier placement and suit the smallest patients.&nbsp;



The original device used near-field communication (NFC), but its antenna limited how small the device could be made. To overcome this, the team replaced the NFC system with a novel light-based mechanism.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/pacemaker_light-activated_worlds-smallest_heart-health_Northwestern_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/pacemaker_light-activated_worlds-smallest_heart-health_Northwestern_1s.webp" alt="The tiny pacemaker sits next to a single grain of rice on a fingertip. The device is so small that it can be non-invasively injected into the body via a syringe. Credit: John A. Rogers/Northwestern University" class="wp-image-1964846"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The tiny pacemaker sits next to a single grain of rice on a fingertip. The device is so small that it can be non-invasively injected into the body via a syringe. Click image to enlarge. Credit: John A. Rogers/Northwestern University</figcaption></figure>



“Instead of using the radio frequency scheme for wireless control, we developed a light-based scheme for turning the pacemaker on and delivering stimulation pulses to the surface of the heart. This is one feature that allowed us to dramatically reduce the size,” said Professor Rogers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-powered-by-the-body-s-own-fluids">Powered by the body’s own fluids</h2>



The engineers also reimagined how to power the tiny pacemaker. Rather than requiring a battery or external power source, the device uses a simple galvanic cell - a chemical battery formed by two different metals as electrodes.&nbsp;



When the device is inside the body, surrounding biofluids act as the electrolyte, allowing electrical current to flow and stimulate the heart.



“A very tiny light-activated switch on the opposite side from the battery allows us to turn the device from its ‘off’ state to an ‘on’ state upon delivery of light that passes through the patient’s body from the skin-mounted patch,” explained Professor Rogers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-trauma-and-risk">Reducing trauma and risk</h2>



Using infrared light, which can safely penetrate deep into the body, the wearable controller detects when a patient’s heart rate falls too low. It then triggers a light-emitting diode (LED) to flash on and off at the desired pacing rhythm.&nbsp;



“Infrared light penetrates very well through the body,” Efimov said. “If you put a flashlight against your palm, you will see the light glow through the other side of your hand. It turns out that our bodies are great conductors of light.”



Despite its microscopic size - just 1.8 mm wide, 3.5 mm long, and 1 mm thick - the pacemaker delivers stimulation on par with traditional devices. “The heart requires a tiny amount of electrical stimulation,” Rogers said.&nbsp;



“By minimizing the size, we dramatically simplify the implantation procedures, we reduce trauma and risk to the patient, and, with the dissolvable nature of the device, we eliminate any need for secondary surgical extraction procedures.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-era-of-heart-care">A new era of heart care</h2>



Because these light-activated pacemakers are so small and wireless, doctors could one day deploy multiple units on different parts of the heart to create more advanced pacing systems. 



Each device could be controlled independently using different light wavelengths, enabling personalized and precisely timed stimulation across the heart’s surface.



“We can deploy a number of such small pacemakers onto the outside of the heart and control each one,” Efimov said. “Then we can achieve improved synchronized functional care.”



Professor Rogers noted that because it’s so small, the pacemaker can be integrated with almost any kind of implantable device.



“We also demonstrated integration of collections of these devices across the frameworks that serve as transcatheter aortic valve replacements to address complications that can occur during a patient’s recovery process," said Rogers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-bioelectronic-medicine">Future of bioelectronic medicine</h2>



While this breakthrough has clear implications for pediatric heart care, the technology could pave the way for a new generation of bioelectronic medicine.&nbsp;



These tiny, dissolvable devices could one day be adapted to promote nerve and bone regeneration, manage <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mindfulness-meditation-is-a-powerful-weapon-against-chronic-pain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pain</a>, support wound healing, and more.



Northwestern engineers shrank the device and removed risks by making it dissolve after use. In doing so, they’ve created a tool that could reshape how doctors care for the heart - from the tiniest patients to adults.



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Click here to <a href="https://youtu.be/j_0hZ8cUwgo" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watch a video interview...</a>



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08726-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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World's smallest pacemaker is set to revolutionize heart health

In a remarkable medical breakthrough, engineers have developed a light-activated pacemaker so tiny that doctors can inject it into the body through a syringe. Remarkably, the device simply dissolves after it’s no longer needed.&nbsp; Designed for newborns, the pacemaker could transform temporary heart care after congenital defect surgeries. Controlling the heart with light The new pacemaker is smaller than a grain of rice. It's wirelessly activated through pulses of light which are delivered by a soft, wearable device mounted on the patient’s chest. The external controller detects...

Across the United States, a quiet crisis is unfolding in forests, grasslands, and wetlands. Native plants, many of which have thrived in their home ecosystems for thousands of years, now face an impossible race. 



Climate change is shifting temperature zones and seasonal patterns faster than these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-future-climate-conditions-will-transform-plant-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> can naturally respond. Unlike animals, most plants cannot migrate quickly. Their slow dispersal, tied to seed movement and favorable growing conditions, means many will not survive unless we intervene.



Scientists and conservationists are grappling with a difficult question: Should we help these native species relocate? And if so, how do we do it responsibly?



The idea of helping plants move into nearby habitats, known as “managed relocation,” is gaining momentum. But moving plants is not without danger. 



Many invasive species, which now plague American ecosystems, arrived in similar ways - carried by humans, intentionally or not, into places they never belonged.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moving-native-plants-may-save-them">Moving native plants may save them</h2>



Managed relocation sounds like a solution, but it comes with serious risks. The ecological scars of past mistakes remain. Kudzu, once planted for erosion control, now chokes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-understanding-of-light-detection-in-plants-may-revolutionize-farming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forests</a>. 



Purple loosestrife clogs wetlands. Japanese honeysuckle overruns fields. All were introduced with good intentions. All became ecological threats.



Despite these examples, doing nothing could be worse. Climate projections show ecosystems changing rapidly, putting slow-moving native species at risk of extinction. Human-assisted movement might be their only shot.



Thomas Nuhfer is the lead author of a new study published in Global Change Biology and a graduate student in organismic and evolutionary biology at the <a href="https://www.umass.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Massachusetts Amherst</a>.



​“We know that, because of climate, native species need to move,” said Nuhfer. "But many of the people working to manage invasive plant species have real concerns about unwittingly contributing to the problem if we start moving native species around.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-assessing-native-plant-traits">Assessing native plant traits</h2>



To solve this challenge, researchers need to understand what makes some plants thrive in new places and others wreak havoc. 



This is where Nuhfer and his advisor, Professor Bethany Bradley, step in. Their new research examines how specific plant traits contribute to success (and potential risk) when relocating native species.



“We’ve made the mistake of introducing invasive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-may-stop-absorbing-carbon-if-temperatures-continue-to-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> so many times in the past and we don’t want to keep making that mistake. But in a changing climate, doing nothing might do even more harm," said Professor Bradley. 



The team in Bradley’s lab has already shown that controlling invasive species is one of the strongest tools local communities can use to prepare for climate change. The researchers have tracked how invasive species numbers are rising rapidly.



In many ecosystems, plants and animals need to shift their range by at least 3.25 kilometers per year just to keep pace with warming temperatures and shifting seasons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-good-candidates-for-relocation">Good candidates for relocation</h2>



The study was focused on the traits that determine whether a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/space-lettuce-nasas-plans-to-grow-nutritious-plants-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant</a> can successfully relocate - and whether it will become a problem after doing so.



Traits like rapid growth, long flowering periods, and seed dispersal by wind often help plants survive in new environments. But these same traits have also been used to flag invasive species.



“We often use specific plant characteristics - like how quickly a plant grows, how long it flowers or whether its seeds can be spread by the wind - to determine its risk of becoming invasive,” said Nuhfer. “But these are also traits that could help a native species to survive in a new environment.”



The study draws from a wide range of literature in both restoration and invasion ecology. The researchers also reviewed the risk assessment tools used by land managers. 



Their conclusion is that many traits promoting establishment are shared by both invasive and native species.



However, key differences emerge later - particularly when plants begin to spread. It’s in this phase that certain traits, such as size or toxicity, begin to distinguish potentially harmful species from those that simply need help surviving.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drawing-the-line-between-help-and-harm">Drawing the line between help and harm</h2>



Some traits, like a high metabolic rate, support a plant’s ability to establish itself in new surroundings. These traits apply to both native <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-absorb-31-more-co2-than-previously-estimated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> and invasive ones. But other traits, especially those linked to unchecked growth or ecosystem disruption, raise red flags.



Large size, for example, not only helps plants establish but also enables them to dominate landscapes. This can lead to overgrowth and displace local flora. 



Toxicity is another trait of concern. While it doesn’t help a plant settle in, it allows it to repel herbivores and spread aggressively - potentially harming native species that share the habitat.



This creates a dilemma. If we avoid all traits associated with invasive species, we may end up ruling out the very traits that could help a plant survive. On the other hand, ignoring the signs of future invasiveness could create a new wave of ecological damage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-the-way-we-measure-risk">Changing the way we measure risk</h2>



The solution, according to the study, is not to ban all plants with certain traits but to refine our risk assessments. 



Current tools used by land managers often take a one-size-fits-all approach. If a plant shares any trait with a known invasive, it may be excluded from relocation efforts. That overly cautious approach could undermine the entire strategy.



“Many of the current risk assessments that managers are using in the field are so risk-averse as to guarantee that managed relocation will fail,” said Professor Bradley.



“And if the relocation fails, then we’ve wasted all sorts of resources and haven’t helped native plants persist," noted Nuhfer.



Instead, the researchers suggest focusing on traits that are most likely to lead to ecological harm - such as toxicity or seed dispersal by water - rather than those that simply help a plant get established.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-path-forward-in-a-warming-world">A path forward in a warming world</h2>



This research, supported by the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.usgs.gov/programs/climate-adaptation-science-centers/northeast-casc" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Geological Survey Northeast Climate Adaptation Science Center</a>, marks a pivotal moment in conservation thinking.



As climate change accelerates, strategies that once seemed risky are now essential. Managed relocation, when guided by science and nuanced risk assessments, could help preserve the ecological heritage of countless regions.



By learning from past mistakes and using precise criteria, scientists and conservationists may strike a balance - helping native plants survive without repeating the errors that let invasive species flourish.



The stakes are high. But with thoughtful, evidence-based action, we can give native species a fighting chance in a changing world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.70145" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Change Biology</a>.



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Native plants can’t outrun climate change on their own

Across the United States, a quiet crisis is unfolding in...

Chewing gum may be doing more than just freshening your breath. According to a recent study, each piece of gum could be releasing hundreds - or even thousands - of microplastic particles into your mouth.



This means that, along with the minty taste, you might be getting a mouthful of plastic.



These findings come from scientists at the <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Los Angeles</a> (UCLA), who recently conducted a pilot study to test how much microplastic can be released during gum chewing. Their goal wasn’t to raise alarm but to shed light on an everyday source of plastic exposure that hasn’t been widely considered.



“Our goal is not to alarm anybody,” said Sanjay Mohanty, the project’s principal investigator and an engineering professor at UCLA.



“Scientists don’t know if microplastics are unsafe to us or not. There are no human trials. But we know we are exposed to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/4200-harmful-plastic-chemicals-hidden-in-everyday-objects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastics</a> in everyday life, and that’s what we wanted to examine here.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-plastic-than-you-think">More plastic than you think</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-pose-a-greater-threat-to-some-ocean-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microplastics</a> - tiny particles between 1 micrometer and 5 millimeters wide - are found in food, drinks, packaging, clothes, and even the air we breathe. But chewing gum, despite being so common, hasn't received much attention as a source.



Gum is typically made from a rubbery base, along with sweeteners and flavorings. Some gums use synthetic rubber made from petroleum-based plastics. Others use natural bases like tree sap.



The UCLA team wanted to see if chewing either kind would release microplastics.



“Our initial hypothesis was that the synthetic gums would have a lot more microplastics because the base is a type of plastic,” explained Lisa Lowe, a graduate student at UCLA and the study’s presenter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-tests-were-done">How the tests were done</h2>



The researchers picked ten different chewing gum brands - five synthetic and five natural. To limit variables, all seven samples of each gum brand were chewed by the same person.



In one test, the person chewed each piece for four minutes, pausing every 30 seconds to produce saliva samples. After that, a mouth rinse was added to the sample.



In another test, they collected saliva every few minutes for up to 20 minutes. The samples were examined under a microscope and through spectroscopy to detect and identify <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-particles-found-in-99-of-tested-seafood-samples/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastic particles</a>.



On average, each gram of gum released about 100 microplastic particles. Some pieces released as many as 600 particles per gram. 



Since most pieces of gum weigh between two and six grams, a large piece could release up to 3,000 microplastics while it is being chewed. And with the average person chewing 160 to 180 pieces per year, that could add up to around 30,000 ingested plastic particles annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-just-synthetic-gums">Not just synthetic gums</h2>



“Surprisingly, both synthetic and natural gums had similar amounts of microplastics released when we chewed them,” said Lowe.



Both types contained the same kinds of plastic - polyolefins, polyethylene terephthalates, polyacrylamides, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastics-can-be-passed-from-mothers-to-unborn-babies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polystyrene</a>. The most common of these were polyolefins, which include common plastics like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-found-in-the-human-blood-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polyethylene</a> and polypropylene.



Most of the microplastics were released during the first two minutes of chewing. But this wasn’t because of enzymes breaking things down. It was simply due to the abrasive motion of chewing.



“The plastic released into saliva is a small fraction of the plastic that’s in the gum,” says Mohanty.



In fact, by the eight-minute mark, 94% of the detectable plastic particles had already been released.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-can-you-do-about-it">What can you do about it?</h2>



While the study only tracked plastic particles 20 micrometers or larger due to equipment limits, it's possible that even smaller particles went undetected. These could include nano-sized plastics, which may be more easily absorbed by the body. 



More research will be needed to understand the presence and potential health impacts of the nanoparticles.



If you’re concerned, chewing a single piece of gum for longer rather than popping in several for a short chew may help reduce your exposure.



Aside from the potential health concerns, improperly discarded gum also adds to plastic pollution in the environment. “So, be mindful about the environment and don’t just throw it outside or stick it to a gum wall,” said Mohanty.



Next time you reach for a stick of gum, remember that how you chew it and how you dispose of it could matter more than you think.



Details of <a href="https://acs.digitellinc.com/p/s/chewing-gums-unintended-sources-of-ingested-microplastics-in-humans-618916">the study</a> will be presented at the spring meeting of the American Chemical Society.



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Your chewing gum may be full of microplastics

Chewing gum may be doing more than just freshening your...

Mejannes-le-clap,,Gard,,France,07,30,2013,,Incredible,Colors,Of,The

Deep underground, where sunlight never reaches, ancient minerals lie hidden within the rock - until illuminated by a black light. In that moment, once-drab walls blaze with color: pinks, blues, and greens glow from within.&nbsp;



For scientists studying how life survives in extreme environments, these fluorescent clues may offer critical insights - not only into Earth’s history, but also into the potential for life on other worlds, like Jupiter’s moon Europa.



At the Spring 2025 meeting of the American Chemical Society (<a href="https://www.acs.org/meetings/acs-meetings/spring.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS</a>), researchers led by astrobiologist Joshua Sebree from the <a href="https://uni.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Northern Iowa</a> are presenting new findings about the chemical makeup of cave systems and what it can teach us about life in places humans have yet to reach.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mineral-fingerprints-and-ancient-clues">Mineral fingerprints and ancient clues</h2>



Sebree and his students have explored caves across the U.S., including South Dakota’s Wind Cave and Minnesota’s Mystery Cave, mapping their twisting passages and hidden formations.&nbsp;



As they worked, the researchers also scanned the cave walls with ultraviolet light, uncovering brilliant displays of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-glow-in-the-dark-fluorescence-found-to-be-very-common-in-mammals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fluorescence</a> created by mineral impurities embedded in the rock over thousands of years.&nbsp;



These luminous patches often mark where water once flowed or pooled, leaving behind chemical traces. What looks like an ordinary stone wall under normal light is transformed under UV.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Fluorescent-caves_wind-cave_normal_UV-light_credit-Joshua-Sebree_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Fluorescent-caves_wind-cave_normal_UV-light_credit-Joshua-Sebree_1s.webp" alt="A section of South Dakota’s Wind Cave seen under normal white light (left image) transforms into something otherworldly when placed under UV light (right image). Credit: Joshua Sebree" class="wp-image-1963441"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A section of South Dakota’s Wind Cave seen under normal white light (left image) transforms into something otherworldly when placed under UV light (right image). Click to enlarge. Credit: Joshua Sebree</figcaption></figure>



“The walls just looked completely blank and devoid of anything interesting,” Sebree said. 



"But then, when we turned on the black lights, what used to be just a plain brown wall turned into a bright layer of fluorescent mineral that indicated where a pool of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-ancient-ocean-water-shaped-early-life-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water</a> used to be 10,000 or 20,000 years ago.”



The glowing hues provide more than visual drama. They reveal distinct chemical compositions that help scientists understand how the cave formed and how it may have supported life.&nbsp;



These “chemistry fossils” are collected not by breaking off rock samples, but through a non-destructive method: using a handheld spectrometer, the team gathers fluorescence spectra, essentially chemical fingerprints of the rock’s surface, right in the field.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-a-new-type-of-cave-map">Building a new type of cave map</h2>



Undergraduate student Anna Van Der Weide is building a public database of these spectral fingerprints, adding a new layer of chemical information to traditional cave maps. 



This work could help paint a clearer picture of a cave’s formation and environmental history.



Other students are contributing to the broader project as well. Jacqueline Heggen is studying the caves as models for astrobiological research on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extremophiles-and-the-quest-for-alien-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extremophiles</a> - organisms that live in extreme conditions.&nbsp;



Jordan Holloway is developing an autonomous spectrometer that could be used in future missions to planets or moons. 



Celia Langemo is researching biometric monitoring systems to help ensure the safety of scientists exploring harsh underground environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glowing-minerals-and-cave-development-nbsp">Glowing minerals and cave development&nbsp;</h2>



The work is far from easy. At just 48 degrees Fahrenheit (9°C), caves like Minnesota’s Mystery Cave require extra planning to keep instruments functioning. 



For instance, the experts had to bury the spectrometer’s batteries in hand-warmers to keep them from dying. 



Reaching areas of interest sometimes meant crawling through tunnels less than a foot wide for long distances or standing in freezing water while conducting measurements.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Fluorescent-caves_wind-cave_UV-light_credit-Joshua-Sebree_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Fluorescent-caves_wind-cave_UV-light_credit-Joshua-Sebree_1s.webp" alt="One of Sebree’s students, Jacqueline Heggen, showing off glowing formations within Wind Cave. Credit: Joshua Sebree" class="wp-image-1963443"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">One of Sebree’s students, Jacqueline Heggen, showing off glowing formations within Wind Cave. Click to enlarge. Credit: Joshua Sebree</figcaption></figure>



Despite these physical obstacles, the fieldwork has already revealed major insights. In Wind Cave, the team found that manganese-rich water had carved out the cave and created zebra-striped calcites - formations that glow pink under black light.&nbsp;



These formations appear to have contributed to cave expansion by fracturing weaker rock, suggesting a previously overlooked mechanism of cave development.



“It’s a very different cave forming mechanism than has previously been looked at before,” Sebree explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-glimpse-into-other-worlds">A glimpse into other worlds</h2>



The bigger picture, though, reaches far beyond Earth. Because the chemistry in caves like Wind Cave may resemble conditions on icy moons such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alien-life-on-europa-co2-discovery-by-webb-increases-the-odds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Europa</a>, Sebree’s research helps scientists imagine how life could survive in dark, isolated, mineral-rich environments far from the sun.



Looking ahead, Sebree hopes to confirm the accuracy of fluorescence mapping by comparing it to traditional, more invasive techniques. 



He also wants to explore why some cave waters glow under UV light, which might help explain how life from Earth’s surface could influence ecosystems far underground.



Ultimately, Sebree’s work is driven by a larger question: if life can thrive in the deepest, coldest corners of our planet, what’s stopping it from doing the same in the outer reaches of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spiral-structure-discovered-at-the-edge-of-our-solar-system-oort-cloud/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar system</a>?



“It was really cool to see how you can apply science out in the field and to learn how you function in those environments,” Van Der Weide said. 



That blend of fieldwork, curiosity, and science may one day help uncover life in places no human has ever gone.



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Fluorescent caves on Earth can teach us about extraterrestrial life

Deep underground, where sunlight never reaches, ancient minerals lie hidden...

In the fight against obesity and related health issues, attention is often focused on the nutritional content of meals or total calorie intake. Yet new research in Japan suggests that how we eat - particularly the pace at which we chew and swallow - could play a significant role in regulating food consumption and potentially combating obesity.&nbsp;



Led by professor Katsumi Iizuka from <a href="https://www.fujita-hu.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fujita Health University</a>, the team’s work sheds light on straightforward methods for slowing meal duration that might help people consume less food overall.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-eating-habits">Rethinking eating habits</h2>



Though numerous studies have underscored the link between slower eating and reduced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breaking-free-from-ultra-processed-foods-the-surprising-health-benefits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food intake</a>, Japan-specific evidence on how best to slow eating has been limited.&nbsp;



“While nutritional science is often concerned with food metabolism and absorption and dietary content, there’s limited evidence in Japan on dietary behavior that connects the two,” Iizuka said.



The researchers set out to explore factors influencing meal duration and eating behavior, from sex differences to chewing patterns and the potential impact of external rhythmic stimuli - namely, metronome beats or music that might prompt people to chew more slowly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-closer-look-at-meal-duration">A closer look at meal duration</h2>



The study involved 33 healthy adults between the ages of 20 and 65 who were asked to eat slices of pizza under a range of experimental scenarios.&nbsp;



The scientists recorded each participant’s meal duration, their number of chews and bites, and the speed at which they chewed. In some trials, participants listened to a slow metronome of about 40 beats per minute, while in others, they ate in silence.



When analyzing these data, several notable results emerged. First, the researchers found that there were sizable differences between men and women in how quickly they finished eating. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eating-habits-across-genders">Eating habits across genders </h2>



Women generally took longer on average to finish a slice (about 87 seconds) than men (about 63 seconds), and they tended to chew and bite more often (107 chews and 4.5 bites, compared with men’s 80 chews and 2.1 bites). However, both sexes had similar “chewing tempos” - that is, they chewed at roughly the same rate.



Once the researchers accounted for these sex-related differences, they observed that how long people took to finish a slice of pizza strongly correlated with how many chews and bites they performed. By contrast, body mass index (BMI) and chewing tempo had no direct tie to total meal duration.



Perhaps most striking, the team found that having participants listen to a slow metronome beat significantly increased their mealtime. This means that rhythmic cues could effectively encourage people to consume food more slowly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-switching-up-eating-habits">Switching up eating habits</h2>



From these results, the research team proposes several strategies for extending mealtime.&nbsp;



First, increasing the number of chews per bite can lengthen the period spent eating. Next, taking smaller bites can raise the overall count of bites and therefore slow down consumption.&nbsp;



Finally, introducing slow, rhythmic cues in the environment - like calm music or deliberate metronome beats - may further encourage diners to reduce their eating pace.



“These are easy, money-saving measures that can be started right away to help prevent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-is-obesity-difficult-to-reverse-it-starts-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">obesity</a>,” said Iizuka, emphasizing that these tactics do not require special technology or major expense.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-combating-obesity">Implications for combating obesity</h2>



Given the worrying rise in obesity worldwide, these findings may prove valuable for policymakers and public health practitioners.&nbsp;



The study demonstrates that practical, no-cost interventions focusing on how we eat might complement more conventional approaches, such as dieting and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evening-exercise-can-reduce-major-health-risks-of-obesity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exercise</a>. 



“Incorporating the proposed eating behavior into school lunches and other programs can lead to the prevention of future diseases related to obesity,” Iizuka noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-combining-exercise-and-slower-eating">Combining exercise and slower eating</h2>



While this particular experiment relied on pizza as the test food, future research will likely extend to different cuisines and contexts to see if the principle holds. 



If so, meal duration could join the ranks of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-almonds-can-help-you-cut-calories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">calorie</a> control and balanced diets as a key point of emphasis in anti-obesity campaigns.



Additionally, the findings suggest a certain synergy between higher physical activity and slower eating as well.&nbsp;



Though the study itself did not measure physical activity, prior research indicates that combining mindful eating habits with regular exercise can be more effective than tackling these issues separately.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



No single study can resolve all questions, and the researchers acknowledge that further investigation is needed. More work could explore the effect of different food textures on chew rates, how cultural eating norms shape mealtime pacing, and whether long-term interventions focusing on slow eating can achieve lasting behavioral change.



Though the study did not find that BMI directly affects meal duration, it provides significant evidence that how people eat might alter how much they ultimately consume.&nbsp;



By urging people to chew more thoroughly, take smaller bites, or dine with calm, slow rhythms in the background, we may be able to gently nudge better habits without relying on dramatic diets or expensive gadgets.



Ultimately, this research delivers promising clues that our daily routines - such as the bite-by-bite process of eating - can be leveraged in combating obesity. 



By helping people develop an increased awareness of their meal speed and offering simple environmental tweaks, we can hope to reduce unnecessary caloric intake and pave the way for a healthier population.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu17060962" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nutrients</a>.



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Simple eating habit may be key to weight management

In the fight against obesity and related health issues, attention...

Phosphorus, alongside nitrogen and carbon, is an essential element for life on Earth - integral to molecules like DNA, RNA, and ATP.&nbsp;



Yet despite its importance, phosphorus is relatively scarce at Earth’s surface, posing a long-standing question: how did living organisms first acquire enough phosphorus to jumpstart the biochemical processes necessary for life?



A new study, led by Craig Walton from <a href="https://ethz.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ETH Zurich</a>, offers a novel explanation. His work points to large, landlocked “soda lakes” as potential reservoirs that could have maintained sufficiently high concentrations of phosphorus to support prebiotic chemistry and eventually nurture early life. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-phosphorus-is-essential-yet-scarce">Why phosphorus is essential - yet scarce</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/phantom-nutrient-the-secret-force-that-fuels-plant-growth/">Phosphorus</a> shapes all life on Earth: it helps form the backbone of DNA and RNA, carries energy in cells through ATP, and is a key ingredient in many other biochemical reactions. However, unlike nitrogen and carbon, phosphorus is in limited supply.&nbsp;



Experiments in labs have shown that prebiotic chemistry - chemical reactions that likely preceded life - requires phosphorus levels roughly 10,000 times higher than what typically exists in natural waters.



This shortfall raises the question: how did Earth’s early environment ever manage to concentrate enough phosphorus for the formation of life?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-soda-lakes-as-phosphorus-hotspots">Soda lakes as phosphorus hotspots</h2>



Walton posits that large soda <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-on-earth-may-have-first-sparked-in-shallow-soda-lakes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lakes</a> - those without natural runoff - could have built and sustained extremely high concentrations of phosphorus.&nbsp;



Because water in these lakes escapes primarily via evaporation, phosphorus remains in the lake instead of being washed away by streams or rivers. Over time, the concentration of phosphorus can climb dramatically.



The concept of soda lakes as potential cradles of life is not entirely new; researchers at the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a> proposed something similar in 2020.&nbsp;



But Walton’s research adds detail to this hypothesis, suggesting that only relatively large soda lakes would have had the right conditions - namely, a steady and abundant supply of phosphorus via inflowing water, coupled with minimal outflow - to maintain levels high enough for both prebiotic chemistry and newly emerged life forms.



Smaller lakes, by contrast, might experience sudden drops in phosphorus as soon as life starts to consume it, thereby stifling chemical reactions and halting further biological development.&nbsp;



Large soda lakes, however, can absorb that consumption thanks to ongoing inputs from tributaries or other sources, keeping phosphorus concentrations robust over longer timeframes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-life-s-beginnings">Implications for life’s beginnings</h2>



One real-world illustration of a suitable soda lake is Mono Lake in California. About twice the size of Lake Zurich, Mono Lake consistently supports diverse life due to its high phosphorus concentration.&nbsp;



Walton’s findings suggest that a lake of comparable size on the early Earth, fed by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-disrupting-the-seasonal-flow-of-rivers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rivers</a> and left to evaporate, could have sustained similar or even higher phosphorus levels, driving the chemical processes integral to the formation of life.



Walton’s theory indicates that the origin of life might have been more likely in large bodies of water than in the “small warm pond” that Charles Darwin once imagined.&nbsp;



In the unique environment of a large soda lake, not only would the necessary phosphorus be plentiful, but geological and ecological dynamics would also remain favorable over extended periods. This would give emergent life enough breathing room to evolve without quickly depleting its essential resources.



“This new theory helps to solve another piece of the puzzle of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-clues-about-the-origins-of-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">origin of life</a> on Earth,” Walton said. Because soda lakes can trap water, minerals, and key elements like phosphorus more effectively than smaller ponds, they may have fostered the right balance of chemical conditions and resources that early life-forms needed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-soda-lakes-and-prebiotic-chemistry">Soda lakes and prebiotic chemistry </h2>



While many questions remain about how life first formed on Earth, Walton’s findings offer a compelling argument that large soda lakes, with their high phosphorus retention, could have provided an ideal setting for prebiotic chemistry.&nbsp;



If further research reinforces these conclusions, the longstanding puzzle about how Earth’s earliest life managed to obtain enough phosphorus for complex biochemical processes may take another step toward resolution.



By tying the early chemical environment to known geological settings, these insights open fresh avenues for investigating life’s origins - both on our planet and, potentially, on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alien-worlds-unraveling-the-mysteries-of-exoplanets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alien worlds</a> that might host similar lake conditions.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adq0027" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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How soda lakes may have sparked life on Earth

Phosphorus, alongside nitrogen and carbon, is an essential element for...

In a quiet home office in Durham, North Carolina, neuroscientist Richard Mooney pores over vivid brain scans of zebra finches. 



Each image captures moments in the life of a young bird learning to sing - dots of neural activity scattered across the brain like a pointillist painting, or bright squiggles marking chemical changes during a solo performance.



To Mooney, a professor at <a href="https://duke.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Duke University</a> who has spent four decades studying how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-adapt-their-survival-strategies-to-climate-change/">birds</a> learn to sing, these imperfect chirps and squeaks are the earliest signs of something much bigger. “Their songs don’t sound like much at first,” he said.



But, like a child learning to talk or a pianist learning scales, zebra finches must put in hours of practice - up to 10,000 renditions a day for an entire month - before they can produce their complex, courtship-ready melodies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-songbirds-reveal-secrets-of-learning">Songbirds reveal secrets of learning</h2>



Now, thanks to new research by Mooney and Duke neurobiology professor John Pearson, scientists are beginning to understand what fuels this relentless drive to improve - and what it reveals about the learning process in general.&nbsp;



The findings, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-08694-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>, offer new insight into how learning occurs without external rewards, and could deepen understanding of motor learning and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/household-chemicals-linked-to-neurological-disorders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurological disorders</a> in humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-the-learning-process">Tracking the learning process</h2>



In their experiments, the researchers placed male juvenile zebra finches - who are the only singers among their species - in soundproof chambers where they could practice at will. 



These birds learn their courtship songs early in life by first listening to their fathers and memorizing the melodies. 



Then, like human toddlers learning speech, they begin to babble, gradually shaping their squeaks into structured songs that match their mental template.



To monitor their progress, Pearson’s team developed a machine learning model capable of analyzing and scoring thousands of song renditions in real time. This allowed the researchers to track how each bird’s performance changed from moment to moment.



“Some tries were a little better, and some were a little worse,” Pearson said. “Generally the longer the birds worked at it, the better they got.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-songbirds-learning-for-the-joy-of-it">Songbirds learning for the joy of it</h2>



As the birds honed their songs, the team also monitored chemical signals in the basal ganglia, a brain region involved in learning new motor skills. 



Using fluorescent sensors engineered to light up in the presence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dopamine-helps-us-learn-from-positive-and-negative-experiences/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dopamine</a> - a key chemical messenger for reward and motivation - the researchers tracked its activity in real time.



What they discovered was surprising: each time a bird practiced, dopamine levels began to rise, regardless of how well the song was performed.&nbsp;



Whether the bird hit the right notes or not, simply making the effort triggered activity in the brain’s reward system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-brain-wired-to-learn">A brain wired to learn</h2>



The dopamine signal increased even more when a bird sang better than expected for its developmental stage, and dipped slightly when performance regressed.&nbsp;



These shifts suggest that the birds’ brains were reinforcing improvement and gently correcting missteps - all without any external feedback.



“Nobody’s telling the bird if he’s an honor student or going to be sent to detention,” Mooney said. “The birds were alone during their practice sessions, singing away in a soundproof room.”



Instead, the study shows that dopamine acts as an internal guide - a kind of neurological compass - helping the birds adjust and improve over time. This system of intrinsic motivation may explain how learning continues even in the absence of rewards or punishments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dopamine-provides-a-motivational-boost">Dopamine provides a motivational boost</h2>



The researchers also identified another player in the process: acetylcholine, a neurochemical known to influence attention and learning.&nbsp;



Qi, the study’s first author, demonstrated that acetylcholine could stimulate dopamine release when the birds sang, providing an extra motivational boost.



When the team blocked dopamine or acetylcholine in the basal ganglia, the results were dramatic.



“Learning basically comes to a halt,” Mooney explained. “The bird still sings a lot, but he doesn't seem to be able to learn from it.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-human-learning">Implications for human learning</h2>



While the experiments were conducted in zebra finches, the implications go far beyond avian neuroscience. The basal ganglia, dopamine, and acetylcholine systems involved in the birds' learning are shared across vertebrates - including humans.



“These findings translate across species,” Pearson said. “Essentially every animal with a backbone shares these brain systems.”



Understanding how these internal motivation systems function may shed light on how humans acquire complex skills like speaking, playing an instrument, or juggling. 



In this sense, Mooney said, “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-songs-human-speech-common-vocal-genetic-origin-syrinx/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birdsong</a> learning is very similar to what children do when they spontaneously acquire these remarkable skills.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-songbirds-as-a-model-for-learning">Songbirds as a model for learning</h2>



The research could also help explain what happens when those systems break down. Dopamine dysfunction in the basal ganglia is associated with neurological disorders such as Parkinson’s disease and schizophrenia. 



By studying learning in songbirds, researchers can explore the underlying principles in a simpler system.



“It’s really important that we understand these regions, and the bird is a means of getting at those principles,” Pearson noted.



For Mooney, the significance is both scientific and deeply human.



“Of all the scientific frontiers that remain, the brain is probably the most poorly understood. And it’s fundamental to being human,” he concluded.



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Dopamine fuels learning in young songbirds

In a quiet home office in Durham, North Carolina, neuroscientist...

The story of early human migration into South America has stirred debate. Researchers have long argued about when these first travelers arrived, how they adapted, and which paths they followed. 



Evidence has surfaced in many forms, from stone tools and butchered bone fragments to entire campfire sites once littered with animal remains. 



Although these clues have fueled lively conversations, scholars have faced frustrations when old assumptions were challenged and new findings seemed sparse.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-in-the-pampas">Humans in the Pampas</h2>



The Pampas, known for its expansive plains and iconic landscapes, saw much of its early buzz dwindle in the mid-1900s. Yet the puzzle of who first roamed there has never truly gone away.



Now, according to research by Mariano Del Papa of <a href="https://unlp.edu.ar/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National University of La Plata</a>, Argentina and colleagues, modern technology and updated theories are breathing fresh life into these investigations. 



Refined carbon dating, advances in ancient DNA methods, and broader approaches to human-environment interactions have sparked new interest in how and when humans walked across these southern lands.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-bones-and-cut-marks">Animal bones and cut marks</h2>



Scientists have long wondered if humans and extinct giant animals, sometimes called <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-were-likely-the-leading-cause-of-megafauna-extinctions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">megafauna</a>, overlapped in time or even shared close encounters. The debate has centered on physical associations and behavioral associations.



The former refers to animal bones and tools found in direct contact, while the latter involves traces of human activity on the bones themselves. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-europeans-practiced-cannibalism-eating-both-enemies-and-loved-ones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cut marks</a> are among the strongest signs of human interaction, yet they require careful analysis to rule out accidental scratches, weathering, or other natural wear.



In the Pampas, confident identification of these marks has been sporadic, with just a handful of sites showing possible evidence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-had-surprising-diets-3-5-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early humans</a> and large mammals coexisting. 



Many previous finds lacked direct proof of who caused the damage or how these animals ended up with unusual grooves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-reconquista-river-discovery">The Reconquista River discovery</h2>



One significant lead emerged along the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconquista_River" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Reconquista River</a> in northern Buenos Aires, where researchers uncovered the fossilized remains of an extinct armored animal called Neosclerocalyptus, which resembled giant armadillos.



Scientists inspected the shell and tail bones, seeking patterns that might confirm human involvement. 



Radiocarbon dating placed these remains at around 21,000 years old, suggesting human presence in this area well ahead of many earlier estimates.



Further microscopic analysis revealed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eat-like-neanderthal-unpacking-ancient-cooking-methods-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cut marks</a> on parts of the pelvis, tail, and body armor. Statistical work compared these traces with known examples from butchered remains. 



The marks aligned with what stone tools commonly produce, and their location matched spots where hunters might have targeted meat-rich areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neosclerocalyptus-giant-armadillos">Neosclerocalyptus - giant armadillos</h2>



Neosclerocalyptus was one of those prehistoric oddballs you wouldn’t want to bump into on a walk through ancient South America. 



It looked kind of like an armadillo on steroids - covered in a thick, bumpy shell and sporting a short, stubby snout. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full is-resized"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/first-humans_south-america_Neosclerocalyptus-skeleton_giant-armadillo_credit-Del-Papa_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/first-humans_south-america_Neosclerocalyptus-skeleton_giant-armadillo_credit-Del-Papa_1s.webp" alt="Drawing of a Neosclerocalyptus skeleton highlighting cut-marked skeletal elements in light blue found at the CRS-10 specimen. Credit: Del Papa et al., 2024, PLOS ONE" class="wp-image-1963422" style="width:300px;height:auto"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Drawing of a Neosclerocalyptus skeleton highlighting cut-marked skeletal elements in light blue found at the CRS-10 specimen. Credit: Del Papa et al., 2024, PLOS ONE</figcaption></figure>



This guy belonged to the glyptodont family, which were basically giant armored mammals related to modern armadillos. 



Neosclerocalyptus roamed the open plains during the Pleistocene epoch, which means it shared the landscape with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smilodon-fatalis-young-saber-toothed-cats-had-double-fangs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">saber-toothed cats</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-in-america-coexisted-with-giant-sloths-and-mastodons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">giant ground sloths</a>, and early humans. It wasn’t exactly speedy, but its tank-like body made up for it in defense.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-timeline-of-humans-in-south-america">Timeline of humans in South America</h2>



The dating results place this evidence roughly 6,000 years before most recognized archaeological sites in southern South America. 



Researchers note that a small but growing body of recent findings across the Americas indicates humans may have been around even earlier than 20,000 years ago. 



These outcomes resonate with discoveries elsewhere suggesting that people reached the continent sooner than older textbooks stated.



While the giant armadillo discovery in northeastern Argentina stands out, it parallels similar points of interest in other regions. 



Scientists working elsewhere have seen indications of human activity dating beyond the once-accepted timeline of 13,000 to 16,000 years ago. 



These glimpses could fill voids in the historical record, showing that different groups explored diverse landscapes, from coastal zones to inland stretches.



Clear behavioral associations remain challenging to confirm. Bones alone can be scattered by rivers or shifting sediments, and random fractures sometimes mimic cut marks. 



In this case, careful examination of the site’s layers helped rule out normal taphonomic processes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



Investigations like this may steer attention to under-sampled areas where layers from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-age-data-analysis-reshapes-climate-future-lowers-warming-estimates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Last Glacial Maximum</a> remain intact. 



If additional fossils with similar markings appear nearby, the evidence for a broader human footprint dating back more than 20,000 years will become tougher to dispute. 



Radiocarbon dating and ancient DNA techniques could then piece together the connections between these early populations and later groups spread across South America.



Experts agree that ongoing exploration is essential. Early settlement patterns in the Pampas might reflect unique strategies for finding resources and adapting to shifting climates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-south-america-and-giant-armadillos">Humans, South America, and giant armadillos</h2>



From a set of fossils on the Reconquista River to the possibility of unearthing more traces in the surrounding region, every fresh clue adds depth to an ancient tale. 



These findings echo other recent data suggesting humans reached the Americas well before longstanding theories indicated. 



The weight of this evidence challenges traditional timelines and inspires experts to reexamine historical assumptions.



For now, this glyptodont discovery seems to indicate that South America’s early human narrative might stretch back further than once believed.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0304956" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>.



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First humans in South America survived by eating giant armadillos

The story of early human migration into South America has...

You might already know that salty food affects your blood pressure. But a new study suggests it could be doing something far more surprising - it might be changing how you feel. Scientists have now linked high salt intake to depression-like behavior, revealing a new immune mechanism that connects the gut, the brain, and mood.



The study, led by researchers from <a href="https://english.njmu.edu.cn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nanjing Medical University</a> explored how excess salt changes the immune system in ways that alter brain function and behavior.



The findings are built on years of clinical observations that hinted at a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-with-chronic-pain-have-high-rates-of-depression-and-anxiety/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">connection</a> between high-sodium diets and worsening mental health. Now, there is experimental evidence to back it.



“This work supports dietary interventions, such as salt reduction, as a preventive measure for mental illness. It also paves the way for novel therapeutic strategies targeting IL-17A to treat depression,” said Dr. Xiaojun Chen, the study's lead researcher.



“We hope these findings encourage discussions on salt consumption guidelines.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-salt-leads-to-depression">How salt leads to depression</h2>



The researchers noticed that mice on a high-salt diet for five weeks showed less curiosity and more inactivity. These behaviors resembled those seen in standard stress-based models of depression. 



Mice with high salt intake also showed elevated IL-17A levels in the spleen, blood, and brain - especially the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex.



IL-17A was not just present; it was active. In mice lacking the RORγt gene - a gene required for IL-17A production - these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stress-related-brain-inflammation-linked-to-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">depressive symptoms</a> did not appear. This points to a direct causal link between IL-17A and mood changes triggered by salt.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-special-immune-cells-trigger-mood-changes">Special immune cells trigger mood changes</h2>



The research also pinpointed γδT17 cells as the key producers of IL-17A. These cells made up nearly 40% of IL-17A producers in the spleen, blood, and brain. Their activity increased in the high-salt group, but the total number of γδT cells stayed the same. Instead, the shift was in their function, not quantity.



Specifically, HSD triggered γδT cells to become hyperactive IL-17A producers, marked by higher CD44 expression and a tilt toward the Vγ4 subtype. These cells likely carry out the salt-triggered immune attack on the brain, altering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psilocybin-therapy-offers-hope-for-millions-with-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mood and behavior</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blocking-salt-linked-cells-eases-depression">Blocking salt-linked cells eases depression</h2>



To investigate further, scientists treated mice with antibodies that deplete γδT cells. This lowered IL-17A levels and reversed depression-like behavior. The mice explored more and spent less time immobile in behavioral tests. These results highlight γδT17 cells as potential drug targets.



Interestingly, combining salt with restraint stress did not worsen depression in the same way. This suggests that salt may trigger a different biological route to depression than psychological stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-salt-alters-immunity-and-metabolism">Salt alters immunity and metabolism</h2>



The team also proposed two possible molecular pathways. First, HSD may activate the p38/MAPK pathway in γδT cells, increasing IL-17A output. 



Second, salt might raise IL-1β levels in macrophages. IL-1β is a known driver of IL-17 production. Both routes could explain how salt tweaks immune function and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/millions-of-americans-have-lost-years-of-time-to-poor-mental-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mood</a>.



Salt also affects how immune cells make energy. By shifting cells from mitochondrial respiration to glycolysis, HSD reprograms how immune cells behave. These metabolic shifts might further activate γδT17 cells, linking diet and mood through immune cell energy use.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-means-for-mental-health">What this means for mental health</h2>



Major depressive disorder is already a leading cause of disability and death. Its ties to other diseases, like cancer and autoimmune conditions, make it an urgent health issue. Treatments that target immune signals, especially IL-17A, could provide new hope.



The research confirms what some clinical data hinted at: high salt worsens depression, while low sodium intake improves mood. Dietary advice could now go beyond blood pressure and heart health. It may become a mental health intervention too.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-and-broader-impacts">Next steps and broader impacts</h2>



The researchers will now try to validate these results in human studies. 



If confirmed, simple dietary changes could lower depression risk. Drugs that block IL-17A or deactivate γδT cells might also help people with salt-sensitive mood disorders.



This study not only challenges how we view diet and mood but also shows how tightly the immune system and brain work together. What we eat might shape how we feel - cell by cell, molecule by molecule.



The study is published in <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jimmunol/advance-article/doi/10.1093/jimmun/vkaf019/8090296?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Journal of Immunology</a>. 



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Eating too much salt may contribute to depression

You might already know that salty food affects your blood...

In many Western countries today, the number of dogs is increasing, but the number of children is not. This striking shift raises big questions. Are people choosing dogs instead of kids? Or is something deeper going on?



Professor Enikő Kubinyi from <a href="https://www.elte.hu/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eötvös Loránd University</a> believes she has found the answer. Her theory connects the rise of dog ownership to falling birth rates - but not in a simple, cause-and-effect way.



Kubinyi explains that many see their dogs not just as pets, but as full <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-puppy-day-2025-where-happiness-meets-responsibility/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">family members</a>. Some even place their relationships with their dogs above those that they have with humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-as-emotional-anchors">Dogs as emotional anchors</h2>



Recent surveys in Hungary show a surprising trend. Nineteen percent of childless adults, and ten percent of parents, value their dog more than any human.



Kubinyi’s theory explores why this emotional shift is happening.



"Some say dogs are the new children, while others find this idea outrageous. Pope Francis, for example, has called it selfish for childless people to pamper pets," noted Kubinyi.



She points to studies suggesting that dog owners often feel more negatively about motherhood. Some mothers with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lost-in-translation-how-we-misread-our-dogs-emotions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> feel parenting becomes more burdensome, reducing their desire for more children. In some cases, dogs even create distance in romantic relationships.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-as-a-step-before-having-a-child">Dogs as a step before having a child</h2>



But the picture isn’t one-sided. Kubinyi highlights another argument: dog ownership may actually support family life.



"Families with children are more likely to own dogs, and some couples see their pet as a 'practice child,' a preparatory step toward starting a family. Women also tend to find men with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-focus-more-when-humans-use-eye-contact-and-gestures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> more attractive, which could increase the chances of fatherhood."



In this view, dogs don’t replace children. They support and sometimes lead to parenthood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-build-social-ties-too">Dogs build social ties too</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-and-dogs-share-genes-linked-to-obesity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dog ownership</a> doesn’t just affect families. It also shapes social life. Dog walking often leads to more human interaction. 



Kubinyi explains that dogs serve as "social glue" in modern life. They help build relationships.



But there’s a flip side. If someone&nbsp;leans only on dogs for emotional needs,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1558787820300356" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior issues</a> like barking or aggression can isolate them further, instead of connecting them to other people.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emotional-bonds-now-shift-to-dogs">Emotional bonds now shift to dogs</h2>



"The number of children is not declining because the number of dogs is increasing, but the same trend lies behind both phenomena: the transformation of social networks," said Kubinyi.



She calls this the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.x-mol.com/paper/1900939840006262784">companion dog runaway theory</a>.&nbsp;It ties the rise of dog ownership to both biology and culture.&nbsp;Humans have an innate need to care and connect.&nbsp;When bonds between humans weaken, these instincts shift to dogs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-changed-in-society">What changed in society?</h2>



Nearly 90% of Hungarian adults don’t spend even an hour a week with children. That’s unusual for a species built around cooperative childcare.



Kubinyi points out that modern support networks have eroded. People feel alone. Some have lost faith in human relationships altogether. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rewards-of-dog-ownership-outweigh-the-challenges/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dogs</a> that offer loyalty and comfort fill that space.



Cultural shifts support this trend.&nbsp;Memes joke about dog-parent life, and&nbsp;<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1558787824000819" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pet businesses are booming</a>. People call themselves "dog moms" and "dog dads." These aren’t just trends - they reflect emotional truths.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-are-treated-like-children">Dogs are treated like children</h2>



Dogs aren’t just pets anymore. For many, they’re the most important companion a person has. Their loyalty, shaped by thousands of years beside humans, fits perfectly in the role of substitute family.



Even breeding reflects this change.&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flat-faced-dogs-have-childlike-traits-that-humans-cannot-resist/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Small, baby-faced dogs</a> are now wildly popular. Their “cuteness” triggers our nurturing instincts. But these breeds also suffer from many health issues. Owners care for them intensely - and feel deeply needed.



Sometimes, though, over-caring causes confusion and behavior problems. Dogs have needs, but they aren’t children. Misreading these needs can cause stress - for both pet and owner.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-people-substitute-caregivers-with-dogs">People substitute caregivers with dogs</h2>



"The changing role of dog ownership suggests that people in Western societies experience a significant lack of caregiving and social support - and they try to compensate for this, at least in part, with dogs and likely cats as well," said Kubinyi.



She urges stronger support systems for families and better ways to fight loneliness. Dog ownership should help people connect - not push them further apart.



Other experts agree. Researcher Hal Herzog refers to Kubinyi’s theory as "an important new perspective" on how dogs fit into our social and emotional world.



In the end, keeping dogs reflects our deepest human needs - for love, connection, and care.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/09637214251318284" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Directions in Psychological Science</a>.



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Are dogs replacing children? How modern society is changing

In many Western countries today, the number of dogs is...

Have you ever noticed how memories from the same day seem to blend together, while events that happened weeks apart feel like they exist in totally separate mental files? 



A new study sheds light on why this happens - and it’s not because of what’s happening in the main body of brain cells. Instead, the secret lies in the tiny branches called dendrites.



In a recent study, scientists from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Ohio State University</a> used advanced imaging tools, including miniaturized microscopes, to track how mice formed memories in real time. 



The team focused on a lesser-known part of the brain cell - dendrites, the slender projections that stretch out from neurons. These branches are known for receiving information, but they’re much more active than previously thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-branches-big-role">Small branches, big role</h2>



The researchers zeroed in on the retrosplenial cortex (RSC), a brain area involved in spatial and contextual memory.



When mice were introduced to two different environments close together in time, something remarkable happened: the memories of those places became linked. 



If the mice were later given a small shock in just one of the environments, they reacted with fear in both. Their brains treated the two places as connected - even though only one was associated with the unpleasant experience.



“If you think of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-complete-map-of-every-neuron-in-the-brain-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neuron</a> as a computer, dendrites are like tiny computers inside it, each performing its own calculations,” said study lead author Megha Sehgal.



“This discovery shows that our brains can link information arriving close in time to the same dendritic location, expanding our understanding of how memories are organized.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-communication-between-neurons">Communication between neurons </h2>



The researchers studied how dendrites change during the process of learning and storing information. On the surface of these branches are small bumps called spines - tiny hubs where communication between neurons happens.



When a new memory was formed, they saw clusters of these spines pop up. Then, if another memory formed shortly after, those same spots were more likely to attract additional spines.



This physical clustering of connections appears to be how the brain binds related <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/we-often-undervalue-the-most-meaningful-experiences-in-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experiences</a> together.



“The idea is that we don’t form memories in isolation. You don’t form a single memory. You use that memory, make a framework of memories, and then pull from that framework when you need to make adaptive decisions,” said Sehgal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-role-of-dendrites">Critical role of dendrites</h2>



To test whether these dendritic branches were really causing the linking effect, the team used a method called optogenetics. This technique lets scientists control <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-emotions-linked-to-unique-brain-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain activity</a> using light. 



The experts reactivated the exact dendritic branches that had been used during one memory and found that doing so could link it to another, unrelated memory.



This confirmed the critical role that dendrites play in how memories are joined together in our brains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-memory-related-disorders">Understanding memory-related disorders</h2>



This discovery not only changes how we think about memory - it also opens the door to new ways of understanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dementia-was-extremely-rare-in-ancient-times-so-why-is-it-now-so-prevalent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory-related disorders</a>.



If scientists can learn to influence how dendrites work, they may be able to treat conditions where memory formation or linking is impaired.



“Our work not only expands our understanding of how memories are formed but also suggests exciting new possibilities for manipulating higher order memory processes,” said Sehgal. “This could have implications for developing therapies for memory-related conditions such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stopping-alzheimers-before-it-starts-early-treatment-shows-potential/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer’s disease</a>.”



The research marks an important step in decoding the physical structure of memory -and it all starts with the tiny, busy branches inside each brain cell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-memory-storage">Rethinking memory storage</h2>



This study encourages us to rethink how we view memory storage. Instead of seeing each experience as a separate snapshot, it may be more accurate to picture them as parts of a timeline - physically tied together through shared dendritic changes.



This could explain why certain days feel like a continuous stream of events, while others stand alone. 



The findings also suggest that how we mentally group events may depend more on timing than emotional weight. 



With a clearer picture of how the brain organizes information, scientists can better understand what happens when that system begins to fail, such as in age-related cognitive decline.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41593-025-01876-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Neuroscience</a>.



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Why memories close in time feel connected

Have you ever noticed how memories from the same day...

Climate change has long threatened species living in extreme habitats. Emperor penguins, iconic residents of Antarctica, now face a sharper edge of that threat. 



​A team led by scientists at the&nbsp;Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (<a href="https://www.whoi.edu/press-room/news-release/new-study-finds-emperor-penguins-increasingly-threatened-by-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WHOI</a>), along with global collaborators, has revealed new evidence that these birds are more at risk than previously believed.​



The study suggests emperor penguins should no longer be considered “Near Threatened.” Instead, the team recommends reclassifying them as&nbsp;<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320719309899?" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">“Vulnerable” or even “Endangered”</a>. This shift, based on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/22697752/132600320?" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">updated IUCN criteria</a>, highlights an urgent need to reconsider current conservation strategies.



The researchers tailored their study to match the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/just-a-whiff-of-penguin-poop-can-send-krill-into-a-frenzy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">penguins</a>’ deep dependence on stable sea ice and predictable Antarctic conditions. The changing environment now places them on unstable ground.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-threats-to-emperor-penguins">Climate threats to emperor penguins </h2>



Emperor penguins are at significant risk of extinction due to climate change, particularly the rapid loss of Antarctic sea ice, which they depend on for breeding and raising their chicks. 



Studies suggest that if current warming trends continue, more than 90% of emperor penguin colonies could be gone by the end of the century. 



Some projections indicate that major population declines could happen much sooner, potentially within our lifetime.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study </h2>



Published in Biological Conservation, the paper titled Living with Uncertainty presents new tools to predict future risks. The researchers used a cutting-edge method: the Multi-Model Large Ensemble (MMLE) framework.



This approach combines numerous Earth system simulations to capture a fuller picture of possible <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/enhanced-monitoring-of-emperor-penguins-can-help-us-save-them/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental futures</a>.



“This is the first study to integrate natural variability in physical and biological processes and employ a wide range of Earth system and ecological models to account for numerous sources of uncertainty in projecting assessments of future population trajectories,” said Stéphanie Jenouvrier, lead author and senior scientist at WHOI.



“Improved methods for accounting for uncertainties are urgently needed to strengthen assessments of extinction and inform conservation efforts in an uncertain world.”



The framework improves how scientists handle uncertainty in environmental modeling. Instead of relying on a single future scenario, the MMLE considers many outcomes. This change offers deeper insight into extinction risks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-world-is-changing-for-emperor-penguins">The world is changing for emperor penguins</h2>



To build their models, the team used a wide variety of data. These included satellite images of 50 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/african-penguins-have-lost-97-percent-of-their-population/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">penguin colonies</a>, long-term monitoring of chicks and adults, and over a decade of observations of individual birds. The researchers also factored in how colonies move, drawn from genetic and population data.



“There are quantifiable uncertainties in projections of future environmental conditions,” said Jenouvrier. “Incorporating this uncertainty in ecosystem projections allows for a more complete and robust assessment of potential extinction risk.”



This approach blends fieldwork, satellite technology, and ecological theory. It gives conservationists a more grounded look at future risks. Such forecasts help shape stronger policies - especially when dealing with species that live in remote or harsh environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-model-for-future-conservation">A model for future conservation</h2>



Professor Phil Trathan, one of the study’s authors and formerly Head of Conservation Biology at the <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">British Antarctic Survey</a>, emphasized the broader meaning of this research.



“Emperor <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emperor-penguins-are-struggling-to-survive-as-sea-ice-vanishes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">penguins</a> are vital indicators of ecosystem health in the Antarctic, they also help inform us about wider changes in the earth system. Therefore, harnessing robust models that increase our understanding about uncertainty and risk are vital, if we are to better conserve and protect this and other species.”



“Ultimately, humans depend upon the natural world, so developing better projections of the future earth system are essential for ensuring human health and well-being. The tools used in this study should now help us all.”



The combination of modeling tools and diverse data points may set a precedent for future work. Other species in similarly vulnerable habitats may also benefit from these techniques.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-emperor-penguins">Protecting emperor penguins</h2>



The IUCN plays a central role in shaping how species like the emperor penguin are protected. The Red List guides many conservation decisions, often influencing discussions at international levels.



These include forums like the&nbsp;Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (<a href="https://www.ats.aq/e/atcm.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ATCM</a>)&nbsp;and the&nbsp;Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (<a href="https://www.ccamlr.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CCAMLR</a>).​



“The Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting serves as a key forum for decision-making on Antarctic conservation. This new IUCN Red List assessment provides critical scientific support for strengthening protections for emperor penguins under the Antarctic Treaty System,” noted Jenouvrier.



”It also strengthens the case for establishing Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) under the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, particularly in vital regions like the Ross Sea and the Weddell Sea, which could serve as crucial refugia for emperor penguins.” 



With the scientific foundation now laid, the next step lies with policymakers. If taken seriously, this reassessment may not only protect emperor penguins but also influence how we respond to global climate threats across species and continents.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320725000746" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biological Conservation</a>.



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Emperor penguins may disappear in our lifetime

Climate change has long threatened species living in extreme habitats....

In every classroom, on every street, there are teenagers quietly battling depression. It’s a growing crisis, one that does not treat everyone equally. Around the world, depression strikes women twice as often as men. 



This disparity begins not in adulthood but during adolescence. While hormones, social pressure, and life events all play roles, new science is pointing to something deeper - something biological.



A new study published in&nbsp;Biological Psychiatry&nbsp;explores how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-with-chronic-pain-have-high-rates-of-depression-and-anxiety/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain chemistry</a> may drive this gender divide. It focuses on a lesser-known series of chemical reactions in the brain called the "kynurenine pathway."



This pathway has long been studied in adults with depression, but for the first time, scientists have turned their attention to teenagers. The goal was to find out whether differences in this brain chemistry could explain why depression takes root more strongly in adolescent girls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biological-drivers-for-depression">Biological drivers for depression </h2>



Tryptophan breaks into two key products. Kynurenic acid protects the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stress-related-brain-inflammation-linked-to-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain</a>. Quinolinic acid harms it. These chemicals may influence how depression develops. 



The researchers focused on this pathway in teenagers, examining how these brain chemicals differ between boys and girls.​



“Adolescence is a time when many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-adult-depression-linked-to-worse-memory-skills/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">changes occur in the brain</a> and body but we still know very little about the possible biological drivers for depression and how this might affect the difference between teenage boys and girls,“ said Professor Valeria Mondelli from King’s IoPPN.



“Our study indicates the ‘kynurenine pathway’ plays a role in development of depression during the teenage years which may help us to understand why there is a higher incidence amongst girls."



“During adolescence there are a wide range of social and individual factors that influence mental health and by identifying the biological pathways involved we hope we can help build a clearer picture of how we can help teenagers manage depression.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teen-girls-with-a-chemical-imbalance">Teen girls with a chemical imbalance </h2>



The teenagers, aged between 14 and 16, were placed into three distinct groups based on their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/teens-with-problematic-smartphone-use-suffer-from-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mental health</a> profiles: those with low risk of depression, those considered high risk, and those already diagnosed with depression. 



Each group included 50 adolescents, with an equal number of boys and girls. To determine risk levels, the researchers used an assessment developed as part of the IDEA project, which evaluates various psychological and social factors.



The participants were then tracked over a period of three years to observe whether their symptoms improved or remained.



The findings revealed that teens with a high risk of depression or a current diagnosis had lower levels of kynurenic acid, a chemical known to protect the brain. 



This decrease was especially evident among girls, suggesting that an imbalance in the kynurenine pathway may affect them more severely during adolescence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inflammation-and-its-role-in-depression">Inflammation and its role in depression</h2>



The experts also measured proteins that show inflammation. These markers rise during infection or stress. 



The researchers found high inflammation levels linked to more quinolinic acid. This means inflammation could push the kynurenine pathway toward damage.



This pattern appeared only in high-risk or depressed teens. Low-risk teens did not show the same chemical changes. That points to inflammation as a driver of depression’s deeper roots in the brain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-persistent-depression-in-teen-girls">Persistent depression in teen girls</h2>



Three years later, the researchers checked back in. Girls with ongoing depression had more neurotoxic chemicals in their blood. Those who improved had lower levels, suggesting that a long-term <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psilocybin-therapy-offers-hope-for-millions-with-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemical imbalance</a> might slow recovery.



“Our study indicates that the measurement of chemicals involved in the kynurenine pathway could potentially help identify those who at risk of persistent depression, particularly amongst females, as well as inform the approaches we take to providing support,“ said Dr. Naghmeh Nikkheslat, the study’s first author.



“This insight could help develop more targeted support for teenagers with depression through interventions that work in a range of ways on the kynurenine pathway from medication to lifestyle changes such as diet and exercise.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-personalized-support-is-needed">Personalized support is needed</h2>



This research could change how we detect and treat teen depression. Measuring brain-related chemicals may help flag those most at risk. With more data, doctors might offer depression support earlier, especially to girls.



By linking biology to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/millions-of-americans-have-lost-years-of-time-to-poor-mental-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mental health</a>, the study brings new options to the table. It offers hope for more effective, personal care in the teenage years.



Funded by <a href="https://www.mqmentalhealth.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MQ Mental Health Research</a>, the research received support from the <a href="https://www.maudsleybrc.nihr.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NIHR Maudsley Biomedical Research Centre</a>. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.biologicalpsychiatryjournal.com/article/S0006-3223(24)01789-X/fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biological Psychiatry</a>.



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Why teen girls struggle more with depression

In every classroom, on every street, there are teenagers quietly...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

[sendtonews key="qARzJPSabQ-2270617-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

[sendtonews key="qas3EhyI0Y-2220951-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

[sendtonews key="vpljfR2VBX-2560867-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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