Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

The American coastline has always pulled people toward its salt-tinged winds. Now, new work suggests the coastal attraction pays off in extra months of life.



Researchers at <a href="https://www.osu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ohio State University</a> analyzed data from over 66,000 U.S. census tracts to explore how geography affects lifespan. They found that living within 30 miles of an ocean or gulf adds about a year to the national average life expectancy of 78.4 years.



In contrast, people in large urban neighborhoods near rivers or lakes tend to have slightly shorter lifespans. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coastal-waters-boost-health">Coastal waters boost health</h2>



The term blue space describes ocean fronts, bays, rivers, and other visible surface waters. A 2020 review links routine contact with coastal settings to lower <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stress-hormones-rise-during-sleep-to-prepare-your-body-for-the-day/">stress hormones</a>, healthier blood pressure, and better heart rate profiles.



This latest study was led by Jianyong “Jamie” Wu of the College of Public Health at Ohio State. 



“Overall, the coastal residents were expected to live a year or more longer than the 79-year average," said Wu. "Those who lived in more urban areas near inland rivers and lakes were likely to die by about 78 or so.”



Wu's team confirmed that advantage. The gap persisted after the models adjusted for age, race, and income.



“On the other side, pollution, poverty, lack of safe opportunities to be physically active, and an increased risk of flooding are likely drivers of these differences,” noted Yanni Cao, a postdoctoral researcher on the project.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cooler-cleaner-coastal-air">Cooler, cleaner coastal air</h2>



Coastal counties recorded far fewer days above 95°F and lower annual peaks, sparing residents from lethal heatstrokes and heart strain. 



Epidemiologists show that each additional hot day raises cardiovascular mortality by 0.7 percent in older U.S. adults.



Sea breezes also dilute the fine soot that shortens global life expectancy by almost one year. Cleaner air means fewer asthma flares and strokes, two major killers in high-pollution zip codes.



Wildfire smoke compounds the inland burden. Western tracts beside reservoirs logged triple the number of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-smoke-is-an-escalating-public-health-emergency/">heavy smoke days</a> compared to similar seaside towns. This difference aligns closely with the study’s inland life expectancy dip.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-living-near-water-moves-you">Living near water moves you</h2>



Coastal living and living near water nudges people outdoors. A 2024 survey of 1,771 adults found that access to a neighborhood blue space boosted weekly physical activity frequency by 23 percent.



Regular movement trims <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-genetic-test-can-identify-children-who-are-at-risk-of-obesity-well-before-it-occurs/">obesity risk</a> and improves insulin sensitivity, both linked to longer lives.



Ocean edges multiply options, from beach runs to pier fishing. Inland rivers in dense downtowns often lack safe trails or clean swimming spots, blunting the activity bonus.



Coastal roads sit on flatter terrain, easing ambulance response times, while those living in the Rockies contend with steep grades and winter closures. Quick access to trauma centers can make the difference between recovery and early death after strokes or car crashes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lakes-aren-t-always-healthy">Lakes aren’t always healthy</h2>



Not every water view is equal. The Ohio State group saw a negative association between urban inland water and longevity even when lakes exceeded four square miles. 



Industrial runoff, barge traffic, and combined sewer overflows turn some rivers into pollutant sinks, undermining any mental health lift a view might give.



A 2017 review of 35 quantitative studies noted that benefits of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blue-spaces-in-childhood-improve-well-being-later-in-life/">blue space</a> fade when water quality is poor or access is restricted. The finding dovetails with Cao’s observation that inland “blue” often sits behind fences, roads, or rail yards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-city-rivers-hurt-health">City rivers hurt health</h2>



When the team split the map, rural communities near sizable lakes actually gained life months. Lower traffic density, fewer contaminant sources, and abundant fishing spots may explain the switch.



Cities tell another story. High-rise shadows block breezes, sewage outfalls spike bacteria counts after storms, and paved banks leave no room for walking paths. 



Flood risks add mortality pressure. Census tracts with repeated river inundation events showed sharper drops in life expectancy than any other inland water subgroup.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solutions-for-healthier-cities">Solutions for healthier cities</h2>



Public health experts see clear levers. Cleaning <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-impacts-on-waterways-contribute-to-the-climate-crisis/">urban waterways</a>, building continuous waterfront trails, and zoning mixed-income housing near safe beaches could spread coastal-style living gains inland.



A 2025 review across 120 studies concluded that blue-green infrastructure projects lower obesity, anxiety, and all-cause mortality in the surrounding mile.



Local governments can also map cooling corridors that funnel sea breezes deeper inland and reduce sealing of riverbanks so floods dissipate in parks rather than homes. They can also subsidize transit lines that bring lower-income families to swimmable coasts.



These steps echo Healthy People 2030, targets aimed at cutting geographic health gaps.



Life expectancy is climbing again after a pandemic slump, reaching 78.4 years in 2023 per the CDC. Wu’s data suggest that widening the nation’s access to clean, safe blue space could push that figure higher.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0013935125012320">Environmental Research</a>.



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Coastal living linked to longer lifespans

The American coastline has always pulled people toward its salt-tinged...

Aging is usually viewed as an inexorable march forward - each day etched onto our DNA in the form of subtle chemical marks. Yet new research from the University of Leicester reports that one glittering insect can press “pause” on that process early in life and enjoy a slower biological clock thereafter.



Jewel <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parasitic-wasp-had-a-flytrap-for-snatching-its-victims/">wasps</a> (Nasonia vitripennis), famed for their metallic sheen, enter a hibernation‑like state as larvae when their mothers experience cold and darkness. 



That developmental pause, called <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-development-has-a-pause-button/">diapause</a>, not only extends the adult insects’ lifespan by roughly one‑third; it also slows molecular aging by almost 30 percent.



“It’s like the wasps who took a break early in life came back with extra time in the bank,” said senior author Eamonn Mallon of Leicester’s <a href="https://le.ac.uk/ggb" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Genetics, Genomics and Cancer Sciences</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tiny-model-for-aging">A tiny model for aging</h2>



Most renowned invertebrate models - think <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-on-treadmills-video-shows-how-insects-walk-and-balance/">fruit flies</a> or nematode worms - lack a DNA methylation system comparable to humans. 



Jewel wasps do possess such a system, making them rare among insects and highly valuable to aging researchers. 



They also live only a few weeks as adults, allowing scientists to track entire lifespans quickly.



“Understanding how and why aging happens is a major scientific challenge,” Mallon said. “With its genetic tools, measurable aging markers, and clear link between development and lifespan, Nasonia vitripennis is now a rising star in aging research.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unlocking-the-aging-clock">Unlocking the aging clock</h2>



Aging leaves molecular fingerprints known as methyl groups on DNA, and the accumulation of those marks forms an “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/epigenetic-dna-clocks-predict-biological-age-more-accurately/">epigenetic clock</a>” that is among the most accurate indicators of biological age.



Doctoral student Erin Foley and colleagues wondered: if you slow development itself, does the clock slow, too? To test the idea, the team exposed adult female wasps to low temperature and darkness before egg‑laying. 



Those conditions reliably induce diapause in offspring, halting larval growth for several weeks.



When the chilled larvae resumed development and emerged as adults, the scientists measured their chronological life expectancy. The team also used sophisticated methylation profiling to gauge biological age.



The diapause group lived more than 33 percent longer than control wasps raised under standard conditions. More strikingly, their epigenetic clocks “ticked” 29 percent more slowly, indicating genuine deceleration of intrinsic aging processes rather than a mere delay in development.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-wasps-to-humans">From wasps to humans</h2>



The team’s molecular deep dive uncovered changes in gene networks tied to insulin signaling and nutrient sensing. 



These are hallmark pathways implicated in human aging and targeted by candidate anti-aging drugs such as metformin and rapamycin.



What sets this study apart is its demonstration that a long-lasting slowdown of aging can be triggered by environmental factors in a model that is both straightforward and highly applicable to human biology. 



In other words, the jewel wasp’s larval pause does not merely stretch youthful vigor; it tweaks biochemical circuits that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protein-changes-discovered-protect-humans-mammals-from-aging/">mammals</a> share.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slowing-time-not-stopping">Slowing time, not stopping</h2>



Many animals - from nematodes to bears - can enter dormant states that stall metabolism. But evidence that benefits persist after normal life resumes has been scarce. 



The new findings fill that gap, showing that early‑life environmental cues can confer durable protection against the ravages of time.



That discovery dovetails with human epidemiological data suggesting prenatal nutrition or childhood stress can influence disease risk decades later. 



Jewel wasps now offer a manipulable platform to dissect those cause‑and‑effect chains at molecular resolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slowing-aging-in-ourselves">Slowing aging in ourselves</h2>



The work does not imply that humans will one day diapause their way to 150. It does, however, spotlight developmental windows when environmental interventions might produce lifelong benefits.



Because the wasps’ slowed clocks involve insulin and nutrient pathways, the study strengthens efforts to modulate those same pathways pharmacologically or through diet. 



Moreover, the precise methylation changes identified could guide biomarker discovery in mammals.



Mallon envisions future projects that compare diapause‑induced methylation patterns with those produced by calorie restriction or drug treatments in mice. If common signatures emerge, they could signal a universal lever for aging control.



“This study opens up new avenues for research into the broader question of whether we might one day design interventions to slow aging at its molecular roots,” said Mallon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-aging-in-wasps">Testing aging in wasps</h2>



The research team reared parent wasps under either normal light and temperature or a cold‑dark regime. Offspring from the latter entered diapause for four to six weeks.



Scientists tracked adult survival and used DNA sequencing over time to map methylation changes after the animals emerged. Statistical models then compared epigenetic age trajectories between groups.



Future experiments will probe whether diapause must occur at a specific larval stage to confer aging benefits or whether adult diapause (possible in some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-are-uniquely-adapted-to-withstand-harsh-winter-climates/">insects</a>) offers similar protection.



Another avenue is gene editing. Researchers knock out or overexpress key insulin-pathway genes to see if molecular clocks speed or slow independent of diapause.



Such tests will clarify whether the pause itself or downstream metabolism drives the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-transfer-longevity-gene-hoping-to-extend-human-lifespan/">longevity</a> dividend.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wasp-study-changes-thinking">Wasp study changes thinking</h2>



From a practical standpoint, the jewel wasp teaches that aging is plastic - modifiable by early environments and perhaps by later interventions that mimic those conditions. 



Slowing an epigenetic clock shows that environmental factors can delay aging in a simple animal relevant to human biology. 



In short, pausing development today could mean a longer tomorrow - not just for jewel wasps, but for the future of aging science.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2513020122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Wasps might hold the secret to slow human aging

Aging is usually viewed as an inexorable march forward -...

Most of us know the sinking feeling that comes when we no longer feel motivated - after a stalled diet, an abandoned New Year’s resolution, or a half‑assembled piece of flat‑pack furniture gathering dust in the corner.



When progress stalls, the temptation to quit can be powerful - especially if we have already spent good money on specialized meal plans, coaching videos, or fancy tools.



A new study led by scholars at <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> suggests a simple mindset shift can rescue <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/streaks-can-be-a-powerful-tool-for-motivation/">motivation</a>: focus on the hours you have invested rather than the dollars you have spent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-time-versus-money">Testing time versus money</h2>



The project builds on a long line of psychological work showing that people perform best when they feel autonomy, competence, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experiences-not-things-are-key-to-deeper-social-connection/">social connection</a>. Failure chips away at those feelings, reducing what psychologists call self‑determination.



Marketing researchers Subimal Chatterjee and Debjit Gupta wondered whether emphasizing the type of investment - time versus money - would change how people react to setbacks.



Their hunch: time‑focused thinkers would persevere longer because they perceive their efforts as self‑improvement, whereas money‑focused thinkers would feel the pinch of wasted cash and give up sooner.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consistent-effects-on-motivation">Consistent effects on motivation</h2>



The team first surveyed more than 600 working professionals about personal goals that had hit a roadblock. Some respondents were prompted to reflect on the money they had poured into their pursuit; others were nudged to think about the time they had spent.



A second study had the same group imagine failing twice and report how motivated they felt to try again. Finally, the researchers replicated the design with 75 Taiwanese undergraduates who had recently flunked an exam.



Across all studies, the pattern held. Framing effort as hours and learning kept persistence and self-determination high, even after two consecutive setbacks. In contrast, those who tallied their cash outlay reported sharp drops in motivation after failing twice. 



Interestingly, after participants had stumbled three or more times, the difference between the two mindsets narrowed. By that point, repeated defeat seemed to sap confidence no matter how the initial investment was framed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spending-time-not-money">Spending time, not money</h2>



Chatterjee explained why the distinction matters: “You can go to coaching classes, you can buy books, you can buy videos. But when you do that, you expect to accomplish your goal. And when you don’t, you get extremely demotivated.”



But on the other hand, noted Chatterjee, if you spend less money, but more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nature-experiences-alter-time-perception/">time</a>, and think about how you’re doing this to improve yourself, that gets you into a more persistent mindset.



“Think about how, with any sort of health rehabilitation program, after you get hurt and have to get help from a chiropractor or other healthcare professional. There’s a monetary cost that goes along with obtaining that help," said Gupta.



“But you could also think of it as spending time improving and taking better care of yourself. You might not get better in a week; you might not achieve your objectives right away."



The upshot, Chatterjee said, is that it’s all about intrinsic motivation, something that comes from within, and if you really decide to learn. "Then this notion of time versus money becomes especially important.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-money-feels-like-loss">Money feels like loss</h2>



The researchers argue that money triggers a feeling of external control: people expect a clear return on a financial outlay. Fail twice, and it feels as though the cash was wasted.



Time, by contrast, is more easily reframed as personal growth. Hours spent studying or practicing still yield intangible benefits - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/optimal-decision-making-is-a-balance-of-experience-and-knowledge/">knowledge</a>, skill, resilience - even if the immediate goal remains unmet. That internal payoff protects self‑determination and fuels another attempt.



For anyone embarking on a challenging project - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/children-are-much-better-at-learning-language-than-ai/">learning a language</a>, training for a marathon, or tackling a certification exam - the research offers a practical takeaway.



When setbacks hit, focus on time spent learning and growing - not the money lost on subscriptions or tools. By rewiring the narrative to emphasize time and growth, you prime your mind to stay the course.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-businesses-and-marketers"><a></a>Lessons for businesses and marketers</h2>



The findings also carry weight for companies selling do‑it‑yourself products, online courses, or fitness programs.



“By including subtle, positively‑framed messages along with whatever marketers are selling can allow people to experience a greater level of persistence,” Gupta said.



“Having to try again after it didn’t work the first time wouldn’t mean a wasted effort. It would just be that you’re more likely to have a better handle on things the second time around.” 



Campaigns that spotlight the hours of enjoyment, community support, or personal enrichment a product facilitates - rather than its price tag - could foster customer loyalty and higher completion rates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-time-motivates-in-the-workplace">Time motivates in the workplace</h2>



Inside organizations, the same principle may help employees bounce back from missing a promotion or failing to meet a quarterly target. 



If managers encourage staff to value the experience and skills gained during the process, morale may remain resilient.



For public health officials designing rehabilitation or weight-loss initiatives, framing participation as an investment of time in oneself could boost adherence. This approach may be especially effective for individuals with limited economic resources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-mindset-that-motivates">A mindset that motivates</h2>



Goals falter for many reasons, but motivation often evaporates fastest when people feel they have squandered resources. 



This research shows that the most precious resource - time - can also be the most empowering when we choose to see it as self‑development rather than sacrifice.



The next time your resolution wobbles or your side project stalls, tally the minutes you have banked, not the dollars you have burned. That simple accounting switch might be the nudge that keeps you moving forward.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.emerald.com/jcm/article-abstract/doi/10.1108/JCM-05-2023-6026/1251798/Trying-but-failing-the-role-of-time-and-money-in?redirectedFrom=fulltext">Journal of Consumer Marketing</a>.



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Want to stay motivated? Focus on time, not money

Most of us know the sinking feeling that comes when...

Two groups of Neanderthals who camped just 43 mi apart in northern Israel left behind piles of butchered bones that look nothing alike. Yet both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-and-neanderthals-species-face-structure-evolved-differently/">groups</a> hunted the same gazelles and fallow deer, shaped the same flint flakes, and cooked beside the same kinds of hearths.



“The subtle differences in cut mark patterns between Amud and Kebara may reflect local traditions of animal carcass processing,” said <a href="https://archaeology.huji.ac.il/people/ana%C3%ABlle-jaolln" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Anaëlle Jallon</a>, a PhD candidate at the <a href="https://en.huji.ac.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hebrew University of Jerusalem</a> and lead author of the new <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fearc.2025.1575572" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neanderthals-butchery-styles">Neanderthals' butchery styles</h2>



Forty percent of the animal bones at <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Amud-anthropological-and-archaeological-site-Israel" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Amud cave</a> are scorched, while only 9 percent show burning at <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Kebara" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kebara cave</a>, a contrast the researchers recorded in more than 11,000 catalogued fragments. 



Burned bone shatters easily, and at Amud most pieces were under one square inch, yet they bristle with dense, overlapping cut marks that sometimes crisscross like city streets.



The average piece spans several square inches, and its knife scars run long and straight, rarely intersecting. Kebara fragments tell a calmer story.



Both kitchens sat within the Middle Paleolithic Mediterranean woodlands, where gazelles roamed year round and larger aurochs grazed the valley floor. 



Stable isotope <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0047248415000755" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> shows Neanderthals there pivoted diets as climate swung, a talent shared across Eurasia.



Yet the Amud team rarely hauled full grown aurochs back to camp, focusing on smaller game that could be carried whole. Kebara hunters, in contrast, often lugged large carcasses home before filleting them inside the cave.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-neanderthal-butchery">Measuring Neanderthal butchery</h2>



Jallon’s team zoomed a 3D surface microscope over 936 Amud incisions and 736 Kebara grooves. Most shared the same V shaped profile, confirming that both groups wielded similar flint points.



Still, the metrics diverged. Amud marks averaged 1.9 mm long but crammed onto tiny chips, producing ten cuts per square centimeter. Kebara’s averaged 3.4 mm yet only 1.6 cuts per square centimeter.



Opening angles on Amud cuts ran wider, and their floors splayed into broader arcs. Those shapes usually form when a blade bites repeatedly at different angles rather than slicing clean in one stroke.



Fire may explain part of the difference. Repeated roasting can dry collagen, making bone more brittle and forcing butchers to hack rather than glide their tools.



Amud hearths cluster near the living surface and show layers of ash glued together by rainwash, hinting at frequent burning of refuse. Kebara’s hearths sit in discrete lenses, and many bone fragments lay untouched by flame, suggesting faster cleanup or cooler cooking.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neanderthal-butchery-shaped-by-tradition">Neanderthal butchery shaped by tradition</h2>



Experimental work finds novices leave shallow, chaotic cuts, but Amud grooves run deep and regular, ruling out clumsiness. Technique, not talent, separates the two butcheries.&nbsp;



“Even though Neanderthals at these two sites shared similar living conditions and faced comparable challenges, they seem to have developed distinct butchery strategies,” noted Jallon. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/neanderthal-butchery_fossil-bone-specimens_different-groups_credit-Frontiers_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/neanderthal-butchery_fossil-bone-specimens_different-groups_credit-Frontiers_1s.webp" alt="Alicona images (10× lens) of specimens from Amud (A, B) and Kebara (C, D), with examples of the associated profile diagrams showing the variables measured at the mid-point of the cut-marks studied, with: in (B2), the width of the incision on the surface (WIS), the depth of the incision (D), the opening angle of the incision (OA); in (D2), the floor radius (Rd) of the incision. Note: due to the difference in scale between the X- and Y-axes, the circle used to calculate the floor radius (Rd) appears elliptical. Credit: Frontiers" class="wp-image-1979754"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Alicona images (10× lens) of specimens from Amud (A, B) and Kebara (C, D), with examples of the associated profile diagrams showing the variables measured at the mid-point of the cut-marks studied, with: in (B2), the width of the incision on the surface (WIS), the depth of the incision (D), the opening angle of the incision (OA); in (D2), the floor radius (Rd) of the incision. Note: due to the difference in scale between the X- and Y-axes, the circle used to calculate the floor radius (Rd) appears elliptical. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Frontiers</figcaption></figure>



Instead, the team proposes social learning: each group copied elders, handing down rules about how long meat could hang, who wielded blades, and where to slice. 



One idea is meat aging. If Amud <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-link-autism-to-neanderthal-dna-genetic-variants-found-in-modern-humans/">hunters</a> dried or left carcasses to ripen, the toughened tissue would need more short, forceful strokes, exactly what the bones record.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-groups-stayed-apart">Groups stayed apart</h2>



Despite the short distance between Amud and Kebara, there's no direct evidence the groups ever interacted. Researchers cannot confirm whether the caves were used simultaneously or separated by centuries.



Even so, the consistent cut mark style within each cave over multiple occupation layers hints that each group may have returned seasonally, preserving their own traditions across <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthal-evolution-was-more-complex-than-previously-thought/">generations</a>. 



This long-term stability suggests that Neanderthal groups maintained cultural identities even without obvious borders or physical barriers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-differences-in-neanderthal-butchery">Cultural differences in Neanderthal butchery</h2>



The findings join a growing list of cave to cave quirks that paint Neanderthals as flexible, creative foragers rather than a single gray mass. 



Previous <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2025/jul/17/even-neanderthals-had-distinct-preferences-when-it-came-to-making-dinner-study-suggests" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> shows Levantine clans favored gazelles over deer even when both stood in sight, a preference that likely mixed taste, risk, and tradition.



Other studies spot regional styles in stone tool trimming, birch tar glue, and pigment use. Cut mark signatures now add food prep to the cultural toolkit, filling a daily life gap between hunting and eating.



Was Amud’s smoky workspace a seasonal smokehouse run by a few specialists, or a crowded hearth where many hands joined in? 



Did Kebara cooks trim meat fast to dodge cave dwelling hyenas outside, or to feed a larger band waiting inside?



Jallon hopes that chemical traces of drying or aging, microscopic wear on knife edges, and new isotopic snapshots of collagen breakdown can test these ideas. 



Nearby sites such as Ein Qashish carry similar fauna and may reveal whether butcher signatures match either <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tinshemet-cave-discovery-neanderthals-early-humans-sharing-and-complex-interactions/">cave</a> or map onto new patterns.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fearc.2025.1575572" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Environmental Archaeology</a>.



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Each Neanderthal community had their own food culture and butchery traditions

Two groups of Neanderthals who camped just 43 mi apart...

Dogs are hardly passive couch potatoes, yet many will pause mid play to glance at a flickering screen. A new survey now puts a number on that gaze, showing the average household dog spends about 14 minutes and 8 seconds each day actually watching television.



The work was led by animal behavior researcher Lane Montgomery of Auburn University, who, with colleagues, asked more than 650 owners to log every tail twitch, bark, or stare during TV time. 



Their final sample of 453 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-puppy-day-2025-where-happiness-meets-responsibility/">dogs</a> formed the backbone of the “Dog Television Viewing Scale” that underpins the study’s findings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-dogs-watch-on-television">What dogs watch on television</h2>



Excitable dogs tracked fast moving objects across the screen with surprising intensity, almost as if the ball or squirrel were zipping across the living room wall. 



Fearful or anxious <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/do-dogs-actually-judge-people-its-not-as-simple-as-we-thought/">dogs</a>, by contrast, reacted more to non animal cues such as car horns or a recorded doorbell, hinting at a sensitivity to sudden, potentially alarming sounds.



Owners rated each pet’s temperament using standard Positive and Negative Activation Scale (<a href="https://ogg.osu.edu/media/documents/MB%20Stream/PANAS.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PNAS</a>) questions, and high excitement scores neatly aligned with more “follow” behaviors, while high negative activation lined up with responses to inanimate or human noises. 



These links suggest that personality, not breed, age, or sex, best predicts which scenes will grip a given dog.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-dogs-see-television-images">How dogs see television images </h2>



The dog brain can treat a moving two dimensional image as if it were a real object, a skill first demonstrated when pets obeyed commands delivered via video as readily as those given by a live trainer. 



That early <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.0179-1613.2003.00923.x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> set the stage for later work showing dogs anticipate where an on screen ball will re-appear after it rolls behind a barrier, a behavior called “anticipatory looking.”



Those cognitive feats depend on visual hardware that processes images at a higher flicker fusion rate than the human eye, meaning modern high refresh rate TVs finally look smooth to dogs rather than like a strobe. 



Such technical <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0376635716303400?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">details</a> help explain why today’s flat panels engage pets more effectively than the cathode ray tubes of the past, which often appeared flickery to canine viewers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-anxious-dogs-and-television-sounds">Anxious dogs and television sounds</h2>



Noise matters at least as much as motion. In a recent survey, only 15 percent of noise sensitive dogs reacted to visuals, but many startled at bangs or whistles piped through the speakers.



Montgomery’s team found a similar pattern: nervous dogs turned their heads when a TV car horn blared, while confident, playful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-dogs-replacing-children-how-modern-society-is-changing/">dogs</a> mostly ignored it. 



The result aligns with clinical observations that sudden, sharp noises are a common trigger for canine anxiety, whether the source is fireworks outside or surround sound inside.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-television-can-calm-shelter-dogs">Television can calm shelter dogs</h2>



Shelters have experimented with television as enrichment, yet results have been mixed because not every dog engages. 



Knowing that high excitement dogs track moving figures could help staff pick programs featuring slow pans for timid residents and gentle motion for energetic ones, maximizing benefit while avoiding overstimulation.



Research on visual enrichment devices shows cortisol levels drop only when the content matches the animal’s interest, so a one size fits all playlist rarely works. 



Tailoring videos to personality profiles derived from the new scale could turn idle screen time into an inexpensive welfare boost for thousands of kenneled dogs each year.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tv-made-for-dogs-works-better">TV made for dogs works better</h2>



“DOGTV does that because of the way in which it enriches the space the dogs spend their time,” explained veterinarian David Haworth, a board member for the channel. Specialized networks such as DOGTV already tune colors, frame rates, and sound frequencies to canine preferences.&nbsp;



The new study offers hard data these producers can use, confirming that scenes rich in conspecific calls and clear animal silhouettes elicit the strongest reactions from typical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-may-respond-to-each-other-through-blinking/">pets</a>. 



Conversely, clips heavy on traffic sounds may suit anxious dogs only if the goal is desensitization rather than relaxation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tv-can-help-train-dogs">TV can help train dogs</h2>



Owners trying to curb barking at the screen should first note which stimuli set their dog off, then mute or pause similar cues to prevent rehearsal of the unwanted behavior. 



For excitable dogs that lunge at animated squirrels, distance from the set and cue controlled exposure can teach calm viewing without removing the enrichment entirely.



Trainers also leverage the screen as a controlled setting for practicing impulse control: a paused video of a cat can become the “sit and stay” homework before the action resumes as a reward. 



Because the average daily viewing span is short, two or three focused sessions are usually enough to work on problem responses without overloading the dog.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tv-habits-show-how-dogs-think">TV habits show how dogs think</h2>



Montgomery’s findings may even aid neuroscientists, who rely on video clips in fMRI scanners to probe how dogs perceive faces, objects, and motion. 



Knowing which personalities will stay still for a projected movie could streamline subject selection and improve data quality.



The study also touches on the broader question of picture object recognition, a hot topic in comparative psychology. 



If dogs categorize on screen animals separately from cars, yet still anticipate motion, they might maintain flexible mental models that shift between two and three dimensional contexts with ease.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-06580-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Most dogs will binge-watch TV all day, if given the opportunity

Dogs are hardly passive couch potatoes, yet many will pause...

What if scientists could grow tiny versions of the human brain, not just to observe them, but to uncover how disorders like autism or schizophrenia begin? With the help of cutting-edge technology, researchers are now recreating the earliest stages of brain development outside the womb using brain organoids.



Researchers at Johns Hopkins University (<a href="https://www.jhu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JHU</a>) have developed these "mini brains," a breakthrough in brain modeling that could reveal the origins of neurological diseases. 



By mimicking the brain's regions and blood vessels, scientists hope to improve their understanding of how these neurological conditions develop.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-organoids-mimic-early-brain-development">Brain organoids mimic early brain development</h2>



To understand how <a href="https://www.who.int/news/item/14-03-2024-over-1-in-3-people-affected-by-neurological-conditions--the-leading-cause-of-illness-and-disability-worldwide" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurological diseases</a> and conditions develop, scientists have created simplified versions of the brain called brain organoids. 



These are three-dimensional tissue cultures that grow from stem cells and replicate the structure and function of the brain. 



More recently, they have developed <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36634089/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain assembloids</a>, which are fusions of multiple brain organoids. They combine organoids representing different parts of the brain, such as the cortex, midbrain, and hindbrain.



Earlier models had several drawbacks. These limitations made it difficult to capture fully how the brain develops in the womb.&nbsp;



To address these gaps in previous studies, the researchers from Johns Hopkins University developed Multi-Region Brain Organoids (MRBOs). 



MRBOs are new-generation “mini brains” that accurately reflect the development and functioning of the <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9224903/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fetal brain</a>. 



They are created by combining brain organoids of the cerebrum, midbrain, and hindbrain, with blood vessel structures in the form of <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7116578/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">endothelial organoids</a>. 



It was found that in MRBOs, each area-specific organoid maintains a unique identity, just like in the developing human brain. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-did-earlier-brain-models-miss">What did earlier brain models miss?</h2>



Before MRBOs, researchers relied on brain assembloids that lacked one important feature: blood vessels across multiple brain regions.



Most studies did add blood vessel cells, called endothelial cells, but only to the cortex region of the brain model. These cells allowed for the formation of blood vessel-like structures, but in the cortex region alone.&nbsp;



The researchers faced yet another challenge. For the studies, isolated blood vessel cells from the umbilical veins, called human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs), were used.&nbsp;



However, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28383141/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HUVECs</a> do not accurately represent the endothelial cells found in the brain, which are composed of a variety of specialized cell types. 



This limitation prompted the team to develop a more precise and brain-relevant model of blood vessels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-endothelial-organoids-for-best-mimicry">Endothelial organoids for best mimicry</h2>



This was the point where endothelial organoids came into action. An endothelial organoid is a lab-grown, three-dimensional model that mimics real blood vessels.&nbsp;



These structures contain multiple cell types, including vascular progenitors, mature endothelial pericytes, proliferating angiogenic cells, and stromal cells. This closely mimics the natural blood vessel environment of the brain.



Interestingly, recent studies have shown that endothelial cells marked by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD31" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CD31 protein</a> can naturally arise in cerebral organoids. This is possible when bioreactors and microfluidic systems are used. 



The biomechanical tools maintain low shear stress, allowing gentle and low-pressure movement of the fluid that mimics natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/skydiving-salamanders-can-fully-control-blood-flow-in-their-toes/">blood flow</a>. This encourages brain organoids to grow endothelial cells on their own.



These systems show the role of biomechanics in vascular differentiation. But they will only work when the organoid involves a single region of the brain. 



Unlike MRBOs, these models do not incorporate the multicellular endothelial structure of blood vessels, which is a key feature of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-simple-solutions-appeal-to-the-human-brain/">normal brain</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-and-blood-vessels-grow-together">Brain and blood vessels grow together</h2>



In human fetal development, the endothelial and neural systems develop side by side. The two systems communicate with each other constantly, and endothelial-derived signals guide the growth, identity, and organization of&nbsp;different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-specialized-regions-develop-in-the-brain/">brain areas</a>.



These interactions are critical and should be considered while creating brain models to study neurological diseases. Ignoring them would not provide a complete picture of the development of neurological diseases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mrbos-and-complex-brain-disorders">MRBOs and complex brain disorders</h2>



The unique feature of MRBOs is that they include tissue types from the three main areas of the brain and are supplied with blood vessels. 



This allows scientists to explore the highly complex functions of the brain and assess the effects of environmental factors, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-human-genetics-could-optimize-medical-care/">genetics</a>, and therapy on neurodevelopment.



Most importantly, "mini brains" could help explain the mechanisms involved in the development of some neurological disorders, such as schizophrenia, autism spectrum disorder and bipolar disorder.



MRBOs may allow researchers to observe how abnormal development in specific brain regions leads to disorders like schizophrenia or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/autism-diagnoses-have-almost-tripled-in-the-us-over-the-past-ten-years/">autism</a>. 



Understanding these mechanisms will pave the way for earlier diagnosis, better treatment, and the development of effective preventive strategies.  



The full study was published in <a href="https://advanced.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/advs.202503768" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Advanced Science</a>.



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'Mini-brains' created in the lab to help fight neurological diseases

What if scientists could grow tiny versions of the human...

Many people experience relationships that bring more stress than happiness. These strained relationships can influence aging and speed up the aging process. 



Psychologists have long known that strong social ties affect how long we live. One review even suggests that social isolation affects mortality as much as obesity or lack of exercise.



Quality of relationships matters as much as quantity. In 2012, researchers at the <a href="https://www.google.com/search?client=safari&amp;rls=en&amp;q=University+of+Utah&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;oe=UTF-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Utah</a> found that “frenemies” - ambivalent relationships - may shorten telomeres faster. 



These chromosome caps shorten naturally with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-aging-how-some-people-live-past-100-years/">age</a> and are linked to diseases such as heart disease.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-stress-changes-your-body">How stress changes your body</h2>



Byungkyu Lee at <a href="https://www.nyu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York University</a> and colleagues used DNA methylation marks to measure aging. These tiny chemical changes influence how genes work. “As we <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-are-experimenting-with-new-approach-to-fight-and-stop-human-aging-necrosis/">age</a>, the pattern of these marks shifts in predictable ways,” said Lee.



The study involved 2,232 people who provided saliva samples for epigenetic testing. Participants also described their relationships, answering questions like, “How often has X hassled you, caused problems, or made life difficult?” 



Anyone who answered “occasionally” or “often” was labeled a “hassler.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stressful-relationships-age-you-faster">Stressful relationships age you faster</h2>



Over half the participants had at least one hassler in their network. “Over half of adults report having at least one hassler among their closest contacts,” said Lee.



Each hassler was associated with 0.5 percent faster biological aging. This means affected individuals were, on average, 2.5 months biologically older than their chronological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organ-aging-can-predict-diseases-decades-in-advance/">age</a>.



The latest research shows that when hasslers make up more than 50 percent of a person’s network, the acceleration of aging is even greater. Ambivalent hasslers, those who both provide support and cause stress, have the strongest impact.



Purely negative ties, in contrast, seem less harmful because people can distance themselves from these relationships.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stress-harms-mind-and-body">Stress harms mind and body</h2>



Negative ties may increase chronic stress, which raises inflammation and disrupts immune function. This persistent stress can elevate cortisol and other hormones, damaging health over time. 



Lee’s team found higher levels of inflammation and epigenetic dysregulation in those with many hasslers, showing how relationships directly affect the body’s biological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/defying-time-three-ways-to-slow-biological-aging/">systems</a>.



The effects extend beyond aging markers. People with more hasslers report worse general, physical, and mental health. They also have higher anxiety and depression scores and more chronic conditions like cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and sleep problems. 



Negative ties are linked with higher waist-to-hip ratios, increased BMI, and more multimorbidity. These strained relationships can weaken resilience, make illnesses harder to recover from, and even reduce overall life expectancy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-group-relationships-help">Group relationships help </h2>



Alex Haslam from the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Queensland</a> believes group belonging can outweigh the impact of a few negative ties. 



“For example, if I am a member of a book club or a choir, it will be my identification with the group as a whole that affects my health, not how well I get on with its individual members."



The complexity of ambivalent relationships makes them particularly damaging. Unpredictable relationships cause ongoing mental and physiological strain. 



People may not be able to avoid these ties, especially when they involve family or long-term friends.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fixing-relationships-can-slow-age">Fixing relationships can slow age</h2>



Negative relationships, especially those that shift between support and criticism, act as powerful chronic stressors. These ties trigger the body’s stress systems repeatedly, raising cortisol and inflammation, which can speed up biological aging and damage overall health. 



Unlike purely negative relationships that people can often avoid, ambivalent ties are harder to escape because they also provide emotional support. This unpredictability makes them particularly harmful, causing continuous psychological strain and physiological wear.



To improve health and slow aging, it is not enough to address loneliness or cut off overtly harmful ties. Future interventions should help people identify and manage ambivalent relationships while strengthening positive, supportive connections. 



Programs that teach conflict resolution, set boundaries, and encourage healthier communication could reduce the toll these complex relationship ties take. 



By focusing on both reducing relationship strain and nurturing trust-based social networks, we can promote better mental and physical well-being and healthier aging across the lifespan.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2025.05.23.25328261v2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">medRxiv</a>.



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Negative relationships linked to faster aging at the cellular level

Many people experience relationships that bring more stress than happiness....

Our usual understanding of sleep starts with the brain and ends with the mattress, yet new evidence points to a far smaller arena. Two hundredths of a millimeter below the surface of a nerve cell, the mitochondria may be counting the minutes we stay awake, then ordering the lights out.



A team working with Drosophila melanogaster shows that the same organelles that churn out ATP, the cell’s energy coin, can also flip the neural switch that starts <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-quality-could-be-the-key-to-better-metabolic-health/">sleep</a>. The work was led by Gero Miesenböck of the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mitochondria-track-sleep-need">Mitochondria track sleep need</h2>



Sleep need, or sleep pressure, has long seemed mysterious because no clear molecule tells the brain when enough is enough. 



The new study finds that after prolonged wakefulness, sleep-inducing neurons turn up genes for mitochondrial respiration, hinting that an energy backlog is their signal.



Those neurons sit in the fly’s dorsal fan-shaped body, a known sleep center. As their mitochondria keep running while the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-prepares-the-brain-for-the-future-while-protecting-memories-of-the-past/">cells</a> are quiet, electrons spill from the respiratory chain, forming reactive oxygen species that damage nearby lipids.



When these unstable molecules pile up, the only fix is to shut the system down, explained Miesenböck. What this study has revealed is that the sleep homeostat is actually looking at its own mitochondria to estimate the need for sleep, he adds.



The group saw that letting the flies sleep again restored mitochondrial shape and function. That rapid bounce-back suggests repair, not exhaustion, is the goal of the pause.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fly-tests-show-sleep-signals">Fly tests show sleep signals</h2>



The Oxford team kept half their flies awake by gently shaking them or warming cells that promote arousal, actions that do not harm the insects. Both methods produced identical mitochondrial stress signatures, bolstering the link to wake time rather than injury.



Fragmented mitochondria were a red flag. Flies whose <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-night-of-lost-sleep-can-trigger-hidden-health-issues/">sleep</a> neurons carried these “shattered” organelles slept less and failed to catch up later.



When the researchers forced the organelles to fuse, essentially improving their self-repair toolkit, flies slept more and mounted a stronger rebound after deprivation.



A clever optogenetic twist turned the mitochondria themselves into a sleep lever. By engineering a light-activated proton pump into the organelles, one hour of green light lengthened sleep by roughly 25 percent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stress-in-cells-triggers-sleep">Stress in cells triggers sleep</h2>



Cell biologists have known for years that electron leak rises whenever the demand for ATP drops, yet the supply keeps flowing. The fly results echo earlier work showing that ROS build-up after forced wakefulness can kill rodents unless the stress is quenched.



The brain appears to treat that oxidative trickle as a countdown. Once a threshold is crossed, sleep neurons fire, the animal rests, and antioxidant defenses patch the membrane lipids.



Other research in mammals supports the idea. A 2023 review calls mitochondrial redox shifts the heart of a homeostatic sleep-regulatory mechanism.



Even the lipid <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5742555/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phosphatidic acid</a>, which helps merge mitochondrial membranes, affects sleep. Studies show that lowering this lipid hampers fusion and shortens sleep in flies, fitting earlier biochemical models that tie the molecule to healthy mitochondrial dynamics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-similarities-between-flies-and-humans">Similarities between flies and humans</h2>



Fruit flies are simple, but their mitochondrial proteins look much like ours. Ryan Mailloux of McGill University, who was not involved in the study, noted that the findings provide novel opportunities to target these pathways and come up with new, effective ways to treat <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-particular-sleep-stage-slow-wave-deep-is-most-important-for-preventing-dementia/">sleep</a> problems.



Fatigue is already recognized as one of the most common complaints among patients with primary mitochondrial disease. That clinical link strengthens the case that mitochondrial distress can translate directly into a felt need for rest.



Work in mice adds another layer: when mitochondria in appetite-boosting AgRP neurons are forced to fuse, the animals eat more; when the organelles fragment, hunger subsides. The parallel between energy balance and sleep hints at a shared metabolic sensor.



“Keeping animals awake itself may add stress unrelated to natural wakefulness,” said Michele Bellesi of the <a href="https://international.unicam.it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Camerino</a>. 



Critics like Bellesi raise caveats, but the Oxford group counters that multiple, gentle methods produced the same mitochondrial signature, suggesting the effect is genuine sleep pressure, not generic stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mitochondria-may-help-sleep-issues">Mitochondria may help sleep issues</h2>



If mitochondrial redox state is the clock, then drugs that tweak electron flow might reset it. Uncouplers that let protons leak, for example, relieved sleep need in flies by draining excess electrons.



Any practical therapy must be precise. Broad uncoupling in humans would waste energy and overheat tissues. Targeting only the sleep-inducing neurons or modulating lipid repair enzymes could offer narrower control.



Wearable diagnostics may also emerge. If circulating markers of mitochondrial ROS rise with sleep pressure, a blood spot or breath test could tell shift workers when to nap before errors pile up.



Finally, the study argues against the idea that sleep is down time. Instead, it is an active rebuild phase commanded by microscopic monitors that count chemical sparks. 



This perspective aligns with aging studies showing that preserving mitochondrial fitness slows cognitive decline and lengthens healthy life.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09261-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Scientists may have just solved the mystery of sleep

Our usual understanding of sleep starts with the brain and...

Sea urchins don’t understand predators the way we do. They have no brains, no hearts - just raw instinct. When a sunflower sea star approaches, they don’t need complex reasoning to sense danger - they simply steer clear.



This is the conclusion of a new study that examined how sunflower sea stars affect sea urchin behavior. The research was conducted by ecologists and undergraduates at the <a href="https://www.universityofcalifornia.edu/">University of California</a>, Santa Cruz.



The team set out to understand whether these massive, many-armed sea stars could help protect kelp forests by simply being present.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sea-stars-create-a-landscape-of-fear">Sea stars create a landscape of fear</h2>



The team from UC Santa Cruz conducted the experiment off the coast of Sitka, Alaska, where local sea urchins have wiped out once-thriving kelp forests, turning them into underwater deserts.



The students, trained in scientific diving through the university’s BIOE 159 Marine Ecology Field Quarter, placed cages on the ocean floor. Some held <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sunflower-sea-stars-are-nearly-extinct-but-scientists-are-growing-them/">sunflower sea stars</a> (Pycnopodia helianthoides). Others were left empty. 



Kelp blades were tied near each cage to act as bait. The question was simple: Would sea urchins avoid the kelp if a sunflower sea star was nearby?



After just 24 hours, the answer was clear. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-red-sea-urchins-will-tolerate-climate-change-better-than-others/">Red sea urchins</a> kept their distance - about six feet, on average - from cages containing the sea stars. In contrast, green sea urchins, also present in the area, showed no hesitation and munched through the kelp.



“We show that the sea stars create a ‘landscape of fear’ among red sea urchins in degraded urchin barrens that reduces grazing on kelp,” said Kristy Kroeker, professor of ecology and evolutionary biology at UC Santa Cruz. 



“These are very hungry urchins that are dissuaded enough by the scent of a sea star to deter grazing on kelp forests, which is promising for thinking about their role in kelp-forest recovery.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-kelp-forests-matter">Why kelp forests matter</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/kelp-forests-in-crisis-how-toxic-turf-algae-are-taking-over/">Kelp forests</a> aren’t just scenery. They provide critical shelter and breeding grounds for thousands of marine species, including commercially valuable ones like abalone and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pacific-rockfish-give-clues-about-the-genetic-basis-of-longevity/">rockfish</a>. 



They’re also a financial powerhouse, contributing an estimated $500 billion each year to the global economy. Kelp is used in everything from pharmaceuticals and cosmetics to food products like salad dressings and toothpaste.



But around 2013, something changed. A wasting disease swept through populations of sunflower sea stars, pushing them to local extinction along much of the west coast. 



At the same time, huge sections of kelp forest disappeared, especially in California and Oregon. Since then, neither the sea stars nor the kelp have made a full comeback.



That’s raised big questions. Are sea stars a key part of keeping urchin populations in check? Could bringing them back help kelp forests recover?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-students-led-the-research">Students led the research </h2>



This study didn’t come from a high-budget lab. It came from a hands-on field course that takes students into real-world research environments. 



In past years, the course has brought students to the Gulf of California in Mexico and to Moorea in French Polynesia. This time, they ended up in the chilly waters of Alaska.



“I feel very grateful to have had the privilege of working on this study alongside my peers,” said Rae Mancuso, the study’s lead author. 



“Participating in the entire process, from diving to scientific writing, was exciting and impactful as an undergraduate student. I hope the findings from this field experiment contribute in some way to the restoration of our all-important kelp forests.”



The students worked with faculty to design the experiment and set it up across three locations in urchin-dominated zones. They built pairs of cages, spaced about 60 to 100 feet apart, and monitored the urchin activity closely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sea-stars-scaring-off-sea-urchins">Sea stars scaring off sea urchins </h2>



Although the sea stars only deterred red sea urchins - not the green ones - researchers say it’s a promising lead. Simply putting sea stars in the area (rather than trying to remove urchins by hand) could help restore balance to the ecosystem.



Even better, this strategy might be less labor-intensive than current methods, which often require divers to manually cull urchin populations.



The researchers are also curious whether sunflower sea stars might scare off <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gray-whales-struggle-as-purple-sea-urchins-destroy-kelp-forests/">purple sea urchins</a>, the worst kelp destroyers in California. That part is still unclear.



“My educated guess is that they will deter purple urchin grazing as well, but it’s a question of how much and for how long,” Kroeker said. 



“There are many unknowns that need to be addressed and many steps that need to be taken between our results and the reintroduction of Pycnopodia for kelp-forest recovery.”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2025.0949">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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'Terrifying' sea stars could be key to kelp forest recovery

Sea urchins don’t understand predators the way we do. They...

A speck of engineered biology no wider than a human hair has just pulled off something exquisite: it kept time as faithfully as a wristwatch for four straight days.



In the process, it offered scientists an unprecedented look at why the biological clocks inside every living thing - from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/turning-plants-into-carbon-capture-machines-with-cyanobacteria/">cyanobacteria</a> to humans - rarely skip a beat, even though the molecular world they inhabit is full of randomness.



The achievement comes from a collaboration at the <a href="https://www.ucmerced.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Merced</a>, led by bioengineer Anand Bala Subramaniam and chemist Andy LiWang. 



The team reports that they have re‑created the simplest known <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-body-clock-distorts-time-to-stay-on-schedule-in-the-heat/">circadian clock</a> - a trio of proteins found in photosynthetic cyanobacteria - inside hundreds of fat‑bubble “cells” called vesicles.



Each miniature clock glowed in a 24‑hour rhythm for a minimum of four days according to first author Alexander Zhang Tu Li. This proves that everything the system needs to tick resides in those three proteins alone.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-making-clocks-from-scratch">Making clocks from scratch</h2>



Biological clocks, or circadian rhythms, choreograph sleep-wake cycles, hormone surges, body temperature, and metabolism across the tree of life. But in their natural context - the crowded volumes of living cells - they also face fierce molecular noise.



Proteins constantly move and collide, while their concentrations shift with every round of cell growth or division.



Scientists have long wondered how these clocks stay so precise amid that chaos. Reconstituting them in stripped‑down, controllable environments lets researchers test which parts of the machinery really matter.



“This study shows that we can dissect and understand the core principles of biological timekeeping using simplified, synthetic systems,” Subramaniam explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rebuilding-time-protein-by-protein">Rebuilding time, protein by protein</h2>



To begin, the Merced group brewed purified versions of the cyanobacterial clock proteins KaiA, KaiB, and KaiC in test tubes. 



KaiC is the hub of the system, adding and removing phosphate groups from itself in a slow, rhythmic cycle. KaiA and KaiB nudge that process forward and backward like molecular gears.



The twist was encapsulation. Using a microfluidic technique, the researchers sealed the three‑protein mix and a fluorescent tag inside lipid vesicles. These vesicles - essentially artificial cells - ranged from two to ten micrometers in diameter. 



A temperature‑controlled confocal microscope then watched as each artificial cell vesicle brightened and dimmed in time with KaiC’s phosphorylation cycle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-timing-falls-apart">When timing falls apart</h2>



The movies revealed a binary outcome. If a vesicle contained enough protein, its clock pulsed with textbook regularity. 



If <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/superfamily-of-bacterial-predator-proteins-is-changing-scientific-theory/">protein</a> numbers dipped below a threshold (either because the total mixture was diluted or because the vesicle happened to be small), the rhythm collapsed. When the amount of clock proteins decreased or the vesicles were downsized, the rhythmic glow disappeared.



LiWang and Subramaniam next built a mathematical model that treated each vesicle like a tiny roulette wheel. Protein counts were allowed to vary randomly, just as they would in a real bacterium after cell division.



Once those numbers were fed into the equations that govern KaiC’s chemistry, the simulations reproduced the all‑or‑nothing behavior seen under the microscope. Higher protein counts made clocks more robust, showing that abundance is the first defense against disruptive molecular noise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gene-loop-keeps-time">Gene loop keeps time</h2>



In cyanobacteria, the KaiABC clock also controls gene activity through a slower, secondary feedback loop. Many researchers assumed that this transcription-translation feedback loop is crucial for precision. The UC Merced model challenged that assumption.



According to the simulation, adding or removing the gene‑expression loop hardly changed individual vesicle rhythms at all. What it did change was synchrony.



Without the loop, clocks drifted apart; with it, vesicles stayed in sync for days. In other words, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gene-regulation-controlling-cells-to-improve-medical-treatments/">gene regulation</a> acts like a conductor, keeping an orchestra of otherwise accurate drummers on the same beat.



The cyanobacterial clock, said Ohio State University microbiologist Mingxu Fang, “relies on slow biochemical reactions that are inherently noisy.” The new vesicle system “enables direct testing of how and why organisms with different cell sizes may adopt distinct timing strategies.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-time-in-engineered-cells">Rethinking time in engineered cells</h2>



Intracellular clocks influence everything from metabolic health to the efficacy of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-dna-test-can-determine-if-chemotherapy-will-fail-before-first-dose/">chemotherapy</a>. Yet therapies that try to tweak them often produce mixed results, partly because researchers lack ways to probe their mechanical guts.



A vesicle “test rig” solves that problem. By swapping in mutated proteins, or by crowding the vesicles with other molecules, scientists can now watch the gears grind - or stall - in real time.



The findings also matter to bioengineers who dream of programming synthetic cells. 



Any molecular circuit that must run for hours or days (say, one designed to release drugs on a schedule) will face the same noise problem as a natural circadian clock. The UC Merced work shows a straightforward workaround: make plenty of parts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-toward-full-synthetic-cells">Toward full synthetic cells</h2>



Several puzzles remain. Because some KaiB molecules stuck to the vesicle walls, the authors suspect that membranes themselves may regulate the clock in cyanobacteria. They plan to test this idea by inserting other membrane proteins.



They also hope to connect the vesicle clocks to simple gene networks, pushing the system closer to what a bacterium actually experiences.



For now, the take‑home message is elegant: time can keep itself, provided the machinery is dense enough and, when necessary, a coordinating signal brings the ensemble into phase. 



The steady pulses inside these man‑made vesicles whisper of biological perfection. They’re proof that even the tiniest artificial cells can, quite literally, know what time it is.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-61844-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>. 



Image Credit: UC Merced



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How tiny artificial cells can keep perfect time for days

A speck of engineered biology no wider than a human...

In the dense forests of Central and South America, a strange thing happens. Hundreds of butterfly species - most of them nearly identical in appearance - flutter through the trees, each warning predators that they’re toxic through shared colors and patterns. 



But if the butterflies all look the same, how do they find the right partner to mate with? New research reveals that these butterflies can smell each other. 



Even among species that look nearly identical, each one produces a unique scent. This tiny chemical difference is how they tell each other apart.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetics-of-glasswing-butterflies">Genetics of glasswing butterflies</h2>



The research was conducted by an international team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.sanger.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wellcome Sanger Institute</a>. 



The team sequenced the genomes of dozens of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-glasswing-butterfly-has-a-unique-type-of-transparency/">glasswing butterfly</a> species - specifically focusing on two groups known for rapidly forming new species.



Glasswing butterflies are not rare. There are more than 400 species across Central and South America, and many live in the same areas. 



These butterflies are often used in conservation as "indicator species" because their presence reflects the health of the broader <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-play-important-roles-in-ecosystems/">insect ecosystem</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lookalike-butterflies-have-a-strategy">Lookalike butterflies have a strategy</h2>



What makes things tricky is that all glasswing butterflies look strikingly alike - and this similarity is no accident. It’s a defense strategy that warns predators they’re poisonous. 



But while this mimicry helps protect them, it poses a serious challenge for scientists trying to identify or monitor them in the wild.



To solve this, the research team mapped the genetics of the butterflies. In doing so, they discovered six subspecies were actually distinct enough to count as separate species. 



The experts also produced ten high-quality reference genomes now freely available to the research community.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scent-matters-for-glasswing-butterflies">Scent matters for glasswing butterflies </h2>



One major discovery: even butterflies that look the same can still recognize their own species through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/false-widow-spiders-use-pheromones-to-manipulate-mates/">pheromones</a> - chemicals they release to communicate through smell.



This matters a lot for mating. Because many of these butterflies have gone through a process called rapid radiation - where lots of new species evolve in a short period - they’re often closely related. 



Visually, the butterflies are often indistinguishable. But smelling different? That’s a game-changer.



“Having the reference genomes for the two groups of glasswing butterflies, Mechanitis and Melinaea, allowed us to take a closer look at how they have adapted to life in such close proximity to their relatives,” said study senior author Dr. Caroline Bacquet.



“These butterflies share the responsibility of warding off predators by displaying similar color patterns, and by producing different pheromones they can successfully find mates and reproduce."



"Now that we have clarity on glasswing butterfly species, we can look for specific markings or differences between them, giving new ways to track them during fieldwork.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-butterflies-that-evolve-quickly">Butterflies that evolve quickly </h2>



The team also uncovered something surprising in the butterflies’ DNA. Most butterflies have 31 chromosomes, but in glasswing species, that number varied from 13 to 28. 



The genes were mostly the same, but they were rearranged in different ways - a phenomenon called chromosomal rearrangement. These rearrangements aren’t just quirky genetic facts. They affect reproduction.



When butterflies with mismatched chromosome arrangements try to reproduce, their offspring are sterile. That means mating with the wrong species is a dead end. So, the butterflies have evolved to rely on pheromones as a way to ensure they choose the right partner.



Scientists think this high level of chromosomal rearrangement might be a key reason why these butterflies evolve into new species so quickly. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-lookalike-butterflies">Protecting lookalike butterflies </h2>



Once a population’s chromosome count shifts, it effectively becomes its own species, better able to adapt to local environments or food sources.



“Glasswing butterflies are an incredibly adaptive group of insects that have been valuable in ecology research for around 150 years,” said Dr. Eva van der Heijden, first author of the study.



“However, until now, there was no genetic resource that allowed us to robustly identify different species, and it is difficult to monitor and track something that you can’t identify easily." 



"With this new genetically informed evolutionary tree, and multiple new reference genomes, we hope that it will be possible to advance biodiversity and conservation research around the world, and help protect the butterflies and other insects that are crucial to many of Earth’s ecosystems.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-how-new-species-evolve">Understanding how new species evolve </h2>



Understanding how these lookalike butterflies evolved - and continue to evolve - could help scientists tackle broader questions. 



Why do some insects branch into many species while others don’t? How do environmental pressures drive rapid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quick-species-adaptability-shapes-long-term-evolution/">adaptation</a>? And can this knowledge help us in agriculture or pest control?



Dr. Joana Meier, senior author at the Wellcome Sanger Institute, warned that we are in the middle of an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-were-likely-the-leading-cause-of-megafauna-extinctions/">extinction</a> crisis and understanding how new species evolve, and evolve quickly in some cases, is important for preserving species. 



"Comparing butterflies that rapidly form new species to others that do not could benchmark how common this is in insects and highlight the factors involved," said Dr. Meier.



"This, in turn, could identify any species that require closer conservation and possibly identify genes that are important in the adaptation process and might have uses in agriculture, medicine, or bioengineering. 



"This research would not have been possible without global collaboration. We have one planet, and we must work together to understand and protect it.”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2410939122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Lookalike butterflies use hidden cues to identify each other

In the dense forests of Central and South America, a...

Food lovers prize the creamy web of fat that streaks a Wagyu steak. Inside the human body, however, the same kind of “marbling” - known to scientists as intramuscular adipose tissue, or IMAT - signals trouble.



Physicians have long noticed that patients with high IMAT tend to fare poorly. The marbled fat is common in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/obesity-is-much-more-complicated-than-we-thought-manifesting-in-11-different-forms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">obesity</a>, type 2 diabetes, neuromuscular disorders such as Duchenne muscular dystrophy, and progressive neurodegenerative diseases like ALS.



In some clinics, doctors even watch intramuscular adipose tissue levels to track how fast an illness is advancing.



What remained unclear was whether the fat merely accompanied disease or actively made muscles weaker. Daniel Kopinke, an associate professor of pharmacology and therapeutics at the <a href="https://med.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Florida College of Medicine</a>, set out to solve that puzzle.



“We wanted to understand the precise function IMAT might play on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/studies-learn-the-exact-amount-of-time-you-should-spend-training-to-build-muscle/">muscle</a> health,” he explained. The resulting study&nbsp;offers what Kopinke calls “functional evidence that it is an active driver of declining muscle function.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blocking-fat-from-muscle-injuries">Blocking fat from muscle injuries</h2>



Kopinke’s lab studies how muscles repair themselves. After a strain or tear, stem‑like satellite cells along the fibers awaken, divide, and fuse into new muscle tissue. In healthy people that process restores both size and strength.



But people with high IMAT often struggle to regain full power after injury. To test whether the fat is to blame, the team engineered a mouse line called mFATBLOCK. 



The animals’ muscles could be injured in the usual ways, using a chemical that mimics hard <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-in-a-pill-is-now-closer-to-reality/">exercise</a>. However, genetic tweaks prevented fat cells from infiltrating the wound site.



The contrast was stark. In ordinary mice fat droplets invaded the damaged region, parking between regenerating fibers. Under a microscope those fibers looked chaotic and undersized.



The marbling occupied about 12 percent of total muscle volume, and when the researchers measured force output, the muscles generated far less power than fat‑free controls.



“This directly translated to a loss of strength,” Kopinke said, noting that marbled muscles could not produce the same amount of force as the healthy, unobstructed muscle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fat-cells-hijack-healing-space">Fat cells hijack healing space</h2>



Kopinke likened the effect to fighting a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-seasons-are-now-overlapping-worldwide/">wildfire</a> in a forest. Imagine clearing the ashes so saplings can grow, only to leave giant boulders scattered across the soil. Wherever a boulder sits, a tree cannot take root.



Fat cells act like those boulders. Once they occupy space inside the muscle, muscle fibers cannot grow. Satellite cells still try to knit new tissue, but their scaffolding twists around lipid pockets and forms weak, disorganized fibers.



The study dispels the notion that IMAT is merely passive fuel storage. Instead, it behaves as a structural barrier that derails the entire regeneration script.



That discovery has wide implications for sports‑medicine clinics that manage severe tears. It also holds promise for researchers pursuing therapies for muscular dystrophy or sarcopenia - the age‑related loss of muscle mass.



If marbling is the obstacle, then simply flooding tissue with growth factors may not restore strength unless the fat blockade is removed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exercise-clears-hidden-fat">Exercise clears hidden fat</h2>



The good news is that IMAT appears to shrink the same way <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/long-term-exercise-can-make-belly-fat-healthy/">belly fat</a> does: by tipping the energy equation so the body burns more calories than it consumes.



“You can shrink your fat cells,” said Kopinke. “If you make the area that fat cells occupy in your muscles smaller, the muscle fibers would have more space to grow into.”



Exercise does double duty here, raising calorie burn while also stimulating satellite cells to fuse, though the study did not yet test specific workout regimens.



Because IMAT is tucked deep inside tissue, scales and mirrors cannot reveal progress. Imaging tools such as MRI and ultrasound can, and Kopinke hopes future clinical trials will pair those scans with diet‑and‑exercise programs designed to carve away the internal marbling.



If the rodent data hold true in people, reducing IMAT should give healing fibers room to align and thicken, restoring lost torque.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-muscle-disease-treatment">Rethinking muscle disease treatment</h2>



These findings shift the perspective on numerous debilitating conditions. Instead of focusing solely on amplifying growth signals or transplanting stem cells, physicians might first target the fatty blockade itself. 



They could do this through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-a-popular-weight-loss-drug-are-finally-revealed/">metabolic drugs</a>, hormone therapies, or novel biologics that prevent progenitor cells inside muscle from turning into fat in the first place. The mFATBLOCK mouse offers a ready test bed for such ideas.



“By clearing the path for muscle fibers to heal correctly, we may be able to restore function and improve strength in millions of people affected by these debilitating conditions,” Kopinke said.



His lab is now probing why certain diseases spark fat infiltration while others do not and whether specific nutritional cues accelerate IMAT shrinkage. 



For now, the takeaway is both sobering and empowering: marbled steak may melt in your mouth, but marbled muscle could rob you of strength - unless you burn off the fat and give your fibers room to thrive. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2211124725007922" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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How fat hidden in muscles weakens strength and healing

Food lovers prize the creamy web of fat that streaks...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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