Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

A recent study paints a chilling picture of West Antarctica's Thwaites Glacier, the so-called "Doomsday Glacier." Research by Julia Wellner, an associate professor of geology at the <a href="https://www.uh.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Houston</a>, and James Smith, marine geologist at the <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">British Antarctic Survey</a>, reveals disturbing changes in the glacier's history.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The study highlights the urgent need to understand climate change and the looming threat of catastrophic sea level rise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-doomsday-glacier">Doomsday Glacier</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-is-causing-the-rapid-retreat-of-the-thwaites-glacier/">Thwaites Glacier</a>, a massive glacier covering an area similar to Florida, is located in West Antarctica. The Doomsday nickname reflects the potential for catastrophic flooding if the glacier were to completely collapse.



Thwaites acts as a crucial barrier, preventing the flow of ice from the Antarctic interior towards the ocean. The glacier already contributes significantly to sea level rise, accounting for about 4%, and its melting rate has been accelerating in recent decades.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-findings">Key findings</h2>



Scientists discovered that a major retreat of the glacier began in the 1940s. This timeframe is interesting because it aligns with a powerful El Niño event, a natural occurrence that causes warming.&nbsp;



The research suggests that El Niño may have played a part in starting the glacier's retreat. The glacier was already vulnerable at that time, and El Niño might have pushed it to a point where it began losing ice much faster.



While <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forecasters-warn-of-weather-chaos-as-el-nino-arrives-early/">El Niño</a> may have sparked the melting, other factors such as climate change are now causing the glacier to melt continuously and lose ice at an even faster pace.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-no-signs-of-recovery">No signs of recovery</h2>



Researchers are concerned that Thwaites Glacier isn't bouncing back from its retreat, unlike most glaciers that naturally grow and shrink over time. In the past, these changes were caused by things like snowfall and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/temperature-fluctuations-have-reshaped-earths-water-cycle/">temperature fluctuations</a>.&nbsp;



However, Thwaites seems to be stuck in a shrinking phase, suggesting something has significantly changed. This inability to recover points towards a long-term shift in how the glacier interacts with its environment.



The situation is likely to get worse because of global warming. Human activity is causing the Earth's atmosphere and oceans to heat up, melting ice worldwide and upsetting the natural balance that allows glaciers to recover. 



This warming is melting Thwaites from both the top and bottom, making it even harder for the glacier to regrow.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-sea-level">Global sea level</h2>



Every year, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-pose-great-threat-to-biodiversity-in-mountain-ranges/">melting glaciers</a> add massive amounts of water to the oceans, but scientists are most worried about the possibility of the entire glacier collapsing. 



This collapse could raise sea levels by over two feet, which would have devastating consequences. In addition to flooding coastal areas and harming economies, it would also make storm surges more dangerous.



Thwaites Glacier plays a crucial role by acting like a dam, holding back a much larger ice sheet that would lead to a significant sea level rise if it melted.&nbsp;



If Thwaites collapses, it could trigger a domino effect. Other glaciers in the region would become unstable and melt even faster, creating a chain reaction that could cause a much bigger impact on sea level rise. This scenario would have catastrophic consequences for the entire world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-synchronized-retreat-of-the-doomsday-glacier">Synchronized retreat of the Doomsday Glacier</h2>



The Pine Island Glacier is a giant among West Antarctica's glaciers. Together with the Thwaites Glacier, it contributes significantly to rising <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-no-longer-has-to-worry-about-rising-sea-levels/">sea levels</a>. Both glaciers are retreating at the same time, suggesting a common cause rather than independent events.&nbsp;



“If both glaciers are retreating at the same time, that’s further evidence that they’re actually being forced by something,” Dr. Wellner said in a <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2024/02/26/climate/doomsday-glacier-antarctic-ice-melt-climate-intl/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">press release</a>.



This synchronized retreat is likely driven by broader environmental factors, such as warmer ocean water or changing sea currents. These changes might be connected to global climate events like El Niño. 



The evidence suggests that the melting is not limited to these specific glaciers, but rather driven by larger climate shifts throughout West Antarctica.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-doomsday-glacier-and-the-west-antarctic-ice-sheet">Doomsday Glacier and the West Antarctic Ice Sheet</h2>



The West Antarctic Ice Sheet, a giant sheet of ice covering part of Antarctica, is crucial for its potential impact on global sea levels. This sheet relies heavily on the Doomsday Glacier for its stability.



The size and location of Thwaites are critical because its health directly affects the rest of the ice sheet. Similar to a keystone in an arch, if Thwaites melts or retreats, it could destabilize the entire West Antarctic Ice Sheet. 



The glacier currently acts like a barrier, preventing ice from the continent's interior from flowing freely into the ocean. As Thwaites weakens, more ice flows outward, accelerating sea-level rise.



The potential collapse of Thwaites and the destabilization of the ice sheet are concerning due to the massive amount of ice involved. 



If the entire West Antarctic Ice Sheet melted, it could raise sea levels by over 10 feet, submerging low-lying areas like coastal cities and entire countries, leading to widespread displacement and economic damage.



While this scenario is not an immediate threat, it represents a long-term risk that grows with ongoing global warming and ice sheet deterioration.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-nbsp">Broader implications&nbsp;</h2>



The findings warn the world about the urgent threat of climate change, focusing on the rapid changes in Antarctica. This specific example shows how even the most stable and remote parts of Earth are being affected by rising temperatures. 



The dramatic retreat and potential collapse of the Doomsday Glacier highlight the need for stronger scientific research and international cooperation to understand and address climate change.&nbsp;



“Humans are changing the climate and this study shows that small continuous changes in climate can lead to step changes in glacier state,” said Martin Truffer, a physics professor at the University of Alaska Fairbanks, who was not involved in the research.



Furthermore, changes in Antarctica can impact global weather and sea levels, affecting people worldwide. This emphasizes the need for a united global effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, shift towards sustainable energy sources, and implement effective climate policies.&nbsp;



The planet's destiny depends on whether we heed its warning and collaborate as a united force. Will we rise to the challenge, or succumb to the rising tides?



The study is published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 



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Doomsday Glacier seems to have lost its ability to recover

A recent study paints a chilling picture of West Antarctica's...

Despite its appearance of tranquility, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/getting-high-quality-sleep-helps-prevent-depression-and-anxiety/">sleep</a> is a time of significant activity for the brain, not in silence but in a state of dynamic electrical activity.&nbsp;



As the world quiets down, the brain remains a hub of activity, with neurons firing off bursts of electrical pulses that coalesce into rhythmic waves, indicative of intense neural function. The question arises: Why does the brain stay so active during our rest?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-synchronized-neural-activity">Synchronized neural activity</h2>



Scientists at <a href="https://medicine.wustl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis</a> have discovered that slow brain waves play a crucial role in cleaning the brain during sleep. Nerve cells synchronize to produce these waves, which in turn propel fluid through the brain's complex tissue, effectively cleaning it.



"These neurons are miniature pumps. Synchronized neural activity powers fluid flow and removal of debris from the brain," said Li-Feng Jiang-Xie, a postdoctoral research associate at WUSTL.&nbsp;



“If we can build on this process, there is the possibility of delaying or even preventing neurological diseases, including Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease, in which excess waste - such as metabolic waste and junk proteins – accumulate in the brain and lead to neurodegeneration.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-metabolic-waste-nbsp">Metabolic waste&nbsp;</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-cells-communicate-to-support-decision-making/">Brain</a> cells are responsible for a wide range of functions, including thought, emotion, movement, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lack-of-sexual-satisfaction-linked-to-rapid-memory-decline/">memory</a>, and problem-solving. These processes are energy-intensive, leading to the production of metabolic waste.&nbsp;



"It is critical that the brain disposes of metabolic waste that can build up and contribute to neurodegenerative diseases," said senior author Jonathan Kipnis, a professor of pathology and immunology at the same university.&nbsp;



“We knew that sleep is a time when the brain initiates a cleaning process to flush out waste and toxins it accumulates during wakefulness. But we didn’t know how that happens. These findings might be able to point us toward strategies and potential therapies to speed up the removal of damaging waste and to remove it before it can lead to dire consequences.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fluid-movement-and-rhythmic-waves">Fluid movement and rhythmic waves</h2>



According to the experts, cleaning the dense structure of the brain is a complex task. Cerebrospinal fluid must navigate through the brain, collecting waste before exiting and filtering through the body's lymphatic system. The researchers demonstrated that neurons' rhythmic waves are essential for driving this fluid movement.



By specifically silencing regions in the brains of sleeping mice, preventing neurons from generating these waves, the researchers observed that cerebrospinal fluid could not circulate properly, trapping waste within the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/traffic-related-air-pollution-might-increase-alzheimers-risk/">brain tissue</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cleansing-the-brain">Cleansing the brain</h2>



"One of the reasons that we sleep is to cleanse the brain," Kipnis said. “And if we can enhance this cleansing process, perhaps it’s possible to sleep less and remain healthy. Not everyone has the benefit of eight hours of sleep each night, and loss of sleep has an impact on health."&nbsp;



"Other studies have shown that mice that are genetically wired to sleep less have healthy brains. Could it be because they clean waste from their brains more efficiently? Could we help people living with insomnia by enhancing their brain’s cleaning abilities so they can get by on less sleep?”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers also found that the amplitude and rhythm of brain waves vary throughout sleep, affecting the force with which fluid moves. They now aim to understand the implications of these variations and identify which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-brains-compensate-aging-dementia-recruiting-other-brain-regions-to-help/">brain regions</a> are most at risk of waste accumulation.



“We think the brain-cleaning process is similar to washing dishes. You start, for example, with a large, slow, rhythmic wiping motion to clean soluble wastes splattered across the plate. Then you decrease the range of the motion and increase the speed of these movements to remove particularly sticky food waste on the plate," said Jiang-Xie.



"Despite the varying amplitude and rhythm of your hand movements, the overarching objective remains consistent: to remove different types of waste from dishes. Maybe the brain adjusts its cleaning method depending on the type and amount of waste."



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07108-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Cleaning the brain: Neurons flush out waste while we sleep

Despite its appearance of tranquility, sleep is a time of...

Fresh,Green,And,Urban,Buildings

In an enlightening study by Texas A&amp;M University's School of Public Health, researchers have uncovered a pivotal connection between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/living-in-greener-areas-slows-the-cellular-aging-process/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban green</a> spaces and the mental well-being of city residents. 



Spearheaded by <a href="https://sph.tamu.edu/directory/maddock.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Jay Maddock</a>, Regents Professor of Environmental and Occupational Health, and his team from the <a href="https://centerforhealthandnature.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for Health and Nature</a>, the findings reveal that individuals with greater access to urban greenery exhibit a reduced need for mental health services.



This important research, detailed in the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, utilizes a novel approach to assess urban greenness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-linking-green-space-in-cities-to-mental-health">Linking green space in cities to mental health</h2>



The study employs <a href="https://www.naturequant.com/naturescore/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NatureScore</a>, an innovative tool that amalgamates data on air, noise, and light pollution, along with the presence of parks and tree canopies, to evaluate the natural environment of any given address in the United States and beyond. 



NatureScore classifies areas on a scale from "Nature Deficient" (0-19 points) to "Nature Utopia" (80-100 points), providing a comprehensive measure of urban greenery.



The study's methodology involved analyzing mental health visit data from the <a href="https://www.dshs.texas.gov/texas-health-care-information-collection/health-data-researcher-information/texas-outpatient-public-use#:~:text=The%20Texas%20Outpatient%20Public%20Use,released%20through%20fourth%20quarter%202022." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Texas Hospital Outpatient Public Use Data Files</a>, spanning 2014 to mid-2019. 



This data, aggregated by ZIP code, included a range of demographic information but ensured patient anonymity. 



Focusing on adult outpatient encounters for conditions such as depression, emotional disorders, stress, and anxiety, the study encompassed over 61 million records from urban areas across Texas.



“The association between exposure to nature and better mental health is&nbsp;<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32571202/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">well established</a>&nbsp;in the United States and elsewhere, but most studies use just one or two measurements of this exposure,” Maddock said. 



“Our study was the first to use NatureScore, which provides more complex data, to study the correlation between urban&nbsp;<a href="https://vitalrecord.tamhsc.edu/new-state-wide-health-and-nature-collaborative-aims-to-get-texans-outdoors-for-their-healths-sake/">nature exposure and mental health</a>.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-green-threshold-naturescore-and-mental-health">Green threshold: NatureScore and mental health</h2>



The results were telling, with a median NatureScore of 85.8 across the sampled ZIP codes, and a notable finding that neighborhoods with higher NatureScores reported significantly lower rates of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/park-improves-mood-boosts-happiness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mental health</a> encounters.



The analysis highlighted a stark contrast: areas with NatureScores above 60 experienced approximately 50% fewer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/access-to-nature-improves-the-mental-health-of-older-adults/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mental health</a> visits than those with lower scores. 



Moreover, residents in the highest scoring categories of NatureScore benefited from substantially lower rates of mental health issues, underscoring the protective effect of ample green spaces.



Dr. Maddock further elucidates, "A NatureScore above 40, which we consider 'Nature Adequate,' appears to be a critical threshold for maintaining good mental health. Individuals in these areas have notably lower risks of depression and emotional disorders."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-urban-planning-with-mental-health-in-mind">Bridging urban planning with mental health in mind</h2>



Omar M. Makram, the study's lead author, points to the broader implications of their findings for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/green-spaces-shape-bird-characteristics-in-urban-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban development</a>. 



“Increasing green space in cities could promote well-being and mental health, which is critically important given that&nbsp;more than 22 percent&nbsp;of the adult population in the United States with a mental health disorder,” he said.



In summary, the Texas A&amp;M University study compellingly demonstrates the critical role <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parks-play-an-integral-role-in-the-fight-against-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban green</a> spaces play in enhancing mental health among city dwellers. 



By leveraging the innovative NatureScore tool, researchers have established a quantifiable link between access to natural environments and reduced dependence on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/green-spaces-decline-dementia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mental health</a> services. 



This revelation sheds light on the protective benefits of greenery against mental health issues while pointing out the necessity for urban planners to integrate nature into the heart of city designs. 



With over 22% of the U.S. adult population grappling with mental health disorders, the study's findings advocate for a greener, more sustainable approach to urban development, highlighting the profound impact of green spaces on public health and well-being.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/21/2/168" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health</a>.



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City residents have better mental health with access to green space

In an enlightening study by Texas A&amp;M University's School of...

Cell,Structure,Hydrilla,,View,Of,The,Leaf,Surface,Showing,Plant

In the ongoing battle against pathogens, plants have developed a sophisticated defense mechanism that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-activate-immune-defenses-against-pathogens-in-rain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activates</a> almost instantaneously upon attack. 



Central to this defense system is a flurry of small molecules known as secondary messengers, which traverse the cell membrane to kickstart the plant's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chloroplasts-play-an-unexpected-role-in-plant-immunity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">immune response</a>. 



This fundamental process, shared across the plant and animal kingdoms, including humans, hinges on the rapid activation and subsequent decline of a small molecule named phosphatidic acid (PA).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-frontline-defense-how-plants-fight-back">Frontline defense: How plants fight back</h2>



For years, the scientific community grappled with understanding what triggers the sudden increase in PA levels following a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-how-plants-protect-themselves-from-pathogens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pathogen's assault</a>. 



The mystery remained unsolved until recent research by a team from the <a href="https://umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan</a> pinpointed a tiny enzyme, DGK5, as the key player. 



Their work, published in the journal Cell, identifies DGK5 as the catalyst for PA production and reveals the existence of two regulatory "switches" that control PA's production cycle.



Lead author Libo Shan, a professor of molecular, cellular, and developmental biology at the University of Michigan, expressed the significance of their findings.



"The excitement of this study is that it not only fills in the gap and identifies the enzyme that drives the production of PA, it's also that we uncovered two switches that control when the production of PA is turned on and when it is turned off," Shan explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pa-the-unsung-hero-of-plant-immunity">PA: The unsung hero of plant immunity</h2>



This discovery is pivotal for understanding how PA, a crucial secondary messenger in various human diseases, is regulated within cells, offering insights into maintaining cellular balance and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/beneficial-plant-bacteria-likely-to-decline-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">combating diseases</a>.



The study elucidates how two distinct enzymes, known as protein kinases, interact with DGK5 to modulate the immune response. One enzyme initiates the PA surge, while the other diminishes its production, thereby fine-tuning the plant's defense mechanisms.



Shan's journey to this discovery began nearly a decade ago, following her exploration of how immune receptors on cell surfaces detect pathogen infections and relay this information internally. 



A collaboration with Teun Munnik, a professor at the <a href="https://www.uva.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Amsterdam</a>, who attended one of Shan's talks in 2012, proved instrumental. Munnik's interest in PA production and Shan's research on a specific protein kinase led to the identification of DGK5 as the enzyme responsible for the PA spike.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arabidopsis-tiny-plant-with-big-answers">Arabidopsis: Tiny plant with big answers</h2>



To delve deeper into the pathway, Shan's lab employed Arabidopsis, a small plant from the mustard family, whose self-pollinating nature ensures genetic consistency across generations. This allowed for the examination of mutants to understand different molecular pathways. 



By silencing the DGK5 enzyme in these plants, the team was able to dissect the enzyme's regulation by upstream protein kinases and its crucial role in PA production, ultimately aiding the plant in repelling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-reprogram-their-cells-to-fight-pathogens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pathogens</a>.



Moreover, the research highlighted PA's interaction with reactive oxygen species (ROS), molecules critical to plant immunity. 



While ROS can be damaging in excess, they serve as a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-technology-can-detect-plant-diseases-from-above/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primary defense</a> line against pathogens, through both signaling functions and direct pathogen destruction. 



The team discovered that PA also plays a role in regulating ROS by stabilizing the enzyme responsible for its production.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-secrets-of-plant-defense-and-immunity">Secrets of plant defense and immunity</h2>



Shan reflects on the significance of their findings, noting, "Our findings shed light on how this process modulates reactive oxygen species signaling, orchestrating two key branches of plant immunity. It's a remarkable journey into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crop-disease-experts-discover-how-bacteria-hijack-plant-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">molecular intricacies</a> of plant immune mechanisms."



This exploration into the molecular dynamics of plant immunity not only broadens our understanding of how plants fend off invaders but also opens new avenues for research into lipids' role in immune signaling and environmental stress responses.



In summary, the University of Michigan's recent discovery illuminates the pivotal role of the enzyme DGK5 in activating plant immune responses. 



This breakthrough identifies the long-sought-after trigger for the rapid production of phosphatidic acid following pathogen attack and reveals the regulatory mechanisms controlling this process. 



By demonstrating how PA production is finely tuned by interactions with protein kinases and its critical role in managing reactive oxygen species, this research advances our understanding of plant immunity. 



Furthermore, these findings hold promise for enhancing crop resilience and offer intriguing possibilities for new treatments in human diseases, marking a significant stride in the fields of plant biology and biomedicine.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell/abstract/S0092-8674(23)01404-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell</a>.



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Plants have a sophisticated defense system when pathogens attack

In the ongoing battle against pathogens, plants have developed a...

In an eye-opening study from <a href="https://www.purdue.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Purdue University</a>, researchers have discovered that cooking on a gas stove emits more nano-sized particles into the air than the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/traffic-pollution-impairs-brain-network-connectivity/">exhaust</a> from gas or diesel vehicles, potentially elevating the risk of developing asthma and other respiratory illnesses. 



This revelation underscores a significant source of indoor air pollution that might have been underappreciated until now. Based on their findings, the researchers recommend turning on a kitchen exhaust fan while cooking on a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exposure-to-gas-stoves-in-homes-is-worse-for-your-health-than-secondhand-smoke/">gas stove</a>.&nbsp;



The study was led by Brandon Boor, an associate professor in Purdue’s Lyles School of Civil Engineering.



“Combustion remains a source of air pollution across the world, both indoors and outdoors. We found that cooking on your gas stove produces large amounts of small nanoparticles that get into your respiratory system and deposit efficiently,” said Professor Boor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-large-amounts-of-tiny-nanoparticles">Large amounts of tiny nanoparticles</h2>



The study was focused on tiny airborne nanoparticles that are only 1-3 nanometers in diameter. These particles are perfectly sized to reach deep into the respiratory system and potentially spread to other organs, posing significant health risks.



The researchers noted that children living in homes with gas stoves have a higher likelihood of developing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/specific-air-pollutants-linked-to-asthma-attacks-in-urban-children/">asthma</a>, a concern that has been echoed in previous studies. However, the focus on particles smaller than 3 nanometers, known as nanocluster aerosol, is relatively new due to the challenges in measuring such minuscule particles.



“These super tiny nanoparticles are so small that you’re not able to see them. They’re not like dust particles that you would see floating in the air,” said Professor Boor. “After observing such high concentrations of nanocluster aerosol during gas cooking, we can’t ignore these nano-sized particles anymore.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study-nbsp">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



Utilizing advanced air quality instrumentation from the German company GRIMM AEROSOL TECHNIK, the researchers conducted experiments in a "tiny house" lab, known as the Purdue zero Energy Design Guidance for Engineers (zEDGE) lab.&nbsp;



This lab, equipped with sensors to monitor <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/twenty-years-of-air-quality-improvement-erased-by-wildfires/">air quality</a> impacts from everyday activities, allowed for the precise measurement of these tiny particles during realistic cooking scenarios. Collaborating with Gerhard Steiner, a senior scientist and product manager for nano measurement at GRIMM AEROSOL, the team managed to collect extensive data on the presence of nanocluster aerosol particles in indoor air during cooking.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alarming-results">Alarming results</h2>



The findings were startling. The researchers estimated that up to 10 quadrillion nanocluster aerosol particles could be emitted per kilogram of cooking fuel, a figure that matches or even exceeds the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-play-an-overlooked-role-in-the-climate-system/">particle emissions</a> from vehicle exhausts.&nbsp;



This comparison suggests that individuals could be inhaling 10-100 times more nanocluster aerosol from indoor cooking on a gas stove than from car exhaust on a busy street.



“You would not use a diesel engine exhaust pipe as an air supply to your kitchen,” said study co-lead author Nusrat Jung, a professor of Civil Engineering who designed the tiny house lab with her students.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-billions-of-particles-ingested">Billions of particles ingested</h2>



The study also highlights the persistence of these particles, with models showing significant emissions within 20 minutes of cooking activities like boiling water or making grilled cheese sandwiches.&nbsp;



Many of the particles rapidly diffused to other surfaces, but the models indicated that approximately 10 billion to 1 trillion particles could deposit into an adult’s head airways and tracheobronchial region of the lungs. Among children, these doses would be even more concentrated.&nbsp;



“Since most people don’t turn on their exhaust fan while cooking, having kitchen hoods that activate automatically would be a logical solution,” said Professor Boor.&nbsp;



“Moving forward, we need to think about how to reduce our exposure to all types of indoor air pollutants. Based on our new data, we’d advise that nanocluster aerosol be considered as a distinct air pollutant category.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgae044" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PNAS Nexus</a>.&nbsp;



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Gas stoves release more harmful nanoparticles than vehicle exhaust

In an eye-opening study from Purdue University, researchers have discovered...

Even with our constant exploration, nature continues to surprise us. Recently, scientists from <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/">Flinders University</a> made a remarkable discovery while studying the beautiful Pacific Islands: they found completely new types of bees that no one knew existed before. 



These amazing pollinators, known as Hylaeus bees, show us just how much unseen variety there is still on Earth.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-bee-diversity">Importance of bee diversity</h2>



Bees are much more than just honey-making insects. They play a critical role in the environment as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-patches-of-land-can-help-support-pollinators/">pollinators</a>, helping countless plants, trees, and flowers grow. This, in turn, provides food and shelter for various wildlife, maintaining the balance of ecosystems worldwide.&nbsp;



Over 20,000 known bee species exist, each with unique adaptations to their specific environment. These range from tiny <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-heat-threatens-solitary-bees-and-global-food-security/">solitary bees</a> nesting underground to social bumblebees forming complex colonies.&nbsp;



They are not just important for the environment; bees are crucial to human agriculture as well. They pollinate a significant portion of the crops we rely on for food, ensuring a diverse and nutritious diet rich in fruits, vegetables, and nuts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-the-tree-tops">Exploring the tree-tops</h2>



To uncover the hidden diversity of tree-top bees in the Pacific, scientists embarked on an adventurous study. They ventured into the canopies of Fiji, French Polynesia, and Micronesia, equipped with tools and techniques designed for canopy sampling.&nbsp;



This method isn't like the usual bee hunt; it involves reaching the tops of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-struggling-to-breathe-store-co2-hotter-climate/">trees</a>, where many species have remained elusive due to traditional sampling methods focusing on the ground.&nbsp;



By exploring these tree-top habitats, researchers were able to collect specimens and observe the behaviors of the bees in their natural environment.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hylaeus-bees">Hylaeus bees</h2>



The researchers identified eight species of Hylaeus bees that are completely new to science, doubling the known dispersals of these bees out of Australia.&nbsp;



“Our investigations have discovered an extra group of endemic bees in Fiji that have remained ‘hidden’ in the forest canopy despite years of looking and sampling,” said study first author and Australian native bee expert James B. Dorey.



Hylaeus bees are small in size and are often overlooked, yet they play a vital role in helping plants reproduce. Unlike the bees we typically see, Hylaeus bees live high up in the forest canopy - an area where the tops of trees create a thick layer of leaves and branches.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solving-a-long-standing-mystery">Solving a long-standing mystery</h2>



The study also solved a longstanding scientific mystery related to bees. Dr. Charles Michener, an expert on bees, had discovered a unique bee in French Polynesia called Hylaeus tuamotuensis. However, he couldn't determine its connection to other bees within the same family, Hylaeus.&nbsp;



The researchers have now successfully traced the lineage of this isolated bee back to its relatives in Fiji, finally clarifying its position within the Hylaeus family tree.&nbsp;



This discovery not only answers a long-standing question but also improves our understanding of how these bees are distributed and connected throughout the Pacific islands.&nbsp;



“Happily, this also solves ‘Michener’s mystery’ about how these tiny (3-5mm) Hylaeus made it to French Polynesia, dispersing over time from their closest relatives which were 4,000 km north in Hawaii and 6,000 km west in Australia,” said Dr. Dorey.



<h1 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eight-new-species">Eight new species</h1>



Scientists found eight new types of Hylaeus bees in the Pacific Ocean. These bees are all small and build their nests in special ways, but each new type has unique features.



In Fiji, the discovery includes six species: Hylaeus albaeus, Hylaeus apertus, Hylaeus derectus, Hylaeus navai, Hylaeus veli, and Hylaeus breviflavus.



From French Polynesia, the study adds Hylaeus aureaviridis, while Hylaeus chuukensis is the species identified in Micronesia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-about-the-species">More about about the species</h2>



The new bees in Fiji have different colors, sizes, and preferred living spaces. This suggests they have adapted to the various environments on the islands. These adaptations might involve how they find food, what flowers they like, or where they build their nests in the forest.&nbsp;



The single new bee type found in French Polynesia adds to the few known bee types there, suggesting there might be many more undiscovered bees. This discovery might show how bees in isolated islands have evolved in unique ways to fit their local <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-shed-their-flowers-quickly-for-protection-from-microbes/">flowers</a> and climate.



The new bee type found in Micronesia is an important addition to the known animals in the area, and it shows that Hylaeus bees can travel long distances. Its presence suggests that bees may have moved across the ocean in the past, possibly helped by wind, storms, or floating plants.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-bee-conservation">Importance of bee conservation</h2>



Bees face many threats that could wipe them out, which would hurt both nature and our farms. As cities and farms get bigger, bees lose the places they naturally live and the plants they eat.&nbsp;



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/survey-mother-nature-is-more-likely-to-solve-climate-change-than-geoengineering/">Climate change</a> makes things even harder by changing where bees live and when plants flower, messing up their feeding schedule. Also, the widespread use of pesticides poisons their food, and diseases make them even sicker.



Each kind of bee has a special job and needs something different to survive, so we need different ways to protect them all. By learning where bees live and what they need, scientists and conservationists can create better ways to keep them safe. This will protect bees, the environment, and the food we grow.



The study is a testament to the endless wonder waiting to be discovered in our own backyards (or, in this case, in rainforests).



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2024.1339446" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution</a>.



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Eight new Hylaeus bees discovered in the Pacific treetops

Even with our constant exploration, nature continues to surprise us....

Music possesses a profound ability to stir our emotions. Research has consistently demonstrated that recorded <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emotions-inspired-by-music-shape-our-most-enduring-memories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">music</a> can activate the emotional and imaginative circuits within our brains. 



Yet, the question arises: does the experience of live music evoke a different neural response compared to its recorded counterpart?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-emotional-resonance-of-music">The emotional resonance of music</h2>



In pursuit of this inquiry, a research team led by Professor Sascha Frühholz of the <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Zurich</a>, specializing in cognitive and affective neuroscience, embarked on a fascinating study. 



Their research aimed to discern the distinct effects of live and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-triggers-unique-prediction-zones-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">recorded music</a> on the human brain's emotional processes.



Central to their investigation was an innovative experiment featuring a live pianist, whose performance dynamically evolved to heighten emotional responses in the listeners' amygdalas -- the brain's emotional nexus. 



Utilizing magnetic resonance imaging, the team monitored the amygdala activity of both the audience and the performer in real-time. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-live-vs-recorded-a-comparative-experiment">Live vs. recorded: A comparative experiment</h2>



This unique setup allowed the pianist to adjust the performance on the fly, amplifying the emotional engagement of the audience.



To draw comparisons, the audience was also exposed to a recorded version of the same piece, performed by the same artist but without the interactive, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-therapy-key-features-of-healing-music-identified/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurofeedback loop</a>. 



The findings were revelatory. “Our study showed that pleasant and unpleasant emotions performed as live music elicited much higher and more consistent activity in the amygdala than recorded music," explained Frühholz.



"The live performance also stimulated a more active exchange of information in the whole brain, which points to strong emotional processing in the affective and cognitive parts of the brain.” 



Furthermore, live performances fostered a more vigorous informational exchange throughout the brain, underscoring the potency of live music in engaging both affective and cognitive brain regions.



The research team delved deeper, examining the alignment between the piano music and the audience's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/babies-are-born-with-the-ability-to-recognize-the-beat-in-music/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain activity</a>. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-synchronicity-between-music-and-emotion">Synchronicity between music and emotion</h2>



A remarkable synchronization between the subjective emotional experience and the auditory brain system -- responsible for evaluating music's acoustic qualities -- was distinctly observed during live performances. 



Moreover, it was only in the context of live music that a strong, positive correlation emerged between the nuances of the musical performance and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-can-prevent-brain-aging-and-cognitive-decline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain activity</a> of the listeners.



Historically, humanity has leveraged various tools and instruments to create live music, a tradition predating the advent of music recording technologies in the early 20th century. 



Despite today's access to streaming platforms and high-quality audio devices, the communal and emotional richness of attending a live performance remains unparalleled.



Professor Frühholz suggests that this preference for live music may be rooted in our evolutionary history, emphasizing our innate desire for the immersive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-as-a-pain-reliever-the-power-of-your-playlist/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emotional journey</a> that live performances offer. 



“This can perhaps be traced back to the evolutionary roots of music,” says Frühholz. “People want the emotional experience of live music. We want musicians to take us on an emotional journey with their performances.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-incomparable-experience-of-live-music">Incomparable experience of live music</h2>



In summary, this pioneering study highlights the unparalleled emotional impact of live music, compared to its recorded counterpart. 



Through innovative experiments involving real-time neurofeedback and magnetic resonance imaging, scientists from the University of Zurich demonstrated that live performances not only elicit stronger and more consistent emotional responses in the brain's amygdala, but also enhance the overall exchange of information within the brain. This process evokes the profound cognitive and affective engagement live music offers. 



Their research deepens our understanding of music's emotional sway while reaffirming the irreplaceable value and unique connection that live music fosters among performers and audiences alike, echoing our evolutionary inclination towards the enriching experience of live performances.



Image copyright: <a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/C30agQPO-ry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">@actennille via @billystrings</a>; <a href="https://www.billystrings.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BillyStrings.com</a>; <a href="https://andytennillephotography.zenfolio.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Andy Tennille Photography</a>



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2316306121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Live music triggers much stronger emotions than streamed music

Music possesses a profound ability to stir our emotions. Research...

A preliminary study has established a significant link between pesticide exposure and the incidence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dopamine-plays-an-unexpected-role-in-movement-and-parkinsons-disease/">Parkinson’s disease</a> in the Rocky Mountain and Great Plains regions of the United States. 



The research was led by Dr. Brittany Krzyzanowski of the <a href="https://www.barrowneuro.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Barrow Neurological Institute</a> in Phoenix, Arizona. The results highlight the complex interplay between environmental factors and neurological health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-regional-levels-of-pesticide-use">Regional levels of pesticide use</h2>



“We used geographic methods to examine the rates of Parkinson’s disease across the United States and compared those rates to regional levels of pesticide and herbicide use,” said Dr. Krzyzanowski.



“Our methods enabled us to identify parts of the nation where there was a relationship between most pesticides and Parkinson’s disease and subsequently pinpoint where the relationship was strongest so we could explore specific pesticides in that region."&nbsp;



"In the Rocky Mountain and Great Plains region, we identified 14 pesticides associated with Parkinson’s disease.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



Dr. Krzyzanowski said the most affected region includes parts of Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Texas, Utah and Wyoming. This part of the country emerged as a focal point due to its alarming association with Parkinson’s disease.



For the investigation, Dr. Krzyzanowski and her team analyzed the health records of 21.5 million individuals enrolled in Medicare in 2009. The goal was to compare the regional Parkinson’s disease rates with the use of 65 different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pesticides-travel-far-and-wide-endangering-aquatic-ecosystems/">pesticides</a>. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clear-and-concerning-trend">Clear and concerning trend</h2>



The findings are alarming: pesticides and herbicides such as simazine, atrazine, and lindane were strongly linked to increased rates of Parkinson’s disease.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simazine">Simazine</h3>



In particular, the study revealed that residents in counties with the highest levels of simazine application were 36% more likely to develop Parkinson’s disease compared to those in areas with minimal exposure.&nbsp;



According to the results, in the counties with the highest exposure to simazine, 411 new Parkinson’s disease cases developed per every 100,000 people. This is significantly higher than the rate of 380 cases in the counties with the lowest exposure.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-atrazine">Atrazine</h3>



The results also showed that individuals exposed to the highest amount of the herbicide atrazine were 31% more likely to have Parkinson’s disease compared to those with the lowest exposure.&nbsp;



In the counties with the highest exposure to atrazine, 475 new Parkinson’s disease cases developed per every 100,000 people compared to 398 cases in the counties with the lowest exposure.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lindane">Lindane</h3>



Furthermore, individuals with the greatest exposure to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insecticide-responsible-for-major-crayfish-kill-in-australia/">insecticide</a> lindane were 25% more likely to develop the disease. 



Across counties with the highest exposure to lindane, 386 new Parkinson’s disease cases developed per every 100,000 people compared to 349 cases in the counties with the lowest exposure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-research-is-urgently-needed-nbsp">Further research is urgently needed&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers said that even after they adjusted for other factors that could affect the risk of Parkinson’s disease, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-increases-the-risk-of-non-lung-cancers-too/">air pollution</a> exposure, the results remained the same.



“It’s concerning that previous studies have identified other pesticides and herbicides as potential risk factors for Parkinson’s, and there are hundreds of pesticides that have not yet been studied for any relationship to the disease,” said Dr. Krzyzanowski.&nbsp;



“Much more research is needed to determine these relationships and hopefully to inspire others to take steps to lower the risk of disease by reducing the levels of these pesticides.”



The study was supported by Michael J. Fox Foundation for Parkinson’s Research. The results will be presented at the 76th Annual Meeting of the <a href="https://www.aan.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Academy of Neurology</a>, scheduled from April 13–18, 2024.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-parkinson-s-disease">Parkinson's disease</h2>



Parkinson's disease is a progressive neurological disorder that primarily affects movement, leading to symptoms that worsen over time.&nbsp;



The disease is caused by the degeneration and loss of neurons in the brain, particularly in an area called the substantia nigra, which is crucial for controlling movements. These neurons produce dopamine, a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dopamine-helps-us-learn-from-positive-and-negative-experiences/">neurotransmitter</a> that plays a key role in sending messages to the part of the brain that controls movement and coordination. 



As Parkinson's disease progresses, the amount of dopamine produced in the brain decreases, leaving a person unable to control movement normally.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-symptoms">Symptoms</h3>



The symptoms of Parkinson's disease are varied and can include tremors (shaking), bradykinesia (slowness of movement), limb rigidity, and problems with balance and coordination. These symptoms can lead to difficulty with walking, talking, and completing simple tasks.&nbsp;



Parkinson's can also cause non-motor symptoms, including sleep disturbances, mood disorders, cognitive impairment, and autonomic dysfunction, which can affect blood pressure, bowel and bladder function, and sexual performance.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-possible-causes">Possible causes</h3>



The exact cause of Parkinson's disease is unknown, but it's believed to be a combination of genetic and environmental factors.&nbsp;



Exposure to certain toxins, such as pesticides, has been linked to an increased risk of developing the disease, and some genetic mutations have been identified that contribute to its development, though these are less common.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-treatments">Treatments</h3>



There is currently no cure for Parkinson's disease, but treatments are available to help manage its symptoms. Medication therapy, most notably levodopa combined with carbidopa, is used to increase dopamine levels in the brain or mimic its actions, helping to control motor symptoms.&nbsp;



Other treatments can include deep brain stimulation (DBS), physical therapy, and occupational therapy, aimed at improving quality of life.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ongoing-research-nbsp">Ongoing research&nbsp;</h3>



Research into Parkinson's disease is ongoing, with scientists looking for better ways to treat the disease, manage its symptoms more effectively, and ultimately find a cure.&nbsp;



Experts like Dr. Krzyzanowski are studying the potential links between pesticide exposure and other environmental factors and the development of Parkinson's disease. This may ultimately lead to the development of new treatment options that target the underlying causes of the disease rather than just its symptoms.



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Pesticide exposure increases the risk of Parkinson’s disease 

A preliminary study has established a significant link between pesticide...

The Triassic period, known for the rise of the first <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-ancestors-coexisted-with-dinosaurs-yes-according-to-shocking-new-research/">dinosaurs</a>, has yielded another remarkable discovery: Dinocephalosaurus orientalis.&nbsp;



The name translates to "terrible-headed reptile," a fitting description for the creature's imposing features. This newly-identified <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-reptile-rhynchosaur-died-off-before-the-dinosaurs-due-to-weak-teeth/">reptile</a>, unearthed by researchers from several countries, also sheds light on the diversity and complexity of the Triassic era.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-discovery-nbsp">Fossil discovery&nbsp;</h2>



The fossils were recovered from seabeds of southwestern China. Scientists examined these fossils and compared their remains to other marine fossils.&nbsp;



The goal was to understand what made Dinocephalosaurus unique and where it fit within the evolutionary story. The analysis shed light on its distinctive features and its role in the ancient ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-streamlined-body-nbsp">Streamlined body&nbsp;</h2>



Dinocephalosaurus had a sleek, torpedo-shaped body and a long, powerful tail. These features were perfectly suited for its life swimming in the ocean. 



The smooth, streamlined body of Dinocephalosaurus helped it cut through the water easily, like a boat slicing through waves. The reptile could swim quickly and efficiently, using less energy to travel long distances. This advantage was crucial for hunting prey, as it enabled Dinocephalosaurus to chase after them or burst forward for a surprise attack.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-powerful-tail-nbsp">Powerful tail&nbsp;</h2>



Similar to many modern aquatic animals, Dinocephalosaurus' long tail served several purposes. The strong, flexible muscles in the tail propelled it through the water, acting like an oar.&nbsp;



This powerful tail allowed for quick, agile movements, which were essential for both catching prey and escaping from predators in the fast-paced underwater world. Additionally, the tail helped balance the long neck of Dinocephalosaurus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exceptionally-long-neck-and-ribs">Exceptionally long neck and ribs</h2>



The creature had a super-long neck that sets it apart from other sea creatures of its time.&nbsp; Compared to most reptiles, where the neck is short, Dinocephalosaurus's long neck gave it a major advantage in the water, letting it find food in ways other similar creatures couldn't.&nbsp;



The long neck was powerful because of its exceptionally long ribs. These ribs helped the neck in two ways.&nbsp;



First, they made the neck strong enough to hold itself up and move quickly in the water. This was important because Dinocephalosaurus needed to move its neck quickly to catch prey.&nbsp;



Second, the ribs allowed the neck to bend and twist in many directions. This flexibility was helpful for finding prey in tight spaces and catching agile animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-piscivorous-diet">Piscivorous diet</h2>



Dinocephalosaurus ate mostly fish, as shown by the shape of its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/skull-evolution-why-some-mammals-have-long-faces/">skull</a> and teeth. The reptile had sharp teeth to grab the fish and prevent them from escaping.



These adaptations show that Dinocephalosaurus was an important part of its ecosystem. By eating fish, it helped to control their population and keep the environment balanced.&nbsp;



The fact that Dinocephalosaurus specialized in eating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-confirms-that-fish-can-recognize-themselves-in-a-mirror/">fish</a> also suggests that the oceans during this time period were plentiful and diverse.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reproductive-strategy">Reproductive strategy</h2>



Scientists believe that Dinocephalosaurus gave birth to live young. This is because similar sea creatures reproduced this way, and Dinocephalosaurus lived entirely in the water.&nbsp;



Laying eggs in water is risky because the eggs can be easily eaten by other animals or damaged by the environment. By giving birth to live young, Dinocephalosaurus could protect its offspring and improve their chances of survival.



Living entirely in water meant that Dinocephalosaurus couldn't lay eggs on land like some other reptiles. This may have helped them spread to new areas and become more successful in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-finds-17-exoplanets-that-have-oceans-and-possibly-alien-life/">oceans</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-significance">Study significance</h2>



"The discovery of the additional fossils allows us to see this remarkable long-necked animal in its entirety for the first time. It is reminiscent of the long, snake-like, mythical Chinese dragon. We are sure that Dinocephalosaurus orientalis will capture the imagination around the world because of its striking appearance," said study co-author Dr. Nick Fraser of the National Museum of Scotland.



The research shows us how amazing and varied life is on Earth. It also surprises us by showing how creatures can change to fit their surroundings in different ways than we thought. Dinocephalosaurus is a reminder that life on Earth is always changing and evolving.



"This was an international effort. In collaboration with colleagues from the United States of America and Europe, we used newly discovered specimens to expand our previous knowledge of Dinocephalosaurus. Among all the extraordinary Triassic finds we have made in Guizhou Province, this marine reptile probably stands out as the most remarkable," said study co-author Dr. Li Chun, curator at the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology in Beijing.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S175569102400001X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth and Environmental Science Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.</a>



Image Credit: Marlene Donelly



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Dinocephalosaurus: 240-million-year-old 'Chinese dragon' was a fierce predator

The Triassic period, known for the rise of the first...

A team of astronomers led by <a href="https://www.bgu.ac.il/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ben-Gurion University of the Negev</a> (BGU) has identified an extremely red, gravitationally lensed supermassive black hole in the early universe. This discovery, facilitated by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-telescope-discovers-second-most-distant-galaxy-in-pandoras-cluster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Webb Space Telescope</a> (JWST), suggests the black hole is concealed behind a thick dust veil, obscuring much of its light. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysteries-of-the-early-universe-nbsp">Mysteries of the early universe&nbsp;</h2>



The experts found that the black hole's mass is significantly larger relative to its host galaxy compared to more local examples. The research marks a significant advancement in understanding the early universe.



Launched two years ago, the JWST has revolutionized our view of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ceers-2112-ancient-galaxy-looks-strikingly-similar-to-ours/">galaxy</a> formation. The telescope has uncovered very early galaxies in greater numbers and with more brightness than anticipated, along with some new object types.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-far-into-the-past">Looking far into the past</h2>



The discovery was made in images from the JWST, initially believed to be a lensed, quasar-like object from the early universe. Quasars are bright centers of galaxies where supermassive black holes actively accrete material, emitting vast amounts of radiation that overshadows the host galaxy.&nbsp;



The images were part of the <a href="https://jwst-uncover.github.io/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNCOVER program</a>, aimed at observing the galaxy cluster Abell 2744 with unprecedented depth. The mass of the cluster causes a gravitational lensing effect, magnifying background galaxies and allowing astronomers to see further into the past than otherwise possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-red-blooming-objects-nbsp">Red-blooming objects&nbsp;</h2>



"We were very excited when JWST started sending its first data. We were scanning the data that arrived for the UNCOVER program and three very compact yet red-blooming objects prominently stood out and caught our eyes," said lead author Lukas Furtak, a postdoctoral researcher at BGU. "Their 'red-dot' appearance immediately led us to suspect that it was a quasar-like object."



The team used a numerical lensing model of the galaxy cluster to determine that the red dots were multiple images of the same background source, seen when the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-study-claims-our-universe-is-27-billion-years-old-double-the-current-age-estimate/">universe</a> was only about 700 million years old.&nbsp;



"Analysis of the object's colors indicated that it was not a typical star-forming galaxy. This further supported the supermassive black hole hypothesis," said Professor Rachel Bezanson from the <a href="https://www.pitt.edu/">University of Pittsburgh</a> and co-lead of the UNCOVER program.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-staggering-results-nbsp">Staggering results&nbsp;</h2>



Acquiring JWST/NIRSpec data for the three images of the "red dot" provided staggering results. "The spectra were just mind blowing," remarked another co-lead of the UNCOVER project, Professor Ivo Labbé from the <a href="https://www.swinburne.edu.au/">Swinburne University of Technology</a>.&nbsp;



The analysis not only confirmed the object as a supermassive black hole and measured its exact redshift but also provided a solid estimate for its mass from the width of its emission lines.



The research led to the surprising finding that the black hole's mass is exceedingly high compared to the mass of its host galaxy.&nbsp;



"All the light of that galaxy must fit within a tiny region the size of a present-day star-cluster...Even packing all the possible stars into such a small region, the black hole ends up being at least 1% of the total mass of the system,” said Professor Jenny Greene from <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Princeton University</a>, one of the lead authors of the paper.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-nbsp">Broader implications&nbsp;</h2>



This discovery has opened up new discussions about the growth of supermassive black holes and their relationship with their host galaxies in the early universe, highlighting the mysteries surrounding their origins and development.&nbsp;



"In a way, it's the astrophysical equivalent of the chicken and egg problem," Professor Adi Zitrin commented, reflecting on the ongoing debate about whether <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shapes-of-one-million-galaxies-hint-at-the-universes-origins/">galaxies</a> or black holes form first. With JWST continuing to detect "little red dots" and other active galactic nuclei, the astronomical community is hopeful for more insights into these ancient cosmic structures.



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Red supermassive black hole found in the shadows of the early universe

A team of astronomers led by Ben-Gurion University of the...

A study led by <a href="https://tulane.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tulane University</a> has found that residing near pubs, bars, and fast-food restaurants could increase the risk of heart failure. According to the researchers, this type of food environment, often laden with unhealthy options, is associated with cardiovascular diseases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pioneering-study">Pioneering study</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hydration-reduces-the-risk-of-heart-failure/">Heart failure</a>, a condition where the heart is unable to pump sufficient blood to meet the body's needs, has not been extensively studied in relation to the food environment.&nbsp;



Thus, the study is a pioneering one in examining the long-term observation of the association between food environment and heart failure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-the-food-environment-nbsp">Impact of the food environment&nbsp;</h2>



“Most previous research on the relation between nutrition and human health has been focused on food quality, while neglecting the impact of food environment," said senior author Lu Qi, a professor of epidemiology at Tulane. “Our study highlights the importance of accounting for food environment in nutrition research.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



The researchers utilized data from the <a href="https://www.ukbiobank.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UK Biobank</a>, analyzing over 500,000 adults in the UK, to investigate the proximity and density of pubs or bars, restaurants or cafeterias, and fast-food restaurants near participants' homes and its correlation with heart failure.&nbsp;



Throughout a 12-year follow-up, nearly 13,000 heart failure cases were identified, showcasing a link between the density and proximity of ready-to-eat <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dont-say-vegan-food-labeling-should-focus-on-health-and-sustainability/">food</a> outlets and an increased risk of heart failure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-density-areas-of-pubs-and-bars">High-density areas of pubs and bars</h2>



The results indicated that those living in areas with the highest density of ready-to-eat food outlets had a 16% greater risk of heart failure compared to those in areas without such outlets.&nbsp;



Specifically, high-density areas of pubs and bars were associated with a 14% higher risk, and areas with a high density of fast-food outlets had a 12% higher risk. Proximity to these outlets also mattered, with those living closest to pubs and bars or fast-food outlets facing a 13% and 10% higher risk, respectively.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mitigating-the-risk-of-heart-failure-nbsp">Mitigating the risk of heart failure&nbsp;</h2>



According to Qi, the findings were in line with expectations “because previous studies have suggested that exposure to ready-to-eat food environments is associated with risks of other disorders, such as Type 2 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weight-loss-can-prevent-or-reverse-diabetes/">diabetes</a> and obesity, which may also increase the risk of heart failure.”



The study suggests that improving access to healthier food and physical fitness facilities, particularly in urban areas, and promoting higher <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/every-year-of-education-reduces-mortality-risk/">education levels</a> could mitigate the increased heart failure risk associated with quick-meal options.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-research-is-needed-nbsp">Further research is needed&nbsp;</h2>



An accompanying editorial by Dr. Elissa Driggin and Dr. Ersilia M. DeFilippis from <a href="https://www.cuimc.columbia.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Columbia University Medical Center</a> calls for more detailed analyses in diverse racial and ethnic communities, noting the particular importance of focusing on food environments in high-risk populations, including those with a high incidence of heart failure.



“Given the clear association between Black race and high incidence of heart failure as compared to white patients, as well as associations with worse heart failure outcomes, attention to food environment in this high-risk population is of the utmost importance,” they wrote.



“It has already been demonstrated that compared to predominantly white neighborhoods, there are significantly fewer supermarkets in predominantly Black neighborhoods, which are likely to be inversely associated with ready-to-eat food environments.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-initiative">Broader initiative </h2>



The American Heart Association's efforts to enhance access to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-foods-can-be-staged-to-look-more-appealing/">healthy food</a> and the significance of considering food as medicine in treating chronic health conditions are part of a broader initiative to address the challenges of eating healthier, including the impact of structural racism and poverty on diet quality.



The study - published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.123.010830" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Circulation: Heart Failure</a> - highlights the role of the food environment in heart failure risk. However, further research is needed to confirm these findings and better understand the implications of nutrition insecurity.



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Living close to bars and pubs increases the risk of heart failure

A study led by Tulane University has found that residing...

Earth,And,Sun.,Elements,Of,This,Image,Furnished,By,Nasa

On a seemingly ordinary Thursday at 22:34 GMT (17:34 EST), the sun unleashed a massive solar flare, marking the most significant such event in seven years. This phenomenon represents a <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/solar-flare_strongest-7-years_NOAA-warnings_NASA_1big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">powerful explosion</a> within the sun's atmosphere, illuminating the intricate dance of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ongoing-solar-storms-spectacular-auroras-and-radio-blackouts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">celestial forces at play</a>.



Solar flares, as NASA elucidates, are intense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/team-creates-video-showing-the-sun-in-gamma-rays-over-a-14-year-period/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bursts of radiation</a> emanating from the sun's surface. These eruptions can cause significant disturbances on Earth, affecting everything from power grids and navigation signals to spacecraft and astronauts. 



Despite their potential for disruption, they also gift us with the ethereal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/steve-phenomenon-looks-like-an-aurora-acts-like-an-aurora-but-what-is-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beauty of auroras</a>, painting the sky with vibrant colors visible near the Earth's poles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solar-flare-x6-3-event">Solar flare X6.3 event</h2>



The recent flare, classified as an X6.3 event, is part of a series of flares that have occurred since Wednesday, as reported by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (<a href="https://www.noaa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NOAA</a>). 



While not as monumental as the flares of September 2017, which included an X9.3 and an X8.2, this event underscores the sun's ever-present capacity for awe-inspiring displays of energy. 



The classification system for solar flares, ranging from A to X, with X being the most severe, highlights the varying degrees of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-massive-solar-flare-struck-earth-on-monday-but-what-does-this-mean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar phenomena</a>.



This week's X6.3 flare stands out as the largest of its kind during the current solar cycle, a period marked by the sun's magnetic field undergoing a complete reversal approximately every 11 years. We are currently in cycle 25, which began in 2019 and is anticipated to last until about 2030. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-auroras-and-potential-gps-and-satellite-disruptions">Auroras and potential GPS and satellite disruptions</h2>



The cycle's progression influences the sun's activity levels, from the tranquility of the solar minimum to the tumultuous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/solar-storms-will-intensify-then-slow-as-the-solar-cycle-peaks-in-early-2024/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar maximum</a>, characterized by an increase in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-sunspot-archipelago-15-times-wider-than-earth-spotted-by-nasa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sunspots</a> and solar flares.



The implications of such solar activity extend beyond the confines of space, touching down on Earth with the potential for both disruption and natural wonder. 



The particles ejected by solar flares, taking roughly two days to reach Earth, can ignite the sky with auroras -- a spectacle traditionally confined to regions close to the poles but sometimes visible further afield under favorable conditions.



Beyond their visual majesty, solar flares and the related coronal mass ejections (CMEs) pose challenges to our increasingly technology-dependent world. 



High-speed solar winds emanating from coronal holes, areas on the sun where magnetic fields open into space, can exacerbate these effects, leading to auroras and disruptions in communication systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-noaa-solar-flare-forecast-discussion">NOAA solar flare forecast discussion</h2>



As mentioned above, the most striking event was the production of an X6.3/3b flare by Active Region (AR) 3590, situated at N18E26. This flare, recorded at 22:34 UTC on February 22nd, stands as the largest flare observed in this solar cycle, underscoring the dynamic nature of our sun. 



Accompanying this event was a tenflare, reaching a peak of 240 Solar Flux Units (SFU) at 22:25 UTC the same day. Despite the magnitude of this flare, no <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-solar-outburst-detected-simultaneously-at-earth-the-moon-and-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coronal mass ejections</a> (CMEs) were detected, indicating a lack of significant outward material ejection from the sun's corona.



In parallel, new solar regions have been identified and monitored. New Region 3591, located at S34E77, exhibited a moderate M1.5 flare early at 00:14 UTC on the same day. 



Additional regions, 3592 (S12E78) and 3593 (S04W58), have also been cataloged, though they remained relatively inactive during the observed period. The absence of Earth-directed CMEs during this time provides a somewhat reassuring outlook for our planet's near-term space weather environment.



Looking ahead, experts anticipate sustained high solar activity through February 25th, with M-class flares expected to occur frequently. There is also a potential for X-class flares, given the recent activities of ARs 3590 and 3591. 



This forecast underscores the ongoing vigilance required in monitoring solar phenomena and their potential impacts on space weather.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-energetic-particles-and-their-influence">Energetic particles and their influence</h3>



Over the past 24 hours, the solar system has experienced near-background levels of proton flux above 10 MeV, while electron flux levels above 2 MeV have been observed at normal to moderate intensities. 



The forecast suggests a slight possibility of an S1 (Minor) proton event occurring within the next three days (February 23rd to 25th), primarily due to the potential activity from AR3590. 



Additionally, the electron flux is expected to maintain its current levels, contributing to the overall energetic particle dynamics within Earth's vicinity.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solar-wind-solar-flares-and-cme">Solar wind, solar flares, and CME</h3>



The solar wind environment has maintained nominal levels, with total field strength peaking at 7 nanoTeslas (nT) and wind speeds averaging near 325 km/s. 



A noteworthy shift occurred when the solar wind's magnetic polarity switched from positive to negative around 09:00 UTC on February 23rd. 



Forecasts predict these nominal conditions to persist through February 24th, with the influence of a CME and a Coronal Hole High Speed Stream (CH HSS) anticipated on February 25th. 



This event is expected to pass ahead of Earth's orbit, potentially influencing the solar wind conditions encountered by our planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geospace-outlook-emerging-storm-potential">Geospace outlook: Emerging storm potential</h2>



The geomagnetic field has exhibited quiet conditions, while the Interplanetary Magnetic Field (IMF) has returned to background levels. The immediate forecast indicates a continuation of these quiet conditions through February 24th. 



However, a shift is expected on February 25th when G1 (Minor) storm levels are likely to be reached. This change is attributed to the combined effects of the February 21st CME, related to a filament eruption, and the impact of a CH HSS. 



These phenomena highlight the interconnected nature of solar and geomagnetic activity, as well as the importance of continuous monitoring to predict and mitigate potential impacts on Earth and its technological systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



In summary, NASA's recent capture of the most powerful solar flare in seven years marks a significant event in our ongoing observation of solar phenomena. 



This X6.3 class flare, emanating from the sun's atmosphere, underscores the dynamic and sometimes volatile nature of our closest star. 



The NOAA warns of the potential for disruptions to Earth's technological infrastructure, including power grids and navigation systems, while also promising the breathtaking spectacle of auroras across polar skies. 



As we <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meet-the-fastest-human-made-object-ever-nasas-parker-solar-probe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">continue to monitor</a> these solar activities through the vigilant eyes of agencies like NASA and NOAA, we gain valuable insights into the sun's cycles and their broader implications for both Earth and space. 



This event serves as a vivid reminder of the sun's power and the delicate balance between its beauty and its potential to impact human technology and space exploration.



The full NASA report can <a href="https://www.swpc.noaa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">be found here…</a>



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Strongest solar flare in 7 years prompts auroras and satellite warnings

On a seemingly ordinary Thursday at 22:34 GMT (17:34 EST),...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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