Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Feeling like there's never enough time to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-may-actually-be-the-fountain-of-youth/">exercise</a>? You're not alone. Between work, family, and everything else, fitting in regular workouts can be tough.&nbsp;



But what if there's a secret weapon? Some people go all-out on the weekends, cramming their exercise into one or two intense sessions. Is it possible that this "weekend warrior" approach could be as effective as daily workouts for weight loss? 



A new study from the <a href="https://www.imm.ac.cn/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences</a> investigates this surprising idea, challenging traditional exercise advice and offering hope for busy individuals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-widespread-issue-of-obesity-nbsp">Widespread issue of obesity&nbsp;</h2>



The study draws attention to the widespread problem of obesity, impacting a staggering 650 million adults globally. This excess <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-health-benefits-of-weight-loss-persist-for-years/">weight</a> brings about significant health challenges like diabetes and heart problems, various cancers, and even osteoarthritis.&nbsp;



Moreover, the location of the excess weight matters. People with belly fat (central obesity) have a higher risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/high-caffeine-levels-reduce-the-risk-of-diabetes/">diabetes</a> and heart trouble compared to those with fat on their hips and thighs.



Exercise is undoubtedly a powerful tool in managing weight and overall health. It burns calories, boosts metabolism, and promotes muscle growth, which in turn helps burn more calories even at rest.&nbsp;



To delve deeper into the impact of exercise frequency, the researchers carried out this interesting study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



The researchers looked at how different exercise patterns affect belly fat and overall fat in 9,629 adults aged 20-59 in the USA. They analyzed data from a big national survey called NHANES from 2011 to 2018.



The experts focused on people who did not have any limitations on exercise. The participants answered questions about how much light, moderate, and hard exercise they did each week for fun, at work, or while traveling.



The researchers then grouped the people into 3 categories based on their total exercise minutes:



<ul>
<li>Not active at all (less than 150 minutes per week)</li>



<li>Weekend warriors (at least 150 minutes in 1 or 2 sessions)</li>



<li>Regularly active (at least 150 minutes in more than 2 sessions)</li>
</ul>



Belly fat and overall fat were measured using specialized scans, along with traditional indicators like weight and waist circumference.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-results">Surprising results</h2>



The study shows that how you fit exercise into your week might not be as important as you think, especially when it comes to fighting weight gain. Whether you cram your workouts into the weekend ("weekend warrior") or spread them out throughout the week ("regularly active"), you'll likely see benefits like less belly fat, smaller waist size, and lower overall weight.



This is big news because it means more people can find an exercise routine that fits their life. You can forget the strict "every day" rule - any movement is better than none.&nbsp;



“The weekend warrior pattern is worth promoting in individuals who cannot meet the recommended frequency in current guidelines,” explained study co-author Lihua Zhang.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fat-reduction">Fat reduction</h2>



The study shows promise in fighting abdominal adiposity through both weekend warrior and regular exercise.&nbsp;



The data tells a great story: people in both groups saw big improvements in all measures of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-kimchi-helps-shed-belly-fat-and-improves-overall-health/">belly fat</a>. The measures include hidden fat around organs, fat under the skin, and total belly fat.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-waistline-and-bmi">Waistline and BMI</h2>



The experts dug deeper, looking beyond abdominal adiposity and found good news for both "weekend warriors" and regular exercisers. Their waistlines got smaller and their Body Mass Index (BMI) went down compared to those who didn't exercise at all.



Waist size is a simple way to measure belly fat, which is linked to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/excessive-smartphone-usage-linked-to-health-issues-in-adolescents/">health problems</a>. Smaller waist size and lower BMI reduce the risk of diseases like heart disease, diabetes, and other issues linked to being overweight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-takeaways-nbsp">Key takeaways&nbsp;</h2>



For many, the structured demands of the work week create a yearning for unstructured time. A flexible approach allows you to embrace physical activity as a fun escape on weekends, not just a chore.



Staying active, even when your schedule changes, can boost your confidence. Feeling good about your progress helps you keep going, instead of getting discouraged and giving up completely.



Exercise can also naturally relieve stress by releasing feel-good hormones and calming your body down. When you feel tense, taking a quick walk or a relaxing swim can help you feel better and take charge of your mood.



Eventually, moving your body will make you happier. Maybe it's enjoying the sun on a bike ride, having fun with others in a fitness class, or just feeling good about being active - whatever it is, exercise can really lift your spirits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-who-recommendations">WHO recommendations</h2>



The World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines recommend that adults aiming to mitigate obesity risks should engage in at least:



<ul>
<li>150 minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity (PA) like brisk walking, cycling, or swimming per week. This translates to roughly 30 minutes most days of the week.</li>



<li>75 minutes of vigorous-intensity PA like running, high-intensity interval training (HIIT), or sports games. This equates to 15 minutes three times a week.</li>



<li>A combination of both moderate and vigorous activity to suit your preferences and fitness level.</li>
</ul>



Remember, every body is different, so find what works best for you and celebrate the joy of movement. Whether you're a busy parent or a professional with long hours, you can still see major health benefits.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/oby.23986" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Obesity</a>.



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Weekend warriors can lose as much weight as daily exercisers

Feeling like there's never enough time to exercise? You're not...

A scoping review has brought to light five key ways in which the health of homeless <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pet-owners-are-happier-than-people-who-dont-have-pets/">pet owners</a> and their animals can be significantly improved.&nbsp;



Despite the fact that around 10% of homeless individuals have pets, detailed information on how to effectively support their health has been scarce. These pets often serve as the sole source of unconditional love and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-live-longer-and-happier-lives-when-they-get-to-socialize-often/">companionship</a> for their owners.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-interventions">Critical interventions</h2>



The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1079/hai.2024.0002" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Human-Animal Interactions</a>, outlines critical interventions for supporting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-mammals-in-zoos-are-now-living-longer-healthier-lives/">healthier lives</a> for homeless individuals and their pets. 



These include providing access to free veterinary clinics, establishing joint human/animal clinics, efforts aimed at reducing stigma, fostering interdisciplinary relationships, and ensuring the availability of pet-friendly lodging options.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-promising-avenues-nbsp">Promising avenues&nbsp;</h2>



Dr. Michelle Kurkowski and Dr. Andrew Springer, the study's lead authors, emphasized the diversity found in research on this subject. They highlight the urgent need for further program interventions that are necessary to recommend intervention best practices.



Exploring promising avenues for intervention and health improvement, the study suggests that joint human/animal clinics and interdisciplinary partnerships are some of the most promising avenues for evaluating interventions and improving health outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-healthcare-for-pets">Healthcare for pets</h2>



One notable finding from a study by Ramirez et al (2022) involving 44 homeless pet owners in Seattle, USA, revealed a strong interest in healthcare for pets over personal healthcare, with a significant portion expressing willingness to attend a joint veterinary/human health clinic due to its convenience.



Dr. Kurkowski, previously a researcher at the University of Texas Health Science Center at <a href="https://sph.uth.edu/campuses/houston" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Houston School of Public Health</a>, is now a Veterinary Medical Officer for the US Department of Agriculture’s <a href="https://www.aphis.usda.gov/aphis/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service</a>,



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lack-of-safe-places-nbsp">Lack of safe places&nbsp;</h2>



Dr. Kurkowski said: "Research has shown that companion animals are a source of friendship and physical safety, and homeless persons with pets report significantly lower rates of depression and loneliness compared to non-pet owners."



However, the review also uncovers the less-discussed challenges faced by homeless pet owners, such as the tough choice between accessing shelter and keeping their pets with them.&nbsp;



“Similarly, our review reveals that this group is less likely to utilize needing assistance, such as healthcare or career services, potentially due to difficulty using public transportation or lack of safe places to leave pets,” she added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interventions-are-desperately-needed">Interventions are desperately needed</h2>



Dr. Kurkowski and Dr. Springer believe that while the literature on the benefits and needs of homeless pet owners is growing, interventions specifically designed to address their unique challenges are still lacking.



“Our purpose was to describe the study designs, measurements, and outcomes of relevant primary research studies to identify knowledge gaps in the body of literature on this topic," Springer explained.



Ultimately, the researchers advocate for a comprehensive and effective care package for homeless individuals and their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pets-did-not-improve-emotional-well-being-during-the-pandemic/">pets</a>, emphasizing the need for a collaborative effort among healthcare providers, social workers, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-poses-a-multi-faceted-threat-to-animal-welfare/">animal welfare</a> workers, and both governmental and nonprofit organizations to create innovative solutions for this underserved population.



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Homeless pet owners need better options to protect their animals

A scoping review has brought to light five key ways...

Imagine growing up surrounded by fear and uncertainty. Your neighborhood echoes with sirens, and news headlines scream of violence. Sadly, this is a reality for countless teenagers living in disadvantaged communities. But the impact goes deeper than emotional scars – it affects the very structure of their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-brains-bend-time-to-adapt-to-lifes-rhythm/">brains</a>.



A new study from the <a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a> delves into this critical issue, exploring how community violence, family life, and even brain activity itself intertwine.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-brain-region">Key brain region</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-the-brain-identify-rewards-and-punishments/">amygdala</a> is a small but important part of your brain located in the temporal lobe. It plays a crucial role in processing emotions and managing reactions to your environment.&nbsp;



The amygdala helps you understand emotions, both yours and those of others. It analyzes situations and triggers emotional responses like fear, happiness, or anger.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emotionally-charged-memories-nbsp">Emotionally charged memories&nbsp;</h2>



When you experience something scary, the amygdala remembers it. This helps you learn what to avoid in the future, keeping you safe from potential threats.&nbsp;



Strong emotions can make memories more vivid and lasting. The amygdala plays a part in storing these emotionally charged memories for later recall.



By understanding the amygdala's functions, we can better understand how people react to emotional experiences and challenging situations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disadvantage-gets-under-the-skin">Disadvantage gets under the skin</h2>



“Decades of research has shown that growing up in neighborhoods with concentrated disadvantage can predict negative academic, behavioral and mental health outcomes in children and teens," said study co-author Dr. Luke W. Hyde.



"And recent research is beginning to show that one way it does that is by impacting the developing brain. However, less is known about how neighborhood disadvantage ‘gets under the skin’ to impact brain development."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study-nbsp">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



The experts set out to investigate the link between neighborhood disadvantage and brain activity related to emotional processing. Using advanced imaging techniques, they monitored the amygdala as participants aged 7-19 viewed pictures of faces expressing various <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psifi-wearable-device-interprets-emotions-of-people-near-you/">emotions</a> and shapes.&nbsp;



The researchers used brain scans to see how active the amygdala was when teens saw different pictures. They looked at:



<ul>
<li>Emotional faces: Showing fear or anger (threats)</li>



<li>Neutral faces: Not showing any emotion (unclear)</li>



<li>Shapes: Not linked to emotions (neutral)</li>
</ul>



The experts also considered factors like community violence exposure, parental support, and participant demographics.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-new-insights-nbsp">Critical new insights&nbsp;</h2>



The study revealed that the amygdala was especially active when people looked at pictures of scared or angry faces. These faces are often signs of danger in the real world.&nbsp;



For teens who have been exposed to violence in their community, the amygdala was even more active. This suggests that their brains may have changed to be more alert and ready for danger.



The amygdala was also more active when teens looked at pictures of faces with no clear emotion. These faces don't usually tell you anything about whether someone is scared or angry.&nbsp;



However, for people who have been exposed to violence, even these uncertain faces might seem like they could be dangerous. This could mean that their brains are generally more on guard when it comes to reading other people's faces, possibly as a way to stay safe in dangerous environments.



“This makes sense as it’s adaptive for adolescents to be more in tune to threats when living in a more dangerous neighborhood,” said Dr Hyde.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-specificity-of-brain-activity">Specificity of brain activity</h2>



The scientists also studied how the violence affects the amygdala. They found different parts of the amygdala react differently. Some parts seem tuned to specific noise, especially those that might signal danger.



Using scans, they pinpointed which tiny areas ("voxels") in the amygdala are most active after people experience violence. This showed that violence doesn't affect the whole amygdala equally, it's more specific. Certain areas are more sensitive and react stronger, suggesting they handle different types of emotional and social clues.



The connection shows our brains are amazing at adapting. After violence, specific parts of the amygdala become more alert to better detect threats, like a survival mechanism. But this heightened sensitivity can also lead to stress and anxiety in violent environments.



Knowing which parts of the amygdala are affected helps us create targeted support for people to manage the emotional impact of violence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-parents">The role of parents</h2>



The researchers found that when teenagers who have seen violence get good support from their parents, their brains react less strongly to danger.&nbsp;



This support from parents acts like a shield. By creating a safe and loving environment, parents can help their children manage their feelings better. This makes them less likely to overreact to things that seem scary, which can help prevent anxiety and stress problems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-resilience-in-the-face-of-adversity">Resilience in the face of adversity</h2>



“Despite living in a disadvantaged neighborhood, children with more nurturing and involved parents were not as likely to be exposed to community violence, and for those who were exposed, having a more nurturing parent diminished the impact of violence exposure on the brain,” said study co-author Gabriela L. Suarez, a graduate student in Developmental Psychology at the University of Michigan.



“These findings really highlight how nurturing and involved parents are helping to support their children’s success, even in potentially harsh environments, and offer clues as to why some youth are resilient even when facing adversity.”



The knowledge can help kids in two ways. First, it helps them feel less stressed and anxious right away. Second, it helps them learn healthier ways to cope with difficult situations. This can have lasting benefits, making them less likely to struggle with emotional problems later in life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications">Study implications</h2>



The study shows how violence in communities hurts teenagers' brains and development. It affects everything from how governments make decisions to what schools teach.



We need programs to help reduce violence, especially in areas with high risk. This could involve funding programs that make communities safer and less violent. We also need to address the root causes of violence, such as poverty and lack of access to education and healthcare.



“Parents may be an important buffer against these broader structural inequalities, and thus working with parents may be one way to help protect children -- while we also work on policies to reduce the concentration of disadvantage in neighborhoods and the risk for exposure to violence in the community,” said study co-author Dr. Alex Burt.



Programs that teach parents how to support their children emotionally are crucial. This could involve workshops, counseling, and resources to help them manage stress. Schools and community centers can offer programs that teach parents and children how to build strong relationships, communicate effectively, and deal with stress.



Schools can teach children and teens about the effects of violence and how to cope with them. This may include lessons on managing emotions, resolving conflicts, and dealing with stress. Schools in high-risk areas may need special programs to help students who have experienced violence, such as counseling and mental health support.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001712" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Developmental Psychology</a>.



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Exposure to violence may rewire teenage brains

Imagine growing up surrounded by fear and uncertainty. Your neighborhood...

Our cities are full of life, bustling with traffic and daily activities. But hidden in the air is a danger we can't see: tiny particles called <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heatwaves-and-air-pollution-may-double-fatal-heart-attack-risk/">PM2.5</a>, mostly from car exhaust.&nbsp;



We know air pollution hurts our lungs and hearts, but new research from <a href="https://www.emory.edu/home/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Emory University</a> suggests something even scarier: it might raise the risk of Alzheimer's disease, a brain illness affecting millions of people.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-tissue-markers">Brain tissue markers</h2>



This study looked at the possible link between air pollution and brain changes related to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diet-plays-a-major-role-in-preventing-alzheimers-disease/">Alzheimer's</a> disease. The researchers examined brain tissue from 224 individuals with confirmed Alzheimer's disease who had donated their brains after passing away.



They checked for signs of Alzheimer's disease by looking for specific markers in the brain tissue, like neuritic plaques. This helped them assess the severity of the disease.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-air-pollution-exposure">Air pollution exposure</h2>



The experts estimated how much <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chemical-composition-of-us-air-pollution-has-changed-over-time/">air pollution</a> people were exposed to based on where they lived and traffic patterns. Different timeframes (1 year, 3 years, 5 years) were considered before the person passed away.



The researchers used statistical models to see if there was a connection between air pollution exposure and the severity of Alzheimer's disease markers. They also considered whether a specific gene, Apolipoprotein E (APOE), influenced this connection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-increase-in-neuritic-plaques">Increase in neuritic plaques</h2>



The researchers found that higher exposure to PM2.5 was associated with higher levels of neuritic plaques in the brain. These are protein clumps considered a hallmark of Alzheimer's disease.



The more PM2.5 someone was exposed to, the higher their risk of having more plaques. People with higher PM2.5 exposure were nearly twice as likely to have higher plaque levels compared to those with lower exposure.



The link was stronger when looking at PM2.5 exposure in the year before death. This suggests a potentially shorter-term impact of air pollution on Alzheimer's brain changes.&nbsp;



“These results add to the evidence that fine particulate matter from traffic-related air pollution affects the amount of amyloid plaque in the brain,” said study author Anke Huels from Emory University in Atlanta. “More research is needed to investigate the mechanisms behind this link.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-influence-nbsp">Genetic influence&nbsp;</h2>



The team explored whether the link between air pollution and Alzheimer's brain changes were influenced by genetics. The study was specifically focused on the APOE gene, which is known to increase Alzheimer's risk.



The analysis revealed that people without the APOE gene seemed more affected by air pollution in terms of Alzheimer's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-screen-time-changes-the-brain-based-on-23-years-of-research/">brain changes</a>.&nbsp;



For those without the gene, higher air pollution exposure was linked to a more than two-fold higher risk of having more plaques.



“This suggests that environmental factors such as air pollution could be a contributing factor to Alzheimer’s in patients in which the disease cannot be explained by genetics,” Dr Huels said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-factors">Environmental factors</h2>



The study shows that things in our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cigarette-butts-leak-thousands-of-deadly-toxins-into-the-environment/">environment</a>, like air pollution, can affect our chances of getting Alzheimer's disease. This means we can potentially prevent Alzheimer's by paying attention to the environment and keeping it healthy.



Air pollution has been linked to changes in the brain that are similar to those seen in Alzheimer's. This suggests that stricter rules are needed to limit air pollution, especially PM2.5, which comes from car exhaust and other sources. Lowering these limits in cities and factories could help protect people's health.



The study also suggests that cities could be designed differently to reduce air pollution from traffic. This could involve making it easier and safer for people to walk, bike, or use public transportation, instead of driving cars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-health-implications">Global health implications</h2>



People with lower incomes and those living in certain areas are often exposed to more air pollution. The findings suggest that reducing these differences in how much pollution people are exposed to could be important for preventing Alzheimer's disease.



Air pollution is a major threat to public health around the world, and so is Alzheimer's disease. This means that the findings are important for everyone. By cleaning up the air we breathe, we could help prevent Alzheimer's disease in many different communities around the world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000209162" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neurology</a>.



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Traffic-related air pollution linked to increased Alzheimer's risk

Our cities are full of life, bustling with traffic and...

Oxygen,Pressure,Chamber,Is,Being,Treated.,Treatment,Of,Pneumonia,And

Hyperbaric oxygen chambers have seemingly magical healing powers

Imagine being told that there exists a method to reverse...

Woman,Stretching,In,Bed,After,Waking,Up,,Back,View,,Entering

The significance of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/while-in-deep-sleep-humans-can-subconsciously-respond-to-verbal-communication/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep</a> extends far beyond mere rest, playing a pivotal role in the consolidation of our memories, particularly those involving complex events and facts. 



While previous studies have largely focused on simple associations, such as learning new vocabulary, recent research spearheaded by Dr. Nicolas Lutz from the <a href="https://www.imp.med.uni-muenchen.de/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LMU Institute of Medical Psychology</a> sheds light on a more intricate aspect of memory consolidation during sleep.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-simple-recall-the-complexity-of-memory">Beyond simple recall: The complexity of memory</h2>



Dr. Lutz explains, "events are generally made up of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-reset-sleep-restores-the-balance-between-order-and-chaos/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">numerous components</a> -- for example, a place, people, and objects -- which are linked together in the brain. Thanks to the neural connections that underlie these associations, a single cue word is often all it takes for somebody to recall not only individual aspects of an event but multiple aspects at once."



This phenomenon, known as pattern completion, is crucial for our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-breathing-impacts-memory-formation-during-sleep/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">episodic memory</a>, allowing us to recall complex events in a rich, detailed manner.



The study, featured in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS), delves into how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/consistent-sleep-slows-down-aging-at-a-cellular-level/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep</a> influences our ability to remember events with intricate associations. 



Participants in the research first learned about events with complex connections. They were then divided into two groups: one spent the night in a sleep laboratory, resting as usual, and the other stayed awake all night. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleep-as-the-hero-of-complex-memory-consolidation">Sleep as the hero of complex memory consolidation</h2>



Following a recovery night at home, their recall of various associations between the event elements was tested.



Dr. Lutz summarizes the findings, saying, "We were able to demonstrate that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/light-color-has-no-impact-on-our-internal-clocks-or-sleep-patterns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep</a> specifically consolidates weak associations and strengthens new associations between elements that were not directly connected with each other during learning."



"Moreover, the ability to remember multiple elements of an event together, after having been presented with just a single cue, was improved after sleep compared to the condition in which the participants had stayed awake," Dr. Lutz explained.



This underscores sleep's critical role in enriching our memory by completing partial information and processing complex events.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleep-spindles-and-memory">Sleep spindles and memory</h2>



A fascinating aspect of this study was the observation of sleep spindles, or bursts of neural oscillatory activity during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-deprivation-impairs-the-brain-potentially-causing-neurological-disorders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep</a>, in participants. 



These are closely tied to the active consolidation of memories, through the reactivation of neural structures involved in memory. 



Professor Luciana Besedovsky, the study's lead researcher, points out, "This finding suggests that sleep spindles play an important role in the consolidation of complex associations, which underlie the completion of memories of whole events."



The implications of this research are profound, suggesting that the enhancement of memory through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-need-more-sleep-in-the-winter-season/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep</a> is a significant evolutionary adaptation. 



It enables individuals to form a more cohesive understanding of their surroundings, thereby improving their ability to anticipate future events. 



"Our results unveil a new function of sleep that offers an evolutionary advantage," Professor Besedovsky posits. “Furthermore, they open up new perspectives on how we store and access information about complex multielement events.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-giving-thanks-to-sleep-for-our-complex-memories">Giving thanks to sleep for our complex memories</h2>



In summary, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sleep-stimulation-can-improve-cardiac-function-overnight/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep</a> emerges as a pivotal player in the complex process of memory consolidation, revealing its indispensable role in enhancing and strengthening our recollection of intricate events. 



This fascinating research, led by Dr. Nicolas Lutz and Professor Luciana Besedovsky, illuminates the intricate workings of sleep-induced memory enhancement and underscores the evolutionary advantage provided by our nocturnal rest. 



By explaining how sleep spindles contribute to forming and solidifying complex associations, this study enhances our understanding of the cognitive processes underlying memory. 



Consequently, it underscores the critical importance of quality sleep in our daily lives, advocating for it as a fundamental pillar of cognitive health and well-being.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2314423121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Good sleep helps us remember facts and complex events

The significance of sleep extends far beyond mere rest, playing...

A team of scientists has uncovered the mechanism behind the complex vocalizations of baleen <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-20-minute-conversation-with-a-humpback-whale-named-twain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales</a>, the largest animals on Earth. This revelation comes after more than half a century of mystery surrounding how these marine giants produce their distinctive songs, essential for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-capture-plant-communication-on-video/">communication</a> across the vast, murky oceans they inhabit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limited-communication-range-of-baleen-whales">Limited communication range of baleen whales</h2>



Led by voice science experts Professor Coen Elemans from the <a href="https://www.sdu.dk/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southern Denmark</a> and Professor Tecumseh Fitch from the <a href="https://www.univie.ac.at/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vienna</a>, Austria, the study found that baleen whales have evolved unique structures in their larynx for producing low-frequency vocalizations. 



This adaptation, however, also imposes limitations on their communication range.



“The toothed and baleen whales evolved from land mammals that had a larynx serving two functions: protecting the airways and sound production. However, their transition to aquatic life placed new and strict demands on the larynx to prevent choking underwater,” Fitch explained, highlighting the evolutionary pressures that shaped these adaptations.



The researchers discovered significant modifications in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baleen-whales-rewriting-the-evolutionary-history-of-the-largest-animals-ever/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales' larynx</a>, particularly the arytenoids - tiny cartilages in the larynx responsible for adjusting vocal folds - which have transformed dramatically in baleen whales. 



“The arytenoids changed into large, long cylinders fused at the base to form a large U-shaped rigid structure that extends nearly the full length of the larynx,” said Elemans.&nbsp;



“We found that this U-shaped structure pushes against a big fatty cushion on the inside of the larynx. When the whales push air from their lungs past this cushion, it starts to vibrate and this generates very low frequency underwater sounds.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-increasing-levels-of-human-noise">Increasing levels of human noise</h2>



This study not only sheds light on the acoustic capabilities of these majestic creatures but also underscores the challenges they face due to increasing levels of human-made <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/traffic-noise-increases-the-risk-of-hypertension/">noise</a> in the oceans.&nbsp;



“Regrettably, the frequency range and maximum communication depth of 100 meters we predict, overlaps completely with the dominant frequency range and depth of human-made noise caused by shipping traffic,” Elemans pointed out, indicating the potential threat to whale communication.



“The first acoustic recordings of humpback whale song by Roger and Katy Payne in 1970 resonated with humanity profoundly, started the flourishing field of marine bioacoustics, and sparked global interest in marine conservation efforts,” Elemans added. “Now we show that despite their amazing physiology they literally cannot escape the noise humans make in the oceans.”



This study - published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07080-1">Nature</a> - not only answers long-standing questions about baleen whale vocalizations but also calls attention to the urgent need for conservation efforts to mitigate the impact of human activity on marine life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-baleen-whales">More about baleen whales</h2>



Baleen whales are a distinct group of marine mammals known for their unique feeding mechanism, which involves baleen plates instead of teeth. These plates are made of keratin, the same material as human hair and nails, and are used to filter small fish, krill, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-plankton-hold-a-long-record-of-ocean-health/">plankton</a> from the water.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-baleen-whale-size-and-distribution">Baleen whale size and distribution</h3>



Baleen whales range in size from the relatively small minke whale, which can be about 23 feet long, to the blue whale, the largest animal on Earth, reaching lengths up to 100 feet or more.



These whales are found in oceans all over the world, from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-free-arctic-summers-could-be-the-new-normal-by-2030/">Arctic</a> and Antarctic to tropical seas. They are known for their long migrations, traveling thousands of miles between feeding grounds in colder waters and breeding grounds in warmer waters. 



Baleen whales are also notable for their complex vocalizations, which in the case of species like the humpback whale, are considered to be a form of song and are used in communication and possibly mating rituals.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-and-ecological-role">Conservation and ecological role </h3>



Despite their massive size and being top predators in their environment, baleen whales face several threats from human activities, including ship strikes, entanglement in fishing gear, and climate change which affects their food sources.&nbsp;



They are protected internationally by various conservation efforts and agreements aiming to mitigate these threats and ensure their survival for future generations. 



Baleen whales play a crucial role in marine ecosystems, contributing to the health of ocean environments through their feeding activity, which helps regulate the populations of their prey and recycle nutrients through the water column.



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How baleen whales talk to each other through complex vocalizations

A team of scientists has uncovered the mechanism behind the...

A recent study raises concerns about the long-term health impacts of continuous exposure to the harsh blue light emanating from smartphones and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blue-light-phones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LED lighting</a>, suggesting it could be detrimental to our health. 



Researchers from <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London</a> have highlighted the potential dangers of living in an environment where blue light is prevalent, warning that it may disrupt the body's natural rhythms and lead to imbalanced blood sugar levels, possibly increasing the risk of diabetes and reducing life expectancy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-toxicity-nbsp">Potential toxicity&nbsp;</h2>



"Sunlight has a balance between red and blue, but we now live in a world where blue light is dominant," said Glen Jeffery, a professor of neurosciences at UCL.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Jeffrey pointed out the stark difference between natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sunlight-helps-green-sea-turtles-with-tumors-recover/">sunlight</a> and the blue-rich, red-deficient light emitted by modern LED lighting, emphasizing the potential toxicity of prolonged exposure to blue light without the counterbalance of red light.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-accelerating-the-aging-process">Accelerating the aging process</h2>



The study revealed that excessive blue light could impair the mitochondria, the powerhouse of cells, thereby affecting blood sugar regulation and accelerating the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-reversed-aging-in-mice-by-decades/">aging</a> process.&nbsp;



Remarkably, the team found that a brief 15-minute exposure to 670nm red light, commonly used in anti-aging treatments, could significantly reduce blood sugar levels by stimulating cellular energy production and increasing glucose consumption. This treatment resulted in a notable 27.7 percent decrease in blood glucose levels, suggesting a novel approach to managing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-based-diets-significantly-reduce-diabetes-risk/">diabetes</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smartphone-blue-light-impact-at-the-cellular-level">Smartphone blue light impact at the cellular level</h2>



"It is clear that light affects the way mitochondria function and this impacts our bodies at a cellular and physiological level," said Michael Powner, a senior lecturer in neurobiology at UCL.&nbsp;



Powner highlighted the potential of red light therapy in controlling blood sugar levels and its promise for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-can-counteract-the-genetic-risk-for-diabetes/">diabetes</a> management, especially in mitigating the harmful spikes in glucose levels post-meals.



The experts monitored how different light frequencies influenced individuals' blood sugar levels, contributing to the growing body of evidence on the health risks associated with blue light. With concerns also arising about blue light's potential harm to eyesight, many smartphones now feature a '<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/excessive-smartphone-usage-linked-to-health-issues-in-adolescents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">night mode</a>' designed to minimize blue light exposure.



As we navigate a world increasingly illuminated by LED lights, this study serves as a crucial reminder of the importance of seeking balance in our light exposure and exploring innovative solutions like red light therapy to safeguard our health against the invisible threats posed by our modern, technology-driven lifestyles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-hazards-of-smartphone-blue-light">Health hazards of smartphone blue light</h2>



Exposure to blue light, especially from screens and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-light-exposure-is-extremely-harmful-to-our-mental-health/">artificial lighting</a>, has been a growing concern due to its potential impact on health.&nbsp;



Blue light is part of the visible light spectrum, and while it is necessary for health in natural doses, excessive exposure, particularly from electronic devices and LED lighting, can lead to various health issues.



One of the most well-documented effects of blue light is its impact on sleep. Blue light inhibits the production of melatonin, the hormone responsible for regulating sleep cycles. 



This disruption can lead to difficulties in falling asleep and poor sleep quality, which over time can contribute to chronic sleep deprivation.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eye-strain-from-smartphone-blue-light">Eye strain from smartphone blue light</h3>



Beyond sleep, there is evidence to suggest that prolonged exposure to high-intensity blue light may contribute to eye strain and discomfort, commonly referred to as digital eye strain or computer vision syndrome.&nbsp;



Symptoms include dryness, irritation, focusing difficulties, and blurred vision. There's also concern about the potential long-term effects on eye health, including the risk of macular degeneration, a condition that can lead to vision loss.



Emerging research indicates that excessive exposure to blue light might have broader health implications, such as contributing to the risk of obesity, diabetes, and heart disease, possibly due to its effects on circadian rhythms and hormone regulation.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-managing-exposure">Managing exposure</h3>



While the research is ongoing, and the full extent of blue light's health impacts is still being understood, it's clear that managing exposure, especially before bedtime, is advisable to mitigate potential negative effects.&nbsp;



Strategies include using blue light filters on devices, reducing screen time, and ensuring exposure to natural light during the day to help maintain a healthy circadian rhythm.



The study is published in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/jbio.202300521" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Biophotonics</a>.



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'Toxic' blue light from smartphones may accelerate aging

A recent study raises concerns about the long-term health impacts...

In the remote expanses of the Kuiper Belt, far beyond Neptune's orbit, lies a realm of icy dwarf planets where a recent study has unveiled unexpected warmth beneath their frozen surfaces. 



Led by a team from the <a href="https://www.swri.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Southwest Research Institute</a>, this research has provided compelling evidence of hydrothermal or metamorphic activity within <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/icy-dwarf-planets_eris_makemake_Kuiper-Belt_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eris and Makemake</a>, challenging our previous notions of these distant worlds as cold, inactive objects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-the-frost-lies-geochemical-warmth">Beyond the frost lies geochemical warmth</h2>



Dr. Christopher Glein, a planetary geochemistry expert at SwRI and the lead author of the study, shared his insights into this surprising discovery. 



“We see some interesting signs of hot times in cool places. I came into this project thinking that large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-earth-like-planet-may-be-hiding-just-beyond-neptune/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kuiper Belt objects</a> (KBOs) should have ancient surfaces populated by materials inherited from the primordial solar nebula, as their cold surfaces can preserve volatiles like methane," Glein remarked.



"Instead, the James Webb Space Telescope (<a href="https://webb.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JWST</a>) gave us a surprise! We found evidence pointing to thermal processes producing methane from within Eris and Makemake."



Eris and Makemake, not much different in size from Pluto and its moon Charon, were thought to be relics from the solar system's formation around 4.5 billion years ago. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peering-dep-inside-icy-dwarf-planets">Peering dep inside icy dwarf planets</h2>



The presumption was that, given their distance from the Sun, these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-sheds-new-light-on-mysterious-asteroid-phaethon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kuiper Belt Objects</a> (KBOs) would be frozen in time. However, the JWST's first observations of isotopic molecules on their surfaces have painted a different picture.



These observations, particularly the deuterium to hydrogen ratio in methane, offer a new perspective on the geological histories of Eris and Makemake. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-fifth-force-of-nature-subatomic-particles-are-defying-the-laws-of-physics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Deuterium</a>, a heavy form of hydrogen created in the Big Bang, and hydrogen, the most abundant element in the universe, combine in ways that can reveal much about a planet's past. 



"The moderate D/H ratio we observed with JWST belies the presence of primordial methane on an ancient surface. Primordial methane would have a much higher D/H ratio," explained Glein. 



"Our data suggest elevated temperatures in the rocky cores of these worlds so that methane can be cooked up. Molecular nitrogen (N2) could be produced as well, and we see it on Eris. Hot cores could also point to potential sources of liquid water beneath their icy surfaces.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-subsurface-oceans-as-pockets-of-potential-life">Subsurface oceans as pockets of potential life</h2>



This finding not only indicates internal heat. but also suggests the possibility of <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/icy-dwarf-planets_eris_makemake_geothermal-graphic_SWRI_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">liquid water beneath the crusts</a> of these icy dwarf planets.



The discovery aligns with a broader understanding gained over the past two decades: icy bodies in our solar system, like Saturn's moon <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-sparking-energy-source-found-on-saturns-moon-enceladus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Enceladus</a> and Jupiter's moon <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/send-your-name-to-jupiters-ocean-moon-as-europa-clipper-mission-searches-for-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Europa</a>, may harbor subsurface oceans, making them more dynamically evolved than previously thought. 



The potential for liquid water enhances the prospect of habitability, making Eris and Makemake intriguing subjects for future research into the outer solar system's capacity to support life.



Adding to the discussion, Dr. Will Grundy, an astronomer at <a href="https://lowell.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lowell Observatory</a> and co-author of a companion study, noted the implications of their findings for planetary geology. 



“If Eris and Makemake hosted, or perhaps could still host warm, or even hot, geochemistry in their rocky cores, cryovolcanic processes could then deliver methane to the surfaces of these planets, perhaps in geologically recent times,” said Dr. Grundy. “We found a carbon isotope ratio (13C/12C) that suggests relatively recent resurfacing.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-redefining-cold-worlds">Redefining cold worlds</h2>



This research signifies a paradigm shift in how scientists view the Kuiper Belt's icy worlds, proposing that they might be "warm at heart." 



The study not only sheds light on the internal processes of Eris and Makemake but also suggests similar geothermal gas formations on other celestial bodies like Saturn's moon Titan.



Reflecting on the broader implications of this work, Glein expressed excitement about the future of Kuiper Belt exploration. 



"Following the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-horizons-ultima-thule/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New Horizons</a> flyby of Pluto, and with these discoveries, we're seeing the Kuiper Belt as a lively place full of dynamic worlds," he said. 



Glein advocates for future missions to further investigate these findings and believes that the wonders of the Kuiper Belt await our exploration.



This leap in understanding underscores the importance of space telescopes like the JWST in unraveling the mysteries of our solar system's outer reaches. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-much-left-to-learn-about-icy-dwarf-planets">Much left to learn about icy dwarf planets</h2>



In summary, the intriguing discoveries about Eris and Makemake challenge our previous perceptions of the Kuiper Belt as a dormant region, revealing these distant worlds as dynamic entities with potential subsurface oceans and internal geochemical activity. 



Through the lens of the James Webb Space Telescope, scientists have uncovered evidence of thermal processes beneath the icy surfaces, suggesting that these icy dwarf planets may harbor conditions conducive to life. 



This paradigm shift enriches our understanding of the solar system's outer reaches, piques scientific curiosity around the world, and propels future explorations aimed at unlocking the mysteries of these and other celestial bodies. 



As we stand on the brink of new discoveries, the quest to explore the Kuiper Belt's icy worlds promises to unravel more secrets, potentially redefining our search for habitability in the cosmos.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0019103524000575" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Icarus</a>.



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Eris and Makemake, icy dwarf planets in our own solar system, may support life

In the remote expanses of the Kuiper Belt, far beyond...

In recent research led by <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a> (OSU), scientists have found that the forests situated in the chilliest and dampest regions of the western Pacific Northwest are poised for a significant uptick in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-breaking-wildfire-years-are-just-getting-started/">wildfire</a> incidents due to the ongoing shifts towards a warmer and drier climate. 



The study emphasizes the urgent need for strategic planning to adapt to these anticipated changes in fire patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-notable-increase-in-wildfire-activity">Notable increase in wildfire activity</h2>



The experts conducted simulations across over 23 million acres of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/">forest</a> west of the Cascade Range in Oregon and Washington.&nbsp;



Lead author Alex Dye, a faculty research associate at the OSU College of Forestry, alongside U.S. Forest Service collaborators, forecasts a notable increase in wildfire activity for the 2035-2065 period.&nbsp;



According to Dye, Washington’s North Cascades region, the Olympic Mountains, the Puget Lowlands and the western Oregon Cascades are likely to see at least twice as much fire activity as was observed during the prior 30 years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-far-reaching-consequences-nbsp">Far-reaching consequences&nbsp;</h2>



The findings have major socio-ecological implications since forests in all of the affected areas are linchpins of a variety of socio-ecological systems in the Northwest. Thus, there are far-reaching consequences of increased fire frequency on water, timber, biodiversity, and carbon storage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenging-assessment-nbsp">Challenging assessment&nbsp;</h2>



The study sheds light on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-caused-the-massive-pacific-northwest-heatwave/">Pacific Northwest</a>'s "Westside," contrasting its fire regimes with those of more frequently burned areas like California or eastern Oregon.&nbsp;



“The moist, highly productive forests of the Northwest don’t get fire as often as other parts of the West, like California or eastern Oregon,” Dye said. “But fire does naturally occur in the PNW ‘Westside’ as we call it – the fire regimes are actually quite complex in this region."



"It can be challenging to assess fire probability in an environment where there isn’t a lot of empirical information about the fire history to build models.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-questions-nbsp">Critical questions&nbsp;</h2>



The scientists aim to recalibrate focus towards the PNW Westside, historically overlooked in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dairy-cows-exposed-to-wildfire-smoke-produce-less-milk/">wildfire</a> studies, especially in the wake of significant fires around Labor Day 2020 that showcased the potential devastation of severe wildfires in these regions.



Dye poses critical questions about the future frequency of such events under the influence of climate change: “And what if fires like that were to start happening more frequently in the near future?” he said. “What if that once every 200 years became once every 50 years, or once every 25 years as climate change brings hotter and drier conditions to the region?”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-significance-nbsp">Study significance&nbsp;</h2>



By highlighting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-impacts-are-evolving-due-to-climate-change-but-in-what-ways/">climate</a> as a pivotal factor in wildfire dynamics, Dye underscores the importance of this study as a planning tool for the Northwest, preparing for an acceleration in fire activity.&nbsp;



“Describing the possibilities of how, when and where climate change could affect fire regimes helps bracket everyone’s expectations," said Dye.



"Particularly important among our findings are new insights into the possibility of shifts towards more frequent and large fires, especially those greater than 40,000 hectares as well as shifts toward more fires burning at the beginning of fall when extreme weather has the potential to increase fire spread."



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2023JG007722" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Geophysical Research: Geosciences</a>.



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Wildfire activity is expected to intensify in the Pacific Northwest

In recent research led by Oregon State University (OSU), scientists...

Miniature,From,Sitting,On,A,Wet,Leaf,In,Forest

Deep within Brazil's lush <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-amazon-rainforest-and-the-looming-threat-of-drought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainforests</a>, scientists recently made a discovery that has left them astonished: a minuscule creature called the “Brazilian flea toad.” This tiny amphibian, barely bigger than a pea, holds the incredible title of the world's smallest vertebrate.



Finding this little wonder wasn't easy. It took diligent exploration by biologists from the <a href="http://www.uesc.br/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz</a> in the biodiverse landscapes of southern Brazil.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovery-and-research">Discovery and research</h2>



In 2011, the researchers went exploring in the southern part of Bahia, Brazil. They came across a creature so unbelievably small they initially thought it might be <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/brazilian-flea-toad_world-smallest-vertebrate_2m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">a new type of toad</a>. 



The confusion stemmed from its resemblance to a toad. Frogs and toads, while both amphibians, have distinct characteristics.&nbsp;



Toads typically have drier, bumpier skin and favor dry environments, while frogs boast smoother, moister skin and inhabit areas near water. This tiny creature, despite its toad-like traits, sparked further investigation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brazilian-flea-toad-is-not-a-toad">Brazilian flea toad is not a toad</h2>



Recent closer examination revealed a surprising truth: this wasn't a toad, but a <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-makes-poison-dart-frogs-poisonous/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frog</a>. This distinction holds immense significance for scientists, as it sheds light on the different ecological roles, behaviors, and evolutionary paths of these two groups.



Adding to the intrigue, the newly identified frog species, now known as the Brazilian flea toad (Brachycephalus pulex), displayed highly unique characteristics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-size-and-physical-appearance">Size and physical appearance</h2>



The most impressive feature of the Brachycephalus pulex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/majestic-frog-named-after-fantasy-author-j-r-r-tolkien/">frog</a> is its incredibly small size. Male frogs of this species have an average body length of just a bit more than seven millimeters (that's about a quarter of an inch!).&nbsp;



Females are slightly larger, averaging about one millimeter longer than males. The smallest flea toad ever found was a tiny 6.45 millimeters long, even smaller than some insects.



This size is so small that two adult Brachycephalus pulex frogs could comfortably sit side-by-side on the tip of your pinky fingernail.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coloration-and-skin-of-the-flea-toad">Coloration and skin of the flea toad</h2>



The Brazilian flea toad stands out with its bright yellow-orange color, which scientists believe is a warning signal to predators. 



This "look, but don't touch" strategy, known as aposematism, is common among other members of the tiny species family. 



Their skin might actually contain toxins that make them unpleasant or even dangerous to eat, discouraging hungry animals from taking a bite. 



Interestingly, despite being called a "toad," the flea toad's skin is actually smoother than the bumpy, rough skin you might expect. Instead, it's similar to the smoother skin of its frog cousins. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-and-distribution">Habitat and distribution</h2>



The tiny <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eu-responsible-for-extinction-of-frog-populations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frog</a> is only found on a few tiny hills in the southern part of Bahia. This very specific preference for a particular kind of place makes them quite vulnerable if anything happens to their environment. 



The flea toads evolved to fit in with these specific hills. Scientists think they might be used to a very particular set of tiny <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-weather-is-becoming-more-difficult-to-predict/">weather conditions</a> and plants that only grow in this special spot. So, if anything changes there, it could be bad news for these little frogs.&nbsp;



This limited range makes them what scientists call "endemic," meaning they're stuck to one tiny area and can't really live anywhere else. It's a risky adaptation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-anatomical-adaptations">Anatomical adaptations</h2>



Being so incredibly small, flea toads have evolved with some unique characteristics. For example, they have fewer toes than most frogs, which scientists think might be because of their small size. 



Some of them even have ears that haven't fully developed, which could mean they can't hear very well. 



These traits make scientists wonder how flea toads manage to talk to each other, find <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/glass-frogs-wave-their-hands-and-feet-to-attract-mates/">mates</a>, and just live their lives in general. It's a scientific mystery waiting to be solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-and-future-research">Conservation and future research</h2>



The discovery is a significant scientific achievement. However, it also carries a crucial message for conservation efforts, particularly in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-biodiversity-hotspots-can-be-found-on-small-scales/">biodiversity hotspots</a> like southern Brazil.



Further research will likely explore the Brachycephalus pulex's ecological function, behavioral patterns, and evolutionary history, offering deeper insights into the life of this remarkable creature.



The scientists are also driven to investigate other remote, biodiverse regions, where undiscovered species might hold new records and expand our understanding of life's astonishing diversity.



All of the findings are published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/zsc.12654" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zoologica Scripta</a>.



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Brazilian flea toad: World's smallest vertebrate is incredibly tiny 

Deep within Brazil's lush rainforests, scientists recently made a discovery...

Since NASA's <a href="https://mars.nasa.gov/mars2020/">Perseverance rover</a> landed on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-captured-in-true-color-like-youve-never-seen-the-red-planet-before/">Mars</a> three years ago, its explorations, alongside its helicopter companion Ingenuity, have become a routine part of our newsfeed. They've provided a plethora of stunning Martian imagery and have gathered 23 rock core samples across 17 miles of an ancient river delta, transforming the extraordinary into the seemingly everyday.



<a href="https://www.uc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cincinnati</a> Professor Andy Czaja, an integral part of the NASA science team, occasionally finds himself marveling at the scope of their work. "This is so cool. I’m exploring another planet,” Czaja reflects on the project's grandeur. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-perseverance-has-outperformed-expectations">Perseverance has outperformed expectations</h2>



As a paleobiologist and astrobiologist, Czaja, along with his graduate students Andrea Corpolongo, Brianna Orrill, and Sam Hall, employs the rover's specialized geoscience and imaging tools to scour Mars for signs of ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-may-have-finally-discovered-life-on-mars/">life</a>.



Three years in, Perseverance has outperformed expectations, equipped with sophisticated instruments enabling detailed geological examinations and high-resolution imaging. "Perseverance has excelled. It’s been fantastic," Czaja lauds the rover's capabilities and achievements, including historic firsts like powered flight on another planet and capturing the sounds of Mars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-potentially-habitable-environments-nbsp">Exploring potentially habitable environments&nbsp;</h2>



Czaja played a pivotal role in selecting the landing site within Jezero Crater and continues to help guide the rover's daily activities based on its findings.&nbsp;



Among these discoveries is the identification of primary igneous rocks, crucial for dating the planet's geological history, and evidence suggesting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasas-curiosity-rover-explores-mars-ridge-with-intriguing-watery-past/">Mars</a> once harbored hydrothermal systems, potentially habitable environments for life. Moreover, the findings indicate the presence of hydrated magnesium sulfate in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/adding-crushed-volcanic-rocks-to-the-soil-on-farms-can-help-sequester-co2/">volcanic rocks</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-to-ancient-microbial-life-nbsp">Clues to ancient microbial life&nbsp;</h2>



The mission's objective to determine if we're alone in the universe hinges on analyzing the collected samples, which might contain microorganisms too tiny for the rover to detect. There's hope that the proposed Mars Sample Return mission will bring these samples back to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-ancient-ocean-floor-surrounds-the-earths-core/">Earth</a> for more detailed examination with advanced technologies.



Perseverance's journey from the crater floor to its edge has unveiled sedimentary rocks rich in trapped minerals and magnesium carbonate deposits, both of which could hold clues to ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbial-life-may-exist-on-one-of-jupiters-moons/">microbial life</a>. According to Czaja, the choice of Jezero Crater for exploration has proven very fruitful.&nbsp;



“There were other places we could have gone that might have been just as good. You won’t know until you explore them all. But Jezero was picked for good reason and it has been completely justified," he said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-mission-is-far-from-over">The mission is far from over</h2>



While Ingenuity's flights might have concluded due to rotor damage, Perseverance's mission is far from over, with many more geological specimens yet to be collected. The rover's next phase involves exiting Jezero Crater to investigate older geological formations, potentially revealing more about Mars' ancient environments and the possibility of ancient life, such as stromatolites.



“I hope that Perseverance has just whetted our appetite for more Martian exploration. And bringing back samples will allow us to study Mars and search for evidence of ancient life with instruments that haven’t even been invented yet for years and years to come,” Czaja concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-search-for-martian-life">The search for Martian life</h2>



The quest for life on Mars is a fascinating journey that spans several decades, involving a combination of robotic missions, astronomical observations, and theoretical studies. This endeavor is driven by the fundamental question of whether life exists beyond Earth. Mars, with its past evidence of water, has always been a prime candidate in this search.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploration">Exploration</h3>



The exploration began in the 1960s and 1970s with NASA's Mariner and Viking missions. These early missions provided the first close-up photographs of the Martian surface, revealing a world with valleys and dried riverbeds, hinting at the planet's wetter past.&nbsp;



However, the Viking landers' experiments designed to detect life provided inconclusive results, finding no definitive evidence of biological activity.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sophisticated-missions">Sophisticated missions</h3>



In the decades that followed, missions became more sophisticated. Orbiters, landers, and rovers such as Mars Pathfinder, the Mars Exploration Rovers (Spirit and Opportunity), the Mars Science Laboratory (Curiosity), and the Mars 2020 mission with its Perseverance rover, have significantly advanced our understanding of the Martian environment.&nbsp;



These missions have discovered compelling evidence of ancient water flows, organic molecules, and habitable environments that could have supported microbial life.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-underground-water-nbsp">Underground water&nbsp;</h3>



The quest has also expanded to include the search for subsurface water, with the European Space Agency's Mars Express and the ExoMars missions contributing vital data. The discovery of underground water ice and signs of liquid water beneath Mars' surface has further fueled speculation about life's potential on the Red Planet.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-indicators-of-life">Indicators of life</h3>



Astrobiologists and planetary scientists are studying the Martian atmosphere and soil for biosignatures, or indicators of life. They are also investigating extremophiles on Earth - organisms that thrive in extreme environments - to understand how Martian life, if it exists or existed, might survive the planet's harsh conditions.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conditions-that-support-life-nbsp">Conditions that support life&nbsp;</h3>



The quest for life on Mars is not just about finding life itself but also about understanding the conditions that can support life, the history of water on Mars, and the planet's potential for future human exploration and habitation.&nbsp;



It represents a profound effort to answer one of humanity's oldest questions: Are we alone in the universe? With each mission, we come closer to finding an answer, making the quest for life on Mars one of the most thrilling chapters in the exploration of our solar system.



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2023JE007989" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets</a>.



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The search for signs of life on Mars continues

Since NASA's Perseverance rover landed on Mars three years ago,...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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