In a remarkable medical breakthrough, engineers have developed a light-activated pacemaker so tiny that doctors can inject it into the body through a syringe. Remarkably, the device simply dissolves after it’s no longer needed.&nbsp;



Designed for newborns, the pacemaker could transform temporary heart care after congenital defect surgeries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-the-heart-with-light">Controlling the heart with light</h2>



The new pacemaker is smaller than a grain of rice. It's wirelessly activated through pulses of light which are delivered by a soft, wearable device mounted on the patient’s chest.



The external controller detects abnormal rhythms and sends light through the body to activate the pacemaker and restore heartbeat. The study demonstrates the device’s effectiveness across animal and human donor hearts.&nbsp;



The development of the pacemaker was led by John A. Rogers, a professor of material science, biomedical engineering, and neurological surgery at <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northwestern University</a>.&nbsp;



“We have developed what is, to our knowledge, the world’s smallest pacemaker,” said Professor Rogers.



“There’s a crucial need for temporary pacemakers in the context of pediatric heart surgeries, and that’s a use case where size miniaturization is incredibly important. In terms of the device load on the body - the smaller, the better.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solution-designed-for-newborns">Solution designed for newborns</h2>



Though the light-activated pacemaker can function in patients of all sizes, its miniaturized design was motivated by the needs of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/infant-speech-is-driven-by-heart-rate-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infants</a>. 



Igor Efimov is a co-leader of the study and experimental cardiologist at Northwestern.&nbsp;



“About 1% of children are born with congenital heart defects. The good news is that these children only need temporary pacing after a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-smallest-robot-could-transform-minimally-invasive-surgery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surgery</a>. In about seven days or so, most patients’ hearts will self-repair. But those seven days are absolutely critical," said Efimov.



Traditional pacemakers require surgery and have wires sticking out of the chest to connect to an external device. When they are no longer needed, the wires are removed - risking bleeding, tissue damage, or even death.



“Wires literally protrude from the body, attached to a pacemaker outside the body,” Efimov explained. “When the pacemaker is no longer needed, a physician pulls it out. The wires can become enveloped in scar tissue. That’s actually how Neil Armstrong died.”



The new injectable pacemaker addresses these risks. All of its components are biocompatible and bioresorbable, meaning they safely dissolve in the body’s fluids without needing surgical removal. Once the device has served its purpose, it simply disappears.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-refining-the-light-activated-pacemaker">Refining the light-activated pacemaker</h2>



This innovation builds on <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41587-021-00948-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">earlier work</a> by Rogers and Efimov, who developed a quarter-sized dissolvable pacemaker in 2021. Surgeons asked for a smaller version to allow easier placement and suit the smallest patients.&nbsp;



The original device used near-field communication (NFC), but its antenna limited how small the device could be made. To overcome this, the team replaced the NFC system with a novel light-based mechanism.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/pacemaker_light-activated_worlds-smallest_heart-health_Northwestern_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/pacemaker_light-activated_worlds-smallest_heart-health_Northwestern_1s.webp" alt="The tiny pacemaker sits next to a single grain of rice on a fingertip. The device is so small that it can be non-invasively injected into the body via a syringe. Credit: John A. Rogers/Northwestern University" class="wp-image-1964846"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The tiny pacemaker sits next to a single grain of rice on a fingertip. The device is so small that it can be non-invasively injected into the body via a syringe. Click image to enlarge. Credit: John A. Rogers/Northwestern University</figcaption></figure>



“Instead of using the radio frequency scheme for wireless control, we developed a light-based scheme for turning the pacemaker on and delivering stimulation pulses to the surface of the heart. This is one feature that allowed us to dramatically reduce the size,” said Professor Rogers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-powered-by-the-body-s-own-fluids">Powered by the body’s own fluids</h2>



The engineers also reimagined how to power the tiny pacemaker. Rather than requiring a battery or external power source, the device uses a simple galvanic cell - a chemical battery formed by two different metals as electrodes.&nbsp;



When the device is inside the body, surrounding biofluids act as the electrolyte, allowing electrical current to flow and stimulate the heart.



“A very tiny light-activated switch on the opposite side from the battery allows us to turn the device from its ‘off’ state to an ‘on’ state upon delivery of light that passes through the patient’s body from the skin-mounted patch,” explained Professor Rogers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-trauma-and-risk">Reducing trauma and risk</h2>



Using infrared light, which can safely penetrate deep into the body, the wearable controller detects when a patient’s heart rate falls too low. It then triggers a light-emitting diode (LED) to flash on and off at the desired pacing rhythm.&nbsp;



“Infrared light penetrates very well through the body,” Efimov said. “If you put a flashlight against your palm, you will see the light glow through the other side of your hand. It turns out that our bodies are great conductors of light.”



Despite its microscopic size - just 1.8 mm wide, 3.5 mm long, and 1 mm thick - the pacemaker delivers stimulation on par with traditional devices. “The heart requires a tiny amount of electrical stimulation,” Rogers said.&nbsp;



“By minimizing the size, we dramatically simplify the implantation procedures, we reduce trauma and risk to the patient, and, with the dissolvable nature of the device, we eliminate any need for secondary surgical extraction procedures.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-era-of-heart-care">A new era of heart care</h2>



Because these light-activated pacemakers are so small and wireless, doctors could one day deploy multiple units on different parts of the heart to create more advanced pacing systems. 



Each device could be controlled independently using different light wavelengths, enabling personalized and precisely timed stimulation across the heart’s surface.



“We can deploy a number of such small pacemakers onto the outside of the heart and control each one,” Efimov said. “Then we can achieve improved synchronized functional care.”



Professor Rogers noted that because it’s so small, the pacemaker can be integrated with almost any kind of implantable device.



“We also demonstrated integration of collections of these devices across the frameworks that serve as transcatheter aortic valve replacements to address complications that can occur during a patient’s recovery process," said Rogers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-bioelectronic-medicine">Future of bioelectronic medicine</h2>



While this breakthrough has clear implications for pediatric heart care, the technology could pave the way for a new generation of bioelectronic medicine.&nbsp;



These tiny, dissolvable devices could one day be adapted to promote nerve and bone regeneration, manage <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mindfulness-meditation-is-a-powerful-weapon-against-chronic-pain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pain</a>, support wound healing, and more.



Northwestern engineers shrank the device and removed risks by making it dissolve after use. In doing so, they’ve created a tool that could reshape how doctors care for the heart - from the tiniest patients to adults.



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Click here to <a href="https://youtu.be/j_0hZ8cUwgo" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watch a video interview...</a>



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08726-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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World's smallest pacemaker is set to revolutionize heart health

In a remarkable medical breakthrough, engineers have developed a light-activated pacemaker so tiny that doctors can inject it into the body through a syringe. Remarkably, the device simply dissolves after it’s no longer needed.&nbsp; Designed for newborns, the pacemaker could transform temporary heart care after congenital defect surgeries. Controlling the heart with light The new pacemaker is smaller than a grain of rice. It's wirelessly activated through pulses of light which are delivered by a soft, wearable device mounted on the patient’s chest. The external controller detects...

Polymers are a fundamental part of our daily lives. They are found in everything from electronics and construction materials to household items and vehicles.



Traditionally deemed safe due to their large molecular size, these substances have mostly avoided regulatory scrutiny. However, a new study challenges this assumption - showing that some polymers can degrade over time, releasing smaller chemical molecules that may pose potential risks.



This discovery raises concerns about the hidden risks associated with using polymers that have long been considered harmless, and highlights the need for greater oversight.



As researchers uncover more about the breakdown processes, questions arise about the long-term environmental and health consequences of widespread polymer use.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unraveling-the-polymer-mystery">Unraveling the polymer mystery</h2>



Can we trust polymers to be safe? The scientific community has traditionally thought so. The logic was simple; we believed these large molecules were too big to migrate out of the products and into people, thus posing no health risks.



As a result, polymers have managed to dodge regulation, and they are exempt from fundamental toxic acts like the Toxic Substances Control Act in the U.S. and REACH in the E.U.



However, the latest study is now challenging this long-standing conviction. Researchers from <a href="https://www.jnu.edu.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jinan University</a> in China and the University of Toronto have discovered that certain polymers used as flame retardants might be breaking down into smaller, harmful chemicals.



"Our study suggests polymers can act as a trojan horse for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-kitchen-utensils-may-leach-toxic-chemicals-in-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">toxic chemicals</a>. They are added to products as inert large molecules but, over time, they can degrade, exposing us to their harmful breakdown products," said study senior author Da Chen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flame-retardants-and-their-hidden-risks">Flame retardants and their hidden risks</h2>



To test their hypothesis, the researchers experimented with two polymeric brominated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/household-chemicals-linked-to-neurological-disorders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flame retardants</a> (polyBFRs). These substances were created as "non-toxic" alternatives to banned flame retardants. 



Surprisingly, the team found that both polyBFRs decomposed into dozens of types of smaller molecules.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-strengthen-the-toxicity-of-pollutants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">toxicity</a> testing of these smaller molecules in zebrafish showed a considerable potential for causing mitochondrial dysfunction and developmental and cardiovascular harm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakdown-products-in-the-environment">Breakdown products in the environment</h2>



The scientists didn't stop there. They sought out these polymer breakdown products in the environment. Alarmingly, the molecules were detected in soil, air, and dust.



The highest concentration levels were detected near electronic waste recycling facilities, gradually decreasing with distance from these sites.



These findings bolster the claim that the use of polyBFRs in electronics can result in the release of toxic breakdown products into the environment, potentially exposing humans and wildlife to harm.



Miriam Diamond, a co-author and professor at the University of Toronto, expressed her concerns.



"Widespread use of these polyBFRs in electronics may result in exposures when these products are manufactured, when they're in our homes, and when they're discarded or recycled," said Professor Diamond.



"Since it is suspected that production volumes are very high (the chemical industry does not disclose the volumes), the potential for pollution - and resulting serious harm to people and wildlife - greatly concerns me."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-concern-over-polymer-safety">Growing concern over polymer safety</h2>



The implications of the research extend to other types of polymers used in consumer products, such as per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS).



Despite arguments from PFAS producers that fluorinated polymers should be exempt from regulation, scientists insist that fluorinated polymers are members of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pfas-crisis-humans-are-early-warning-system-for-wildlife-impacts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PFAS</a> class of substances and that the use of all PFAS should be avoided.



"To escape regulation, flame retardant and PFAS producers are increasingly pivoting to polymers for use in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/common-household-products-expose-people-to-dangerous-chemicals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">everyday products</a>. As a result, problematic polymers emit toxic small molecules from products we touch, sit on, wear, and keep in our homes," said Arlene Blum, executive director of the Green Science Policy Institute.



"Regulators need to close this loophole to protect consumers - especially children - from the possibility of serious chemical harm." 



In conclusion, it's essential for us to reconsider our understanding and regulation of polymers. They might not be as benign as once thought. 



More research is needed, but one thing is clear: we need to be aware of the potential invisible risk in our everyday products.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-025-01513-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Sustainability</a>.



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Everyday polymers that are considered 'safe' release harmful toxins

Polymers are a fundamental part of our daily lives. They...

Aging can feel like an unstoppable force. Some researchers believe it may one day be slowed or even paused, thanks to an emerging technique known as cellular reprogramming.



Curiosity has surrounded this approach since a 2016 mouse experiment at the <a href="https://www.salk.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Salk Institute</a>, where progeric rodents (that age more rapidly than normal) lived longer after exposure to four genes that could rewrite <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/defying-time-three-ways-to-slow-biological-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cellular aging</a>.



Lucy Xu, a postdoctoral research fellow at <a href="https://oto.hms.harvard.edu/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard Medical School</a>, has followed these findings closely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-reprogramming-changes-aging-cells">How reprogramming changes aging cells</h2>



Every mammalian cell contains <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-protein-that-reverses-cellular-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DNA</a>. However, the DNA in your heart cells behaves differently than it does in your skin cells because of the <a href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Epigenome" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">epigenome</a>, an outer layer affected by <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/the-role-of-methylation-in-gene-expression-1070/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">methylation</a> patterns that can turn genes on or off. Over a lifetime, methylation shifts with diet, pollution, exercise, and stress.



<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22056670/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientists</a> discovered that activating <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/cr200759" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">four reprogramming genes</a>, named after Shinya Yamanaka, can strip away large portions of these methyl marks. This can reset cells to an earlier, more flexible state, which can be good or dangerous.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-and-pitfalls">Potential and pitfalls</h2>



Animal studies have linked complete reprogramming to <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/22074-teratoma" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">teratomas</a>, which are bizarre growths that sprout tissues like teeth and hair in odd places.



In one early mouse experiment by <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature12586/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Spanish researchers</a>, “many of the animals died within weeks,” which reveals just how risky total cellular regression can be.



In partial reprogramming, researchers use fewer <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/cr2008309" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yamanaka genes</a> or cycle them briefly to avoid pushing cells back into a stem cell state. This less-extreme version aims to refresh <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organ-aging-can-predict-diseases-decades-in-advance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cells</a> while preserving their identity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-safety-is-a-concern">Why safety is a concern</h2>



“I don’t believe there can be reprogramming. You’re practically telling these cells to become cancer,” said Charles Brenner, a scientist at <a href="https://www.cityofhope.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">City of Hope</a> research center in Duarte, California. Creating extra stem-like cells might be a path to fierce cancers.&nbsp;



To reduce the odds of uncontrolled cell growth, some scientists use a well-known antibiotic to control gene activity. They turn it on briefly, then shut it off. The hope is that this approach rejuvenates tissues without allowing runaway <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/daily-doctor-recommended-regimen-that-could-slow-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cell</a> division.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reprogramming-cells-in-aging-tissues">Reprogramming cells in aging tissues</h2>



<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-2975-4%5C" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Research</a> from Harvard in 2020 showed promise by focusing on eye tissues in older mice. David Sinclair, a Harvard geneticist who worked on the study, used only three of the original four genes - removing the one most associated with tumors.



A biotech company, <a href="https://www.lifebiosciences.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Life Biosciences</a>, has advanced this strategy by testing partial cell reprogramming on monkeys with eye damage. 



The firm plans to apply for permission to do the same in people who have suffered sudden optic nerve strokes, believing the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-44740-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antibiotic-switch method</a> is safer than previous attempts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-closer-look-at-aging-itself">A closer look at aging itself</h2>



While eye tissues seem like a controlled starting point, some labs also hope to apply partial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-the-cellular-mortality-timer-that-dictates-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reprogramming</a> more broadly.



A follow-up <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43587-022-00183-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">project</a> at the Salk Institute used carefully timed reprogramming in mice with extra copies of reprogramming genes. Tumors were less common, and some tissues showed younger biological markers, although lifespans did not increase.



Those results fuel speculation that certain organs, such as the brain, might benefit from partial reprogramming. Investigations at Stanford University <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43587-024-00594-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tested</a> this approach in mice, aiming to improve brain aging. 



The targeted reprogramming boosted newly formed neurons, though the mice had an uptick in inflammation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-questions-remain">Many questions remain</h2>



The technique still prompts concerns about long-term effects and who will have access if human trials succeed. Some fear only people with deep pockets may benefit initially. Others wonder if reprogramming might lead to costly or risky treatments that never live up to the hype.



Some scientists remain optimistic. They believe partial reprogramming might transform eye disease care, and later, other age-related problems. They acknowledge that verifying safety is key and that any therapy for aging must pass rigorous testing.



Life Biosciences expects to begin clinical trials in the near future, and will use partial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/random-dna-mutations-shape-biological-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reprogramming</a> to help certain adults who suffer acute optic nerve issues.



Analysts say these initial results will guide future work. If the therapy shows no tumors or unexpected complications, it could open a path for new treatments targeting age-related loss of function.



“I worry about the speed,” Xu said, noting that more questions need answers before the technology expands beyond small clinical studies. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-reprogramming-cells">Future of reprogramming cells</h2>



No one knows whether these methods will eventually slow or alter aging in humans. Undeterred, investors hope partial reprogramming can become a novel strategy for a range of conditions.



Research continues across universities and startups. Many experts see partial reprogramming as a step forward, as long as scientists can balance rejuvenation with safety.



Others warn that tampering with cellular identity may unleash problems we can’t yet predict. Even so, interest in these trials keeps growing.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43587-024-00594-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Can we reverse aging? A bold new approach could reprogram cells

Aging can feel like an unstoppable force. Some researchers believe...

The human immune system constantly adapts to the flu viruses it encounters. Throughout life, exposure to different flu strains builds a complex immune memory. Recent research suggests that this memory might help protect against emerging threats like the H5N1 avian influenza virus. 



Scientists at the Perelman School of Medicine at the <a href="https://www.upenn.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Pennsylvania</a> have discovered that people exposed to certain flu viruses in childhood may have some level of immunity against H5N1.



Their findings, published in Nature Medicine, reveal that older adults, particularly those exposed to flu strains before 1968, possess antibodies that can recognize H5N1. 



These antibodies may not stop infection but could make H5N1 less severe. The findings show who is at risk and who needs the vaccine most.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flu-exposure-in-childhood">Flu exposure in childhood </h2>



Scientists have long known that childhood <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-flu-mutations-found-in-first-severe-u-s-human-case/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flu</a> infections leave lasting imprints on the immune system. 



The body learns to recognize the flu strains it first encounters, creating antibodies that can last for decades. These antibodies are often most effective against flu viruses similar to those encountered in early life.



“We know that early childhood influenza exposures can elicit immune responses that last a lifetime,” said senior author Dr. Scott Hensley, a professor of microbiology.



“We found that antibody responses that were primed by H1N1 and H3N2 viruses decades ago can cross-react to H5N1 avian viruses circulating today. Most of these cross-reactive antibodies cannot prevent infections, but they will likely limit disease if we have an H5N1 pandemic.”



This means that people who were first exposed to H1N1 or H2N2 viruses before 1968 may have antibodies that can recognize the stalk of H5N1’s hemagglutinin protein. 



Since the stalk evolves more slowly than the head of the hemagglutinin protein, it remains more similar across different flu strains. However, younger individuals, who first encountered later flu viruses, may not have the same level of cross-protection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-flu-virus-is-changing-fast">Bird flu virus is changing fast</h2>



H5N1 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-flu-outbreak-has-killed-20-million-chickens-in-the-u-s/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">viruses</a> have been present in bird populations for decades, but a newer version, called clade 2.3.4.4b H5N1, has recently spread among cattle. 



So far, this virus does not easily infect humans, as it does not bind well to receptors in the upper respiratory tract. However, if it mutates to infect human airway cells more efficiently, it could potentially start spreading between people.



Influenza viruses are named after the two key proteins on their surface: hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N). These proteins allow the virus to enter and exit host cells. 



Current flu vaccines work by training the immune system to recognize the hemagglutinin head, preventing infection. 



However, the hemagglutinin head changes rapidly, making it difficult to develop long-lasting vaccines. The stalk of the hemagglutinin protein evolves more slowly, meaning antibodies that recognize it may offer broader protection across different flu strains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prior-flu-exposure-and-h5n1-immunity">Prior flu exposure and H5N1 immunity </h2>



To understand how prior flu exposures influence immunity, the researchers analyzed blood samples from over 150 individuals born between 1927 and 2016. They looked at antibodies targeting the hemagglutinin stalk across multiple flu <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/efforts-to-control-bird-flu-are-not-working-are-humans-next/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">viruses</a>, including H5N1.



The analysis showed that people born before 1968 had more antibodies capable of binding to the H5N1 stalk. In contrast, younger individuals, who did not encounter earlier flu strains, had lower levels of these antibodies.



A person’s birth year appeared to strongly influence their ability to fight H5N1. Older adults had a greater number of cross-reactive antibodies, while children and younger adults had significantly fewer. 



This suggests that younger individuals may be at greater risk if H5N1 were to spread widely among humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vaccines-can-protect-the-most-vulnerable">Vaccines can protect the most vulnerable</h2>



To further explore vaccine responses, the researchers examined another group of individuals born between 1918 and 2003.



These individuals received a 2004 H5N1 vaccine, which did not exactly match the clade 2.3.4.4b strain currently circulating. The experts took blood samples before and after vaccination to measure changes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/long-flu-may-be-more-harmful-to-the-brain-than-covid/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antibody</a> levels.



The results aligned with their earlier findings. Older adults already had some antibodies that could recognize H5 stalks before vaccination. After receiving the vaccine, their antibody levels increased slightly. However, in children and younger adults, antibody levels increased much more significantly.



This suggests that while older individuals already have some degree of cross-protection, younger populations may gain the most from targeted vaccination efforts.



“In the event of an H5N1 pandemic, all age groups will likely be highly susceptible, but it is possible that the highest disease burden will be in children,” said Hensley. “If this is the case, children should be prioritized for H5N1 vaccinations.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-for-a-possible-outbreak">Preparing for a possible outbreak</h2>



This study shows why knowing how past flu infections affect immunity is so important. Older adults might already have some protection against H5N1 because of flu viruses they encountered long ago. But younger people, who lack this exposure, could be at greater risk if H5N1 changes and starts spreading between humans.



Flu vaccines are still one of the best defenses, even when they don’t exactly match new virus strains. Scientists are closely watching H5N1 and working on vaccines that could protect more people if an outbreak happens.



Some researchers are also looking into universal flu vaccines. Instead of targeting fast-changing parts of the virus, these vaccines would focus on more stable regions, like the hemagglutinin stalk. If successful, they could provide longer-lasting protection against different flu types and help prevent severe illness from future flu threats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-flu-immunity-may-prevent-pandemics">Bird flu immunity may prevent pandemics</h2>



While H5N1 is not yet a major <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-flu-virus-preparing-for-tomorrow-despite-minimal-risk-today/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">public health threat</a>, its continued circulation among birds and cattle raises concerns.



The possibility of mutations that allow it to infect humans more easily means that preparation is essential. Research like this study helps guide vaccination strategies, ensuring that those most at risk receive protection if an outbreak occurs.



By understanding how flu exposure shapes immunity, scientists can develop better vaccines and public health strategies to minimize the impact of future influenza pandemics.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41591-025-03599-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Medicine</a>.



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Adults may be more resistant to bird flu virus than children

The human immune system constantly adapts to the flu viruses...

Sharks have long been portrayed as fearsome predators, dominating the oceans with their sleek bodies and razor-sharp teeth. Movies and myths have painted them as threats to humans, but the reality is quite the opposite. Sharks have far more reason to fear us. 



Nearly one-third of all shark species are now threatened with extinction, primarily due to overfishing.



This is not just a loss for sharks but a significant disruption to marine ecosystems. As apex predators, sharks play a crucial role in maintaining the balance of ocean life. Their decline can trigger chain reactions that affect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shark-fishing-is-making-coral-reefs-collapse-in-an-unexpected-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish populations</a> and coral reefs.



A team of researchers at UC Santa Barbara recently examined whether current regulations, such as requiring fishermen to release captured sharks, are enough to protect them. 



The study reveals that these mandates alone will not be sufficient. To preserve these vital creatures, a combination of strategies is necessary.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-sharks-are-caught-accidentally">Many sharks are caught accidentally </h2>



Some sharks are specifically targeted by fisheries, but many others are caught unintentionally. This issue extends far beyond the species directly sought after by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sharks-may-benefit-from-rising-temperatures-but-not-from-rising-co2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fishing</a> industry.



“More than half of sharks that are caught and killed in fisheries are captured incidentally and then discarded,” said Darcy Bradley, co-author of the study and adjunct faculty at the Bren School of Environmental Science &amp; Management.



Many fisheries operate under retention bans, which require fishermen to release certain species instead of keeping them. Currently, 17 oceanic shark species are protected under these bans in tuna fisheries. 



However, while these policies aim to reduce shark deaths, researchers questioned whether they truly prevent population decline. The team sought to understand the fate of sharks after they are released back into the ocean.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shark-mortality-rates">Shark mortality rates</h2>



To get a clearer picture of shark survival, the researchers analyzed over 150 published studies and reports on shark mortality. These studies documented the number of sharks that died either upon being hauled onto a fishing vessel or soon after being released.



The analysis covered nearly 150 different shark <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unprovoked-shark-attacks-dropped-to-record-low-in-2024/">species</a>, each caught using various fishing techniques. By examining this data, the team estimated mortality rates for an additional 341 species that lacked direct studies.



Certain sharks were far more vulnerable to death after capture. Small sharks and several threatened species, including thresher sharks and hammerheads, had particularly high mortality rates. Deep-sea species also fared poorly due to the extreme pressure changes they experienced when pulled from the depths.



“Mortality was surprisingly high for some species such as smoothhound sharks,” said co-lead author Leonardo Feitosa. “Ranging from 30 to 65%.” Deep-water species, like sleeper sharks, suffered from the trauma of rapid pressure shifts, making their survival after release unlikely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limits-of-retention-bans">Limits of retention bans</h2>



Simulating different policy scenarios, the researchers found that retention bans could reduce shark mortality by three times on average. However, this reduction was still not enough to ensure the sustainability of heavily fished species, such as mako and silky sharks.



“Retention bans are a beneficial first step towards addressing shark <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mediterranean-sharks-face-growing-threats-despite-conservation-efforts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">overfishing</a>,” said Bradley. 



But he warned that these bans alone will not be enough. Additional conservation measures, such as restricting certain fishing areas, setting catch quotas, and regulating fishing gear, must be implemented to ensure long-term population stability.



Certain shark species, such as blue sharks, bonnetheads, and angel sharks, have a better chance of recovering due to their faster reproductive rates. However, even the blue shark, which is the most heavily fished shark species globally, remains vulnerable.



“While it is highly unlikely that retention bans will ever be implemented for such a commercially important species, our results show that this could be a relatively simple and impactful strategy if it becomes necessary to sustain populations," said Feitosa.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-rules-are-needed-to-protect-sharks">More rules are needed to protect sharks</h2>



For many shark species, retention bans alone will not be enough. To make a real impact, conservation strategies must focus on reducing the number of sharks caught in the first place. 



One approach is to ban the use of steel wire on longlines, which increases the likelihood of sharks becoming entangled in fishing gear.



Spatial regulations could also help. Designating certain areas as shark nurseries and pupping grounds and restricting fishing in these zones would give young sharks a chance to grow and contribute to the population. 



Protecting these critical habitats could make a significant difference in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-shark-mating-behaviors-observed-for-the-first-time-in-the-wild/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustaining species</a> that are struggling to recover.



Another challenge is the lack of data on other cartilaginous fish species, such as stingrays, skates, and chimaeras. 



“Fifty-seven percent of cartilaginous fishes threatened with extinction in the world are not sharks,” Caughman explained. The team could not include these species in their study due to insufficient data, highlighting the need for further research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-towards-a-sustainable-future">Towards a sustainable future</h2>



Shark conservation requires cooperation among governments, scientists, and fisheries. Members of The Nature Conservancy are currently collaborating with the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission’s scientific staff to find effective strategies for shark protection. 



These efforts aim to create well-informed policies that balance fishing needs with conservation goals.



The study serves as a call to action for the global community. Without stronger conservation strategies, shark populations will continue to decline, leading to widespread ecological consequences. 



By combining various management approaches and investing in better data collection, scientists and policymakers can work toward a future where sharks remain an essential part of the ocean’s ecosystem.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/faf.12892" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fish and Fisheries</a>.



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One third of shark species face extinction despite fishing bans

Sharks have long been portrayed as fearsome predators, dominating the...

When astronomers observe distant objects, there is a potential pitfall: does a particular star truly appear reddish because of its intrinsic characteristics, or is it merely taking on a red hue due to intervening cosmic dust?&nbsp;



For astronomers, dust is not just an observational inconvenience - it also provides crucial insights into the composition and local conditions within interstellar space.&nbsp;



Two researchers at the <a href="https://www.mpia.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Astronomy</a> (MPIA) have now created the most detailed three-dimensional map to date, tracking dust in our galaxy and explaining how it alters light along our line of sight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-dust-matters-for-observations">Why dust matters for observations</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-dust-becomes-planets-in-the-shadows-of-hh-30/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dust</a> spread across the Milky Way dims and reddens the light from distant stars. When light from a star travels to us, the tiny dust particles more strongly absorb and scatter bluer wavelengths, while allowing redder wavelengths to pass more easily.&nbsp;



This wavelength-dependent phenomenon is referred to as extinction (the star appears fainter than it is) and reddening (the star takes on a redder hue).&nbsp;



Accurately disentangling the effect of dust is vital for astronomers, who need a precise picture of distant objects’ actual brightness and color to glean information about their properties.



As Xiangyu Zhang, a doctoral candidate at MPIA, and his advisor Gregory Green explain, cosmic dust particles don’t absorb and scatter light evenly across all wavelengths, but rather they absorb light more strongly at shorter wavelengths, towards the blue end of the spectrum, and less strongly at longer wavelengths, towards the red end.&nbsp;



Studying these dust properties can shed light on the composition and evolution of the interstellar medium.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-dust-across-a-galaxy">Mapping dust across a galaxy</h2>



Previous efforts at mapping dust on a galaxy-wide level were limited, mainly due to incomplete data. 



The <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Space Agency</a>’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gaia-reveals-moons-around-hundreds-of-asteroids/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gaia mission</a> - devoted to tracking positions, motions, and physical traits for over one billion stars - now offers a treasure trove of new information. 



Gaia’s third data release (DR3), published in June 2022, contains 220 million spectra. Zhang and Green identified 130 million of them as suitable for their study of dust’s effects.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/milky-way-dust_map_wavelength_credit-MPIA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/milky-way-dust_map_wavelength_credit-MPIA_1s.webp" alt="Red indicates regions where extinction falls off more rapidly at long wavelengths (the red end of the spectrum), while blue indicates that extinction is less dependent on wavelength. Regions with insufficient data are shown in white. The gray contours enclose regions of high dust density. Credit: X. Zhang/G. Green, MPIA" class="wp-image-1962319"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Red indicates regions where extinction falls off more rapidly at long wavelengths (the red end of the spectrum), while blue indicates that extinction is less dependent on wavelength. Regions with insufficient data are shown in white. The gray contours enclose regions of high dust density. Credit: X. Zhang/G. Green, MPIA</figcaption></figure>



Gaia’s spectra, however, are low-resolution, meaning they only separate incoming light into broad wavelength bins. 



To improve accuracy, the researchers turned to high-resolution data from the <a href="https://www.lamost.org/public/?locale=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LAMOST survey</a> for approximately 1% of the stars in their sample. 



These extra details helped them determine each star’s surface temperature and other properties, crucial for untangling the effects of dust from the star’s own attributes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-a-3d-dust-map-nbsp">Building a 3D dust map&nbsp;</h2>



Zhang and Green employed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/machine-learning-could-revolutionize-drug-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">machine learning</a> techniques - specifically, a neural network - to synthesize model spectra that incorporate both known stellar properties and dust parameters. 



The researchers compared these model-generated spectra with the observed Gaia data, all while ensuring the results followed certain established laws of physics.



In doing so, they derived new constitutive models detailing how dust in different parts of the galaxy dims and reddens starlight (often represented by an “extinction curve”).&nbsp;



Through statistical analyses, the experts could reconstruct the properties of dust along each star’s line of sight, culminating in the most finely detailed 3D map of dust across the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-like-our-own-milky-way-are-not-unique/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a> yet produced.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stellar-birth-and-planet-formation-nbsp">Stellar birth and planet formation&nbsp;</h2>



Dust is sometimes seen as “the astronomer’s enemy,” as it confounds easy measurements of stellar brightness and color. Yet it also lies at the core of stellar birth and planet formation.&nbsp;



Stars emerge from massive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fluffy-molecular-clouds-may-change-our-understanding-of-star-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">molecular clouds</a>, which are shielded from harsh external radiation by dust. Newly formed stars are surrounded by disks of gas and dust that seed planetary systems.&nbsp;



Moreover, much of the chemical richness in our galaxy, especially elements heavier than hydrogen and helium, remain locked in dust grains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-dust-behavior">Surprising dust behavior</h2>



One of the map’s key findings contradicts earlier expectations. Astronomers once assumed that in regions of higher dust density, dust growth would flatten the extinction curve, making it less sensitive to wavelength.&nbsp;



Instead, Zhang and Green found that in areas of intermediate density, the extinction curve steepens, with shorter wavelengths more readily absorbed than longer ones.



“Higher density,” they note, is still extremely low by human standards - roughly ten billionth billionth grams of dust per cubic meter. 



One plausible explanation is that certain molecules, especially polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), might flourish in these conditions, causing the steeper wavelength dependency. 



PAHs, which are the most widespread hydrocarbons in space, have even been proposed as a possible precursor to life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-3d-map-of-dust-in-the-milky-way-nbsp">First 3D map of dust in the Milky Way&nbsp;</h2>



Zhang and Green’s work constitutes the first detailed, three-dimensional map of the extinction curve of dust in the Milky Way, relying on 130 million measurements compared to around one million in past studies.&nbsp;



The success of this research demonstrates how advanced techniques - merging big data and rigorous physics - can unearth new insights.



Though their results provide an unprecedented view of dust’s large-scale distribution and properties, questions linger about how dust forms and evolves in different parts of the galaxy, and how these changes might influence the births of stars and planetary systems.&nbsp;



Zhang and Green intend to test their PAH hypothesis with future observations, refining the model to capture finer structural details and verifying the presence of specific molecular signatures.



In a broader sense, the study’s methodology promises to refine how astronomers correct for dust’s interference in both local and cosmological observations. 



It may also help interpret new data from upcoming missions that probe the Milky Way’s structure and chemical makeup. 



Consequently, the refined 3D dust map offers a clearer, dust-corrected view of our galaxy’s layout - an essential foundation for everything from measuring star distances to unraveling the riddle of how cosmic matter is assembled into complex, life-enabling systems.



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Cosmic map reveals that the Milky Way's dust has very unusual properties

When astronomers observe distant objects, there is a potential pitfall:...

Tiny microplastic fragments, often smaller than a grain of rice, are turning up in surprising places. From city streets to remote oceans, they persist in the air, water, and soil. 



Scientists have learned that these particles can also invade the human body, showing up in organs that keep us alive. 



For years, researchers have warned us about the possible dangers microplastics pose to animals, our food sources, and human health. Now a fresh study suggests even plants are feeling the pressure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-photosynthesis-and-microplastics">Plants, photosynthesis, and microplastics</h2>



This new research from <a href="https://www.5gyres.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">5 Gyres Institute</a> offers new clues about how these plastic particles affect photosynthesis. 



The team gathered over 3,200 records from across the globe, focusing on how tiny bits of microplastics alter photosynthesis by changing the way <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/details-photosynthesis-water-viewed-atomic-level-cryo-microscope/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants use sunlight</a> to produce energy. 



Their analysis spans common food crops and aquatic species, highlighting concerns about weakened growth. 



For communities that rely on healthy harvests and marine resources, these findings add a fresh dimension to the worldwide plastic conversation.



“It’s really scary,” says Marcus Eriksen, a marine scientist at the 5 Gyres Institute, a nonprofit plastic pollution research organization, who was not involved in the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-microplastics-spread-far-and-wide">How microplastics spread far and wide</h2>



Most microplastics come from everyday sources. Plastic bottles, packaging, and synthetic clothing shed fibers that break into smaller pieces. Rain and wind carry these particles into rivers, and eventually they end up in oceans. 



In agricultural fields, plastic mulch or irrigation systems contribute fragments that seep into the soil. Over time, these bits degrade further, leading to a steady accumulation in places we least expect. 



This constant spread worries experts because smaller sizes mean they can slip into living organisms more easily.



Researchers have found these particles in fish, shellfish, and even table salt. In recent years, labs have also identified plastic remnants in bottled water and tap supplies. 



While ongoing investigations continue to measure how widespread they are, one thing is clear: once plastic breaks down, it does not disappear. That lingering presence has potential consequences for all life on Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microplastics-impede-photosynthesis">Microplastics impede photosynthesis</h2>



In this new analysis, researchers show that microplastics reduce photosynthesis by 7 to 12% across different plant species. 



A computer model backs this up, indicating that plastic particles can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-photosynthesis-could-transform-power-generation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lower chlorophyll</a> levels by 11 to 13%. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gardening-hack-called-green-gold-chlorophyll-works-like-magic-for-houseplants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chlorophyll</a> is the green pigment that helps plants capture sunlight for food production, so any dip in its presence can affect overall growth.



Every year, this pollution could cause a loss of 109 to 361 million metric tons of crops and 1 to 24 million metric tons of seafood, according to the study. 



Because of microplastic buildup, global harvests may drop by 4 to 13% yearly, and food from the ocean could decline by up to 7%. 



Even minor disruptions to plant growth may have ripple effects on human nutrition and economies that rely on farming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-for-the-food-supply">Challenges for the food supply</h2>



Beyond plants, these particles also affect marine life, which many communities rely on for protein. Scientists report that if <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastic-pollution-is-everywhere-even-in-newborns-and-getting-worse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastic pollution</a> continues unchecked, seafood yields could suffer even further. 



They are associated with an increase in people’s risk of heart attack and stroke, and they have been found to hamper growth and reproduction in multiple species. 



Worries about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/we-are-in-a-race-against-time-to-save-our-food-supply-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food safety and supply</a> also arise when these pollutants accumulate in organisms that people eat.



Researchers suggest that a modest 13% reduction in these particles could prevent the loss of up to 47 million metric tons of crops and 3 million metric<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-particles-found-in-99-of-tested-seafood-samples/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> tons of seafood</a> each year, translating to a 30% cut in overall harm. 



This projection highlights the importance of tightening plastic regulations and improving waste management to protect food resources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Reduced photosynthesis does not only <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbial-awakening-arctic-food-webs-are-transforming-from-green-to-brown/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">disrupt food webs</a>. When plants capture less carbon dioxide, there is less natural removal of this greenhouse gas from the atmosphere. 



In many climate strategies, forests and marine algae are expected to absorb significant amounts of carbon in the coming decades. If plastic particles undermine that process, climate models may need to be revised.



Most projections assume stable plant performance over time. Any drop in growth or carbon uptake could make <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-the-world-is-on-track-for-a-catastrophic-level-of-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global warming</a> harder to control. 



With ecosystems already under stress, additional strain from microscopic plastic fragments raises concerns about future carbon storage in forests, grasslands, and kelp beds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sounding-the-alarm">Sounding the alarm</h2>



The study’s authors emphasize the need for international efforts to address plastic waste, pointing out that large pieces eventually degrade into smaller and more invasive forms.



A global treaty on plastic issues has been in discussion since 2017, yet recent negotiations concluded without a formal agreement.



Marine biologist Richard Thompson, who specializes in microplastic pollution at the <a href="https://www.plymouth.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Plymouth</a> in England and was not involved in the study, notes that delaying action only increases the risks.



“If we don’t take action now,” he adds, “within the next 70 to 100 years, we’ll see much wide-scale ecological harm.”



Researchers say that lowering even a small amount of microplastic pollution could help protect crops, preserve marine life, and support our climate goals.



Taking action now can guard our health and ensure a healthier environment for generations to come, which doesn’t seem like too much to ask of humanity.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2423957122">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Sounding the alarm: Microplastics are disrupting  photosynthesis around the world

Tiny microplastic fragments, often smaller than a grain of rice,...

When thinking about why animals look the way they do, color is often front and center. However, humans are mostly limited to seeing a certain slice of the spectrum, ignoring the ultraviolet (UV) range that many animals use in their daily lives.&nbsp;



A recent study by scientists at the <a href="https://umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan</a> (U-M) highlights the importance of UV coloration in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diverse-group-of-snakes-has-a-new-evolutionary-tree/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">snakes</a>, showing that UV patterns are widespread and may play a significant role in evading predators such as birds.



The findings point to a broader issue in the study of color evolution: researchers tend to focus on colors we humans can detect.&nbsp;



“A lot of UV color work is done in systems that we consider traditionally bright and colorful, like birds, flowers and butterflies, but a lot of this color research is really biased by the human perception of color,” said Hayley Crowell, a doctoral student in the U-M Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-signals-in-the-uv-spectrum">Hidden signals in the UV spectrum</h2>



Crowell notes that much of the past work on UV color has concentrated on reproductive behaviors - things like UV ‘nectar guides’ in flowers that help steer insects to the part of the flower necessary for pollination.



In snakes, the team suspected UV coloration might be used for different reasons. Because snakes don’t typically rely on bright <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-camera-system-takes-photos-in-the-same-colors-that-different-animals-see/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">colors</a> to find mates, the scientists hypothesized that UV might be associated more with camouflage or environmental signaling.



The researchers analyzed 110 snake species, collected in various regions ranging from Colorado to Peru. Many of the species examined in the study can see UV light in ways that humans cannot.&nbsp;



Using a specialized camera lens and filters, they captured images of the snakes, searching for ultraviolet reflection patterns. Importantly, they did not rely on black lights to observe fluorescence; instead, they looked at the UV color that the snakes naturally reflect - colors invisible to the human eye.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-hidden-colors-of-snakes">The hidden colors of snakes</h2>



Next, the researchers tested how different factors - such as a snake’s age, sex, habitat, evolutionary background, and how visible the snake was to predators - might correlate with having more or less UV color.&nbsp;



To their surprise, the biggest driver of UV coloration turned out to be where and how the snakes live. Arboreal snakes that spend most of their time in trees and are active at night had the highest levels of UV reflection.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-birds-use-snake-skins-in-their-nests-to-deter-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Birds</a>, which can also see UV color, are one of snakes’ biggest predators,” Crowell explained.&nbsp;



For a nocturnal, tree-dwelling snake, sporting a heavy UV reflection might be inconsequential at night - but can provide camouflage during the day, when birds are actively hunting.&nbsp;



Leaves, lichens, and other vegetation are all known to reflect UV light. Thus, a snake displaying UV patterns could blend seamlessly into its sunlit habitat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-lack-of-sex-differences">Surprising lack of sex differences</h2>



One unexpected finding was that UV patterns did not differ substantially between male and female snakes.&nbsp;



“Because reproduction drives UV color evolution in so many other species, the lack of sexual differences in snakes was a surprise,” said study co-author Alison Davis Rabosky, an associate professor of ecology and evolutionary biology at U-M.&nbsp;



“But I don’t think snakes are actually some kind of outlier doing color ‘differently’ than other animals. I think we scientists have simply overlooked a lot of UV coloration in cryptically colored species, especially in insects. They are the next frontier.”



Snakes are closely related to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lizards-take-bigger-risks-when-they-are-hungry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lizards</a>, and lizard species are known for strong sexual dimorphism - males often have flashier colors or bigger ornaments than females.&nbsp;



In contrast, the lack of color contrast between male and female snakes suggests that sexual selection may not drive color differences as much in snakes as it does in their lizard relatives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intriguing-individual-variations">Intriguing individual variations</h2>



The researchers also found that some snakes of the same species, same sex, and from the same location could differ dramatically in UV reflectance levels.&nbsp;



Two individuals might look nearly identical in the visible color spectrum, but one reflects UV strongly and the other does not. This highlights the complexity of color usage - humans simply cannot see it, so the reasons behind these differences remain obscure.



Similarly, evolutionary relationships among snakes didn’t always predict UV usage: some closely related species varied significantly in the presence or intensity of UV reflectance.&nbsp;



Even within the same genus, the team found both strongly UV-reflective and barely UV-reflective species or populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reassessing-our-vision-of-animal-color">Reassessing our vision of animal color</h2>



The new research underscores the concept that just focusing on colors visible to humans could hide a great deal of evolutionary strategy.&nbsp;



By revealing that snakes employ UV coloration widely - often for camouflage and not for sex-based selection - this study challenges assumptions about how color is used throughout the animal kingdom.&nbsp;



“I think what’s so exceptional about this study is that we got to look at patterns of UV color across so many species and individuals,” said co-author Hannah Weller, a postdoctoral research fellow at the <a href="https://www.helsinki.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Helsinki</a>. 



“This amazing dataset really helped us start to understand just how variable a trait like this is, even in a group where we wouldn’t expect it.”



Ultimately, the researchers hope to inspire further investigations of UV coloration in other less-studied animal groups, especially among those perceived by humans as drab or colorless.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-49506-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.&nbsp;



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Snakes use invisible colors to outsmart predators

When thinking about why animals look the way they do,...

As the planet heats up and Antarctica’s ice sheet melts at a faster pace, scientists warn of a steady rise in sea levels that could put coastal communities at risk.&nbsp;



Home to enough frozen water to increase global sea levels by 190 feet if completely melted, Antarctica remains a focus of intense scientific scrutiny.&nbsp;



Yet most climate models struggle to capture the complexities of its ice movement due to limited direct observations and the interplay between ocean currents, atmospheric conditions, and the frozen surface.



In a paper published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.adp3300" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>, a team from <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford University</a> utilized machine learning to analyze high-resolution remote-sensing data of Antarctic ice movements.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-into-the-behavior-of-ice-nbsp">Insights into the behavior of ice&nbsp;</h2>



By combining large volumes of satellite imagery with established physical principles, their approach identifies fundamental processes governing the large-scale flow of ice on the continent. 



The resulting insights could help refine how existing models estimate Antarctica’s future and the associated threat of accelerating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coastal-cities-will-spend-over-3-trillion-dollars-damages-from-sea-level-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea-level rise</a>.



Ching-Yao Lai is an assistant professor of geophysics at the Stanford Doerr School of Sustainability and senior author of the study.&nbsp;



“A vast amount of observational data has become widely available in the satellite age,” said Professor Lai. “We combined that extensive observational dataset with physics-informed deep learning to gain new insights about the behavior of ice in its natural environment.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-critical-component-of-global-climate">A critical component of global climate</h2>



Antarctica’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-ice-sheet-past-present-and-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice sheet</a> is Earth’s largest reservoir of frozen water, nearly twice the size of Australia. Acting like a vast sponge for the planet, it plays a pivotal role in regulating global sea levels. 



Understanding how this sheet moves and melts is essential as its rate of shrinkage increases every year.



Historically, researchers have relied on laboratory experiments to approximate Antarctic ice’s mechanical properties. However, simulating real Antarctic ice in a lab can be deceptively simplistic, explained Professor Lai.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-patterns-in-antarctica-s-ice">Finding patterns in Antarctica’s ice </h2>



Factors such as variations between seawater-derived ice and snow-compacted ice, or the presence of cracks, air voids, and other irregularities, all contribute to ice movement in nature.



“These differences influence the overall mechanical behavior, the so-called constitutive model, of the ice sheet in ways that are not captured in existing models or in a lab setting,” Lai said.



Rather than tackling every variable individually, the Stanford-led team used a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-machine-learning-can-help-us-protect-chimpanzees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">machine learning</a> model to assess large-scale patterns in the movement and thickness of ice. 



This model used satellite images and airplane radar data from 2007 to 2018, while adhering to basic physical laws that regulate ice flow.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-variations-in-ice-shelf-dynamics">Variations in ice shelf dynamics</h2>



The researchers examined five Antarctic ice shelves - floating extensions of land-based <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-are-reshaping-landscapes-and-national-borders-around-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glaciers</a>. These shelves maintain stable levels of continental ice by keeping large amounts of it from sliding outright into the ocean.&nbsp;



The experts discovered that areas of the shelves closer to land experience strong compression, a characteristic that aligns with typical lab-derived models for ice dynamics. 



However, ice located farther offshore experiences extension, causing it to respond differently in different directions - a phenomenon known as anisotropy.



Study first author Yongji Wang completed the project as a postdoctoral researcher in Lai’s lab and is now a postdoctoral researcher at <a href="https://www.nyu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York University</a>.&nbsp;



“Our study uncovers that most of the ice shelf is anisotropic,” said Wang. “The compression zone - the part near the grounded ice - only accounts for less than 5% of the ice shelf. The other 95% is the extension zone and doesn’t follow the same law.”



This finding undermines a key assumption in many climate models that treat ice as the same in every direction. Real conditions, Wang’s analysis indicates, are considerably more nuanced.



“People thought about this before, but it had never been validated,” Wang added. “Now, based on this new method and the rigorous mathematical thinking behind it, we know that models predicting the future evolution of Antarctica should be anisotropic.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consequences-for-coastal-areas">Consequences for coastal areas</h2>



Understanding these complex ice dynamics is crucial, especially as polar regions warm rapidly. Rising seas already cause intensifying floods, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fighting-coastal-erosion-electricity-turns-sand-into-a-sea-wall/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coastal erosion</a>, and severe storm damage.&nbsp;



Models that overgeneralize the ice’s properties may underestimate or misjudge how fast Antarctica’s ice sheets can collapse or produce icebergs - a process called calving.



Moreover, the scientists note that many existing models have assumed the Antarctic ice sheet’s mechanical behavior is uniform. This oversimplification could translate into significant inaccuracies in projections about melt rates and sea-level rise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-understanding-of-earth-processes">New understanding of Earth processes </h2>



This project exemplifies an emerging strategy that merges “big data” with fundamental physics in Earth science research.&nbsp;



Professor Lai emphasized that while machine learning can discover patterns from enormous sets of satellite images, scientists must still ensure the results adhere to the time-tested laws of physics that govern planetary processes.



“We are trying to show that you can actually use AI to learn something new,” Lai said. “It still needs to be bound by some physical laws, but this combined approach allowed us to uncover ice physics beyond what was previously known and could really drive new understanding of Earth and planetary processes in a natural setting.”



Since the data used here extend only to 2018, the team’s next steps include refining their technique with newly available images and radar signals.&nbsp;



The researchers also plan to apply the method to other parts of the Antarctic continent and possibly beyond, gleaning more clues about how these massive frozen landscapes might evolve under accelerating climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-guiding-adaptation-strategies-nbsp">Guiding adaptation strategies&nbsp;</h2>



As researchers plug these results into broader climate simulations, the hope is that predictions about rising oceans will incorporate Antarctica’s real-world complexities more faithfully.&nbsp;



Policymakers and coastal communities around the globe stand to benefit from improved forecasts to guide adaptation strategies - from planning dikes to restoring coastal wetlands.



Ultimately, the fusion of machine learning with physical knowledge marks a powerful advance in unraveling how Antarctica’s ice moves and melts.&nbsp;



By better capturing small-scale differences across the continent’s ice shelves, scientists can glean deeper insights into the largest reservoir of freshwater on the planet - and how its future may shape the global coastline in coming decades.



Image Credit: NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center Scientific Visualization Studio



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Antarctica’s hidden ice dynamics will redefine sea level projections

As the planet heats up and Antarctica’s ice sheet melts...

With spring approaching, many people are already considering which flowers to plant. Flowers do more than simply make gardens look nice. They are an important source of food for birds and insects, particularly wild bees.



In cities, the appropriate combination of flowers can be the difference between healthy bee populations and unhealthy ones.



A recent study has explored how the properties of flowers affect urban <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flower-strips-can-boost-wild-bee-populations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bee populations</a>. 



The researchers discovered that a diverse range of flower sizes and shapes is crucial for supporting wild bee populations. A more varied floral landscape promotes a richer and more abundant bee community.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-flower-shape-and-size-matter">Why flower shape and size matter</h2>



Study co-author Carly Ziter is an associate professor in the Department of Biology in the Faculty of Arts and Science at <a href="https://www.concordia.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Concordia University</a>.



"We know that flowers are an important source of nutrition for bees, but not all flowers are created equal," said Professor Ziter.



"Having a high <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-secrets-of-flower-diversity-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity of flowers</a> is a key to supporting bee populations, but our research goes one step further to show a possible mechanism: that having a diversity of floral species is important because they have different shapes and sizes."



Flowers store <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honeybees-carrying-nectar-avoid-overheating-rising-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nectar</a> within their corolla - the tube-like structure formed by a ring of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-engineer-their-petals-to-be-visually-attractive-to-bees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">petals</a>. Different bee species have different tongue lengths, which means some bees can only access nectar from specific flower shapes.



"This follows the idea of size-matching, where corollas are the right size for a certain type of bee’s proboscis or tongue, allowing it to effectively connect to the flower’s nectar," noted Professor Ziter.



"So, whether a bee has a short or longer proboscis, they will be able to access the nutrition they need if there are multiple kinds of flower morphology nearby."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-bees-in-the-city">Tracking bees in the city</h2>



The team collected data in July 2020 from 16 sites across the Island of Montreal, including community gardens, nature parks, and cemeteries.



The researchers recorded nearly 2,000 bee samples and identified 150 different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-that-90-of-flowering-plant-species-rely-on-animal-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species of flowers</a> within small two-by-two-meter plots.



The density of flowers was measured, and the size of each corolla was documented using digital calipers.



A total of 94 different species of bees were observed during the study. While nectar samples were also collected, no firm connection was established between sugar content and bee diversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-diversity-and-the-food-web">Plant diversity and the food web</h2>



"We wanted to see if there was an optimal value for corolla traits," said Professor Ziter. "Was it better to have small corollas, medium ones, or a diversity of them? The results showed quite strongly that having a diversity of corolla sizes was important."



Thriving bee populations play a vital role in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robotic-insects-may-be-the-future-of-farming-and-plant-pollination/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollination</a>, supporting entire ecosystems and sustaining food supplies.



According to Professor Ziter, the study supports the belief that a diversity of flowers impacts the next trophic level, which contributes to an ecosystem’s food web in a way that goes far beyond bees. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-to-make-your-garden-bee-friendly">How to make your garden bee-friendly</h2>



City planners, gardeners, and anyone interested in promoting biodiversity can apply these findings in practical ways.



"If you are planting, try to think about what makes these species different. Are they different colors? Are they different sizes? Do they bloom at different times? The more you can think about these different axes of variety in your own garden, the more you are likely to be better off in terms of supporting biodiversity," said Professor Ziter.



By planting a diverse mix of flowers, urban residents can play a small but significant role in sustaining local bee populations and contributing to a healthier environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-choosing-the-right-flowers-for-bees">Choosing the right flowers for bees</h2>



For a bee-friendly garden, native plants are often the best choice since they have co-evolved with local species and provide the most suitable nectar and pollen.



Flowers with open, accessible petals are ideal for short-tongued bees, while tubular flowers cater to species with longer proboscises.



Bloom timing is another crucial factor. By planting a variety of flowers that bloom at different times throughout the growing season, gardeners can ensure a steady food supply for bees from early spring to late fall. 



Perennial flowers such as coneflowers, milkweed, and goldenrod are excellent choices, as they return each year and require minimal maintenance.



Avoiding pesticide use and opting for organic gardening practices further enhances the bee-friendly environment. 



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/eap.3067" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecological Applications</a>.



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Bee-friendly gardening: Why flower diversity is so important

With spring approaching, many people are already considering which flowers...

Physical activity is often linked to a longer life, but a Finnish twin study suggests the connection may not be as direct as previously thought. The findings challenge traditional assumptions about exercise and aging.



Researchers from the University of Jyväskylä examined how long-term physical activity affects mortality and whether it can counteract genetic risks for disease. The team also explored role of exercise in biological aging.



The experts analyzed 22,750 Finnish twins born before 1958. Their leisure-time <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-reduces-the-risk-of-brain-diseases-by-up-to-54-percent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">physical activity</a> was assessed in 1975, 1981, and 1990. The researchers followed up on mortality data through the end of 2020. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moderate-activity-yields-maximum-benefits">Moderate activity yields maximum benefits</h2>



The researchers identified four activity groups: sedentary, moderately active, active, and highly active. Over 30 years, the biggest difference was found between the sedentary and moderately active groups.



Moderately active individuals had a 7% lower mortality risk. However, those in the highly active group did not show additional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strength-training-may-be-the-best-exercise-for-insomnia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">benefits</a>.



In the short term, more physical activity correlated with lower mortality. However, in the long run, highly active individuals had no advantage over those who were sedentary.



“An underlying pre-disease state can limit physical activity and ultimately lead to death, not the lack of exercise itself,” said Professor Elina Sillanpää from the Faculty of Sports and Health Sciences.



“This can bias the association between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-doses-of-exercise-can-greatly-reduce-dementia-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">physical activity</a> and mortality in the short term.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exercise-guidelines-and-mortality-risk">Exercise guidelines and mortality risk</h2>



The experts also evaluated whether following World Health Organization (<a href="https://www.who.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WHO</a>) physical activity guidelines influenced mortality and genetic disease risk. The WHO recommends 150–300 minutes of moderate or 75–150 minutes of vigorous activity weekly.



The results of the study showed that meeting these guidelines did not lower mortality risk. Even twins who followed the recommendations for 15 years showed no significant difference in mortality rates compared to their less active siblings.



"The widely observed favorable association between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fitness-focused-medicine-physical-activity-reduces-chronic-disease-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">physical activity</a> and mortality are based on observational studies that are prone to bias from different sources,” noted postdoctoral researcher Laura Joensuu.



“In our studies, we aimed to account for various sources of biases, and combined with the long follow-up period, we could not confirm that adhering to physical activity guidelines mitigates genetic cardiovascular disease risk or causally reduces mortality.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exercise-and-biological-aging">Exercise and biological aging</h2>



For a subset of twins, the researchers analyzed biological aging using epigenetic clocks. These clocks estimate biological aging based on chemical markers that regulate gene activity.



The results showed a U-shaped pattern. Both the least and most active individuals experienced accelerated biological aging.



“We found that the association between leisure-time physical activity and biological aging was U-shaped: Biological aging was accelerated in those who exercised the least and the most,” said Sillanpää.



Lifestyle factors like smoking and alcohol use played a major role in the link between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fitness-is-far-more-important-than-weight-for-living-a-healthy-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">physical activity</a> and biological aging. The study also examined genetic susceptibility to coronary artery disease and blood pressure using polygenic risk scores.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-exercise-does-not-slow-aging">More exercise does not slow aging</h2>



This research challenges the widely held belief that more exercise always leads to a longer life. 



While physical activity is beneficial for overall health, its impact on longevity is more complicated than previously assumed. Moderate exercise appears to offer the best balance, while excessive activity does not necessarily add extra years to life.



The findings also highlight the importance of considering other factors, such as lifestyle habits and genetic predisposition. Exercise alone may not be enough to overcome genetic risks. Other aspects of health, such as diet, stress management, and avoiding harmful habits, play a crucial role in aging and longevity.



Future research may further clarify the relationship between physical activity and lifespan. In the meantime, individuals should aim for a balanced approach to exercise, focusing on overall well-being rather than just lifespan extension.



The study involved researchers from the Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences and the Methodology Centre for Human Sciences at the <a href="https://www.jyu.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Jyväskylä</a>. Experts at the Finnish Institute of Molecular Medicine at the <a href="https://www.helsinki.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Helsinki</a> also contributed.



The findings are published in the <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10654-024-01200-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Journal of Epidemiology</a>.



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Exercise and aging: New study reveals a surprising connection

Physical activity is often linked to a longer life, but...

For the first time, researchers have conducted a year-round evaluation of bacteria and microbial eukaryotes - small marine organisms like phytoplankton - at two Antarctic bases.



By sampling through all the seasons and using the same methods repeatedly, the research provides a thorough picture of how microbial communities respond to climate change.



Between July 2013 and April 2014, researchers took seawater samples from the British Antarctic Survey's long-term ecological monitoring site at Rothera and from the Palmer research station, which is 400 kilometers to the north. 



The scientists employed DNA sequence analysis to identify the bacteria, protists, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-heatwaves-have-complex-effects-on-phytoplankton-food-web/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phytoplankton</a> in the water.



Special statistical models were used to forecast microbial interactions - basically charting the "who eats whom" of the microscopic world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microorganisms-shape-marine-ecosystems">Microorganisms shape marine ecosystems</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heat-in-tasman-sea-is-melting-the-antarctic-peninsula/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctic Peninsula</a> is warming at a rate faster than the global average, leading to unprecedented heatwaves and declining sea ice. However, regional variations exist. 



In the waters around Palmer, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-ice-is-losing-its-cooling-power-making-the-earth-even-warmer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea ice</a> has decreased significantly as temperatures have risen more rapidly when compared to Rothera. This divergence influences microbial community composition in unique ways. 



"At the warmer Palmer site, bacteria influenced microbial community structure by interacting with other microorganisms, while at Rothera, it was the microbial eukaryotes that played a stronger role in shaping community dynamics," explained Engelmann.



This&nbsp;trend&nbsp;towards&nbsp;increased bacterial prevalence in warming oceans might upset biological productivity. 



Phytoplankton are producers in marine food chains, so a reduction in phytoplankton translates to fewer nutrients available for higher organisms such as krill, fish, seabirds, and marine mammals.



“These findings have significant implications for understanding and predicting microbial ecosystem responses to climate change, and are therefore relevant for a broad group of researchers and even for humanity as a whole,” Engelmann stated.



Microorganisms, through tiny, far outnumber all marine animals in terms of biomass. 



Climate-driven changes in microbial food webs within the Southern Ocean could have far-reaching consequences that impact global marine ecosystems and nutrient cycles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-microbial-data-in-climate-models">The role of microbial data in climate models</h2>



Looking ahead, researchers hope to integrate microbial data into climate and ocean models. 



“The microbial food web is complex; bacteria and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-viruses-may-help-slow-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbial eukaryotes</a> have different functions and there are a lot of interactions among and between these groups, but also with larger organisms, including animals,” Engelmann commented.



“At this point, it is difficult to predict the impact of climate change on microbial productivity. Our research provides crucial baseline data for understanding the complexity of microbial communities in coastal Antarctic ecosystems, but we need more data and a better understanding of marine microbial communities before we can include them in climate and ocean models,” added Engelmann.



Researchers acknowledge the need for more data to achieve this goal and stress that including data on microbial productivity would make predictive models more accurate in future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-the-research-timeline">Expanding the research timeline</h2>



The 2013-2014 study marks the first comprehensive seasonal analysis of both bacterial and microbial eukaryote communities in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/acidity-levels-of-antarctic-waters-will-soon-double-harming-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctic waters</a>. 



Future measurements will provide a clearer picture of long-term microbial trends.



"Now, we've drawn conclusions based on climate differences at two locations. We have samples ready from 2018-2019 and also from 2022. The more of these measurements we collect over time, the more we'll learn about Antarctic marine microbial communities, their interactions, and susceptibility to climate change," Engelmann explained.



Despite the valuable insights gained from these studies, conducting research in Antarctica presents significant logistical challenges. 



Sampling requires extensive coordination, specialized equipment, and considerable resources. Furthermore, international collaboration is key to conducting successful research.



"International cooperation, such as with the British Antarctic Survey and the colleagues in the U.S. who worked at Palmer station and their home universities, is therefore crucial," stressed Engelmann.



With continued efforts, these studies will help unravel the intricate role of microorganisms in the Antarctic ecosystem and their response to an ever-changing climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbial-shifts-and-global-ocean-health">Microbial shifts and global ocean health</h2>



The microbial alterations that have been observed in Antarctic waters are just a part of a larger pattern being seen across marine ecosystems globally.



With rising ocean temperatures, changes in microbial communities impact nutrient cycles, carbon sequestration, and food webs, and there are likely implications for marine biodiversity and ecosystem stability.



Phytoplankton, in particular, are responsible for sustaining marine life and governing atmospheric carbon. So shifts in microbial interactions may reorganize the effectiveness of carbon sequestration in the ocean, influencing climate regulation on Earth.



Disruptions to the microbial food web could also have indirect impacts on more complex organisms and possibly reconfigure the structure of polar ecosystems.



Monitoring these microbial dynamics over a period of time will enable researchers to improve climate models and estimate how ocean ecosystems will adjust to ongoing environmental changes. 



When the newly available data for the past years is analyzed, it will help scientists to better understand the long-term patterns that will guide the future of Antarctic marine ecosystems.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://environmentalmicrobiome.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40793-025-00663-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Microbiome</a>.



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Warming waters are dramatically changing microbial life in Antarctica

For the first time, researchers have conducted a year-round evaluation...

Oceans never stay still. They shift, churn, breathe - responding to forces seen and unseen. Tides roll in and out, currents snake across the globe, and deep waters keep ancient secrets. Yet, in recent decades, something has changed. Sea levels are rising at an accelerating pace.



Scientists expected this rise. What they didn’t expect was just how fast it would happen. The year 2024 delivered a sharp wake-up call, showing a spike that outpaced predictions. 



Coastal cities, fragile ecosystems, even the way storms form - all are being reshaped by the relentless expansion of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sinking-land-will-intensify-the-effects-of-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sea-level-rise-is-accelerating">Sea level rise is accelerating </h2>



In 2024, global sea levels rose at a rate of 0.23 inches (0.59 centimeters) per year. That may sound small, but when spread across the vastness of Earth’s oceans, it’s staggering. 



Scientists had expected a rise of 0.17 inches (0.43 centimeters) per year. Instead, the increase came faster, driven largely by the expansion of warming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coastal-cities-will-spend-over-3-trillion-dollars-damages-from-sea-level-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seawater</a>.



“The rise we saw in 2024 was higher than we expected,” said Josh Willis, a sea level researcher at NASA’s <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> in Southern California. 



“Every year is a little bit different, but what’s clear is that the ocean continues to rise, and the rate of rise is getting faster and faster.”



Three decades of satellite data confirm the trend: rising waters, increasing speed, and an undeniable pattern. Year by year, the ocean gains height, swallowing more shoreline, shifting ecosystems, and creeping further inland.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-forces-behind-rising-seas">Changing forces behind rising seas</h2>



For years, the biggest driver of sea level rise was melting ice. Glaciers and ice sheets shed their frozen mass into the ocean, accounting for about two-thirds of the increase. The rest came from thermal expansion - ocean water growing in volume as it absorbs heat.



Then, in 2024, the balance flipped. Ocean warming took the lead. Now, two-thirds of sea level rise comes from thermal expansion alone.



“With 2024 as the warmest year on record, Earth’s expanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/major-coastal-cities-around-the-world-could-disappear-under-rising-seas-by-2100/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oceans</a> are following suit, reaching their highest levels in three decades,” said Nadya Vinogradova Shiffer, head of physical oceanography programs at NASA Headquarters in Washington.



This shift signals a deeper problem. Even if glaciers stopped melting tomorrow, oceans would still rise. The heat already absorbed will keep expanding water for years, if not centuries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-satellites-watching-from-above">Satellites watching from above</h2>



Tracking the rise of the sea requires precision. Satellites provide that view, giving scientists the ability to measure ocean height down to mere centimeters.



Since 1993, satellites have kept a constant eye on Earth’s waters. The data they collect reveals a clear upward trend - sea levels have climbed approximately 4 inches (10 centimeters) since the early 1990s.



The mission began with <a href="https://sealevel.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/topex-poseidon/summary/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">TOPEX/Poseidon</a> in 1992. Today, <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/sentinel-6/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sentinel-6 Michael Freilich</a> carries the torch, delivering data with unparalleled accuracy. 



Soon, its twin, Sentinel-6B, will take over, ensuring that these vital observations continue for decades to come.



What these satellites record is more than just numbers. Their measurements help researchers forecast storm surges, predict flooding risks, and refine climate models. Without them, the world would be flying blind into an uncertain future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-heat-moves-through-the-ocean">How heat moves through the ocean</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-much-will-antarctica-contribute-to-sea-level-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oceans</a> don’t heat up evenly. They aren’t like a pot of water on a stove, warming from the bottom up. Instead, heat seeps in through the surface, where it can linger - or sink deep, depending on conditions.



In most places, ocean water settles into layers. Warm, lightweight water stays near the top, while colder, heavier water sinks. This layering slows the spread of heat. But sometimes, nature disrupts the system.



Powerful winds can stir the ocean, dragging warm surface waters downward. Massive currents - like those in the Southern Ocean - tilt the layers, allowing heat to slip into deeper waters.



The result? A slow but steady infusion of warmth, fueling thermal expansion and rising sea levels higher.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-el-nino-and-the-heat-shuffle">El Niño and the heat shuffle</h2>



Then there’s El Niño. Every few years, a vast pool of warm water in the western Pacific sloshes eastward, shifting weather patterns across the globe.



When El Niño shifts warm water across the Pacific, ocean heat moves with it. Surface temperatures fluctuate, deep currents realign, and while some regions face rising waters, others see temporary declines.



El Niño doesn’t just affect sea levels in the moment - it adds to long-term warming. More heat in the ocean means more expansion. And more expansion means more water creeping up shorelines, year after year.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-comes-next">What comes next?</h2>



The acceleration of sea level rise in 2024 is more than just a statistic. It’s a warning. A reality check. A glimpse of what’s to come.



For coastal cities, the stakes couldn’t be higher. Higher seas mean stronger storm surges, flooded streets, and disappearing shorelines. Communities will need stronger defenses - sea walls, drainage systems, and emergency plans for when the waters come.



Scientists will keep watching, tracking every fraction of an inch. The satellites will keep measuring. But the ocean? It will keep rising.



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Record heat of 2024 triggered a surge in sea level rise

Oceans never stay still. They shift, churn, breathe - responding...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

[sendtonews key="qARzJPSabQ-2270617-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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