For decades, researchers have questioned whether boys and girls are born with the same natural ability in math. In 2005, cognitive psychologist Elizabeth Spelke took a firm stand, stating that there are no differences in overall intrinsic aptitude for science and mathematics among women and men.



Now, the evidence is even stronger. In a new study, researchers from <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard University</a> and several institutions across France examined math performance in more than 2.5 million French schoolchildren. 



The team found that at the very beginning of first grade, boys and girls start off nearly equal in math. But just four months into formal math instruction, a small gap appears - and it keeps growing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nationwide-study-tracks-the-math-gap">Nationwide study tracks the math gap</h2>



The research draws on a French government testing program that was launched in 2018. This nationwide effort tracked <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reminiscing-can-boost-language-development-in-preschoolers/">language</a> and math skills of young students from first through sixth grade. 



Over five years and across four student cohorts, the program gave researchers an unmatched view of early math development.



At school entry, French girls scored slightly better than boys in language. Math scores, though, were essentially the same. 



"The headline conclusion is that the gender gap emerges when systematic instruction in mathematics begins," Spelke explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-for-gender-differences">Looking for gender differences </h2>



Spelke had already spent decades studying how young children understand numbers and shapes. Back in 2005, she wrote a major review for American Psychologist. The piece challenged the notion that boys are biologically wired for better math performance than girls.



"My argument was, 'OK, if there really were biological differences, maybe we would see them in the infancy period,'" said Spelke. 



She and her team always tracked <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-children-learn-gender-stereotypes-from-storybooks/">gender</a> in their studies, but they never found infant boys outperforming girls in math, or vice versa. Still, Spelke admitted that something could be happening later in development.



"The fact that there are no differences in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conscious-awareness-when-does-our-sense-of-purpose-emerge/">infants</a> could be because the abilities that show gender effects actually emerge during preschool," she proposed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-math-instruction-for-boys-and-girls">Math instruction for boys and girls</h2>



In recent years, Spelke has turned her attention to how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-better-way-for-kids-to-learn-math/">children learn counting</a> and numbers in real classrooms. 



Spelke partnered with Nobel Prize-winning MIT economist Esther Duflo to advise the Delhi office of the Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab (J-PAL). The team is helping four Indian states create and test math lessons for children in preschool through first grade.



In France, she works alongside her longtime collaborator, neuroscientist Stanislas Dehaene. Together, they serve on the French Ministry of Education's Scientific Council, which helped develop the EvalAide testing program. 



The idea was simple: measure where every child stands in math and language and use that data to guide better teaching.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gender-gap-emerges-in-math">Gender gap emerges in math</h2>



For this study, the team analyzed data from four full cohorts of first-graders entering school between 2018 and 2021. 



What they found was consistent: no math gap at the time of school entry, a small but significant gap favoring boys after four months, and a steadily widening gap by second, fourth, and even sixth grade.



"It was even bigger in fourth grade," Spelke said. "And in sixth grade it was bigger still."



Interestingly, the gender gap in language shrank slightly after the first few months of school and stayed relatively stable in later years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ruling-out-old-explanations">Ruling out old explanations</h2>



So why does the math gap grow with time in school? The researchers ruled out several familiar theories.



"If there was really a pervasive social bias, and the parents were susceptible to it, we would expect boys to be more oriented toward spatial and numerical tasks when they first got to school," said Spelke.



But that didn’t happen. At school entry, there was no math gap. This points away from both biological and early social bias explanations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-experiment-during-the-pandemic">An experiment during the pandemic </h2>



The EvalAide dataset offered other insights. French first-graders can be nearly a year apart in age, depending on when their birthday falls. 



The team wondered if the older students were skewing results. They weren’t. The widening gender gap aligned more closely with time spent in school than with age.



Then came an unusual variable: COVID-19. The 2019 cohort missed the final 2.5 months of first grade due to lockdowns. That gap year created a natural experiment.



"With less time in school, the amount of the gender gap grew by less than it did in the other years where there wasn't a long school closure," said Spelke.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-confirming-the-math-gender-gap">Confirming the math gender gap</h2>



The cohort also began school just after a national education crisis. In early 2019, French students had scored <a href="https://www.polytechnique-insights.com/en/braincamps/society/how-to-improve-the-relationship-between-education-and-employment/maths-an-essential-subject-whose-level-is-falling-in-a-majority-of-countries/#:~:text=In%202003%2C%2015%25%20of%20French,European%20average%20of%20527%20points.">lowest</a> among 23 European countries in math, according to international rankings. 



In response, the French Education Ministry - guided by its Scientific Council - called for more math teaching in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-19-pandemic-setbacks-reduced-kindergarten-readiness/">kindergarten</a>.



Sure enough, a tiny math gender gap appeared in fall 2019 among new first-graders. That gap hadn’t shown up in 2018 but was still present in 2020 and 2021.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-problems-in-early-math-instruction">Problems in early math instruction </h2>



The study doesn't pinpoint a single cause, but its message is clear: differences in math achievement between boys and girls seem to grow as a result of what happens in early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/schools-are-in-a-battle-with-cell-phones-to-keep-students-engaged/">school</a> instruction.



"We still don't know what that is exactly," Spelke said. "But now we have a chance to find out by randomized evaluations of changes to the curriculum."



The findings put pressure on education systems to ask hard questions about how math is taught in the early years - and what needs to change to make it fair for everyone.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09126-4">Nature</a>.



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Early math instruction may unintentionally favor boys

For decades, researchers have questioned whether boys and girls are born with the same natural ability in math. In 2005, cognitive psychologist Elizabeth Spelke took a firm stand, stating that there are no differences in overall intrinsic aptitude for science and mathematics among women and men. Now, the evidence is even stronger. In a new study, researchers from Harvard University and several institutions across France examined math performance in more than 2.5 million French schoolchildren. The team found that at the very beginning of first grade, boys...

Parental care is an important strategy for protecting offspring and enhancing their chances of survival. It has evolved independently many times in different groups of animals such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/many-small-mammals-in-the-uk-tested-plastic-positive/">mammals</a>, birds, reptiles and arthropods. Parental care is particularly evident in many modern social insects, including bees, wasps and ants. But finding evidence of parental care among fossil organisms is extremely challenging because of the temporary nature of brooding activity.&nbsp;



In a new study led by Professor HUANG Diying&nbsp;from the&nbsp;Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology of the&nbsp;<a href="https://english.cas.cn/">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a> (NIGPAS), researchers have found the oldest evidence of brood care in an insect, the extinct water boatman, Karataviella popovi. By examining 157 fossilized individuals of this aquatic bug that lived around 160 million years ago, the researchers identified 30 females, each carrying a cluster of eggs anchored to a left leg like a bunch of tiny grapes.&nbsp;



In their paper, published in the <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rspb">Proceedings of the Royal Society B, Biological Sciences</a>, the authors state that these fossils are “exceptional” and show a unique brooding strategy that is unknown in any other extinct or extant insect species. The tiny eggs, each measuring between 1.14 and 1.20 millimeters, are arranged in densely packed rows and each egg is anchored by a tiny stalk to the mesotibia of the middle leg on the female’s left side. The five or six rows of eggs are staggered, with six to seven eggs per row. This represents quite a hefty load, considering that K. popovi adults only measure around 12 mm in length.



Researchers excavated the insect fossils from the Haifanggou Formation, a fossil-filled rock deposit near the village of Daohugou in northeastern China. A wide variety of fossils have already been recovered from the site, including the preserved remains of feathered dinosaurs, ancient mammals, giant fleas and long-proboscid scorpionflies.



Today, modern species of the water boatman are common aquatic insects that can be found in many freshwater ecosystems worldwide. Interestingly, females habitually lay their eggs on various subaquatic surfaces, such as leaves, stones, and the stems of vegetation. Eggs may also be deposited on the shells of snails, the carapaces of terrapins and the exoskeletons of crayfish. The researchers hypothesize that K. popovi females probably became adapted to carry eggs around on their own legs in Jurassic times in response to various pressures present in the environment of the time.&nbsp;



Eggs need to be oxygenated as the embryos develop, and it is possible that the large eggs of K. popovi needed extra aeration due to their relatively small surface area to volume ratio. In freshwater habitats that may have become stagnant at times, carrying the eggs around would have ensured maximal flow of oxygen over them as the female swam through the water.&nbsp;



In addition, such nutrient-rich eggs would have been attractive to all sorts of predators in the underwater environment, especially if they had simply been deposited on available surfaces. Depositing the eggs onto the females’ own legs would have provided them with protection and enhanced their survival rate.



“Due to the potential high predation risk caused by abundant salamanders in the Daohugou Biota, and seasonal food resources,&nbsp;K.&nbsp;popovi&nbsp;may have been exposed to fierce ecological pressure in the Daohugou Biota,” said Professor HUANG.&nbsp;



The researchers hypothesized that K. popovi&nbsp;females likely laid the eggs directly onto their legs by first secreting a sticky mucus and then executing “specific bending movements of the abdomen” to cement the eggs onto the appropriate limb. “The unoccupied right mesotibia might have been used to maintain balance when swimming and feeding,” they wrote in their report. This unusual brooding strategy likely provided effective protection for eggs by largely avoiding the risks of predation, desiccation and hypoxia.



The researchers explained that carrying a cluster of eggs on a leg is probably a unique strategy among insects. However, it is not unusual in aquatic arthropods, where such carrying behavior can be traced back to the early Cambrian Chengjiang Biota.&nbsp;



The water boatman fossils in the current study were dated at 163.5 million years old, which places them in the middle of the Jurassic Period (201.3 million to 145.5 million years ago). The evidence of brood care in K. popovi&nbsp;is thus the earliest for any insect, pre-dating other fossil evidence of brooding behavior by around 40 million years. Among Mesozoic insects, the only other direct fossil cases of brooding behavior are from the Early Cretaceous Jehol Biota and mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber.



This discovery highlights the existence of diverse brooding strategies in Mesozoic insects, thus helping scientists understand the evolution and adaptive significance of parental care in insects.&nbsp;



Image Credit: NIGPAS



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Jurassic water bugs stuck their eggs on their legs

Parental care is an important strategy for protecting offspring and...

The digestive system contains a beautifully dynamic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-pass-on-gut-microbes-to-urban-wildlife/">microbiome</a>. And when one element changes, other parts usually change as well. Dogs' guts follow this same pattern. With dietary changes, gut microbes shift as the different species find their role in a new environment. The change in microbial diversity affects what types of byproducts, known as metabolites, are produced in the gut.



Scientists already know this, which is why we are usually told to change our dogs' food gradually. Still, they were unsure how fast microbiomes adjust to a new diet.&nbsp;



"As long as I've been doing animal nutrition research, we've argued over how long we need to feed a new diet before collecting samples when everything's stabilized," said study co-author Kelly Swanson. "No one has ever tested it definitively."



The results of the study revealed that gut microbes in dogs are quick to find equilibrium. "Metabolites change really quickly, within a couple days. Bacteria responsively metabolize and deal with the substrates they're given in the new diet. Then it takes a few more days to sort out the microbial pecking order, if you will," explained Swanson.&nbsp;



"Our data show everything stabilizes by day six, so animal nutrition researchers could confidently sample and find a stable microbiome within 10 days."



To carry out their study, the researchers fed dogs dry kibble for two weeks and suddenly switched their diets. Half of the dogs ate high-fat, high-protein canned food, and the other ate high-fiber kibble. They repeated the study by swapping dogs with the opposite experimental diet the second time.



The experts took fecal samples two days after the switch, and every four days after that. They analyzed the poop and then linked metabolites with bacterial species, which is not an easy task.



"Oftentimes, we feed a diet and collect the feces, but there's kind of a black box in terms of what's going on in the gut. We know what some bacterial species metabolize, but definitely a lot of it is unknown," said Swanson."Our correlations are the starting point to connect some of the dots, but more targeted research still has to be done."



According to the researchers, the most surprising knowledge gathered from the study is just how quickly dogs' bodies can react to a change in diet. The experts believe other mammals could attain bacterial equilibrium within a similar timeframe.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The study is published in <a href="https://animalmicrobiome.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s42523-022-00194-9">Animal Microbiome</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dogs can adjust to new diets very quickly

The digestive system contains a beautifully dynamic microbiome. And when...

Methane is considered the second most important greenhouse gas, after carbon dioxide. Freshwater systems account for 49 percent of all methane emissions. As a result of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/limiting-global-warming-could-reduce-human-risk-by-85/">global warming</a> and eutrophication, methane emissions are increasing.&nbsp;



Eutrophication is a buildup of nutrients in a body of water, often from runoff. The process leads to an overabundance of organic material and a lack of animal life due to oxygen depletion. Researchers at <a href="https://www.ru.nl/en">Radboud University</a> wanted to know if reducing eutrophication in lakes could reduce overall methane emission.&nbsp;



The experts tested 16 ponds. Some of the ponds were simply dredged, meaning that organic material was removed from the bottom of the lake. Others were treated with Phoslock (a phosphate-binding clay particle), and some were subjected to both methods.&nbsp;



“Dredging sediment from the ponds’ bottom reduced methane emissions by approximately 52 percent,” said study co-author Tom Nijman. “In the ponds where we used Phoslock, emissions were even reduced by 74 percent.”



“Phoslock leads to less phosphate in water, which in turn reduces the number of floating plants. Invasive plant species such as Azolla (also known as water fern) grow less fast with Phoslock, resulting in less methane being produced in the water."



"Dredging also allows us to remove organic material from the bottom, i.e. the carbon that produces methane. Our study shows that both methods reduce eutrophication in a lake, thereby also reducing emissions.”



Although this finding is encouraging, the researchers are cautiously optimistic. “These experiments first have to be repeated on a large scale. The first results are promising, but we want to measure the effect in more locations and over a longer period of time to see whether the positive effects lasts.”



Moreover, these techniques are costly and will not always be feasible. “An approach based on the use of Phoslock can easily be six to ten times more expensive than an approach that focuses on the environment surrounding the lake. This is not always possible in the Netherlands, think of lakes that are surrounded by trees or agricultural land, in some cases with little to no water flowing through," explained Nijman.



"In such places you cannot simply overhaul the entire environment, in which case it might be useful to use dredging or Phoslock. But in places where the environment can be adjusted, the latter is always preferable. Prevention is still better than a cure.”



This study is published in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/science-of-the-total-environment">Science of The Total Environment</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Study aims to reduce methane emissions from lakes

Methane is considered the second most important greenhouse gas, after...

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) – also known as “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forever-chemicals-found-in-drinking-water-near-u-s-military-bases/">forever chemicals</a>” - are highly persistent human-made hazardous chemicals, which are currently spread globally in the atmosphere, and can be found in rainwater and snow in even the most remote locations on our planet. These chemicals have been associated with a range of serious health issues, including cancers, behavioral and learning problems in children, increased cholesterol, immunity problems, and infertility and pregnancy complications.&nbsp;



During the past two decades, guideline values for PFAS in drinking water, surface waters, and soils have decreased dramatically due to new insights into their extreme toxicity. According to a recent study led by <a href="https://www.su.se/cmlink/stockholm-university">Stockholm University</a> and <a href="https://ethz.ch/en.html">ETH Zurich</a>, the current levels of PFAS in environmental media are now ubiquitously above guideline levels, defining a new planetary boundary for novel entities that has been exceeded.



“There has been an astounding decline in guideline values for PFAS in drinking water in the last 20 years. For example, the drinking water guideline value for one well known substance in the PFAS class, namely the cancer-causing perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), has declined by 37.5 million times in the U.S.” said study lead author Ian Cousins, a professor of Environmental Science at Stockholm.



“Based on the latest U.S. guidelines for PFOA in drinking&nbsp;water, rainwater everywhere would be judged unsafe to drink. Although in the industrial world we don’t often drink rainwater, many people around the world expect it to be safe to drink and it supplies many of our drinking water sources.”



By conducting laboratory and field work on the atmospheric presence and transport of PFAS for the past decade, Professor Cousins and his colleagues have found that the atmospheric levels of some of these chemicals are not declining notably, despite their phase out by several major manufacturers. Besides being highly persistent, their continued presence in the atmosphere is also due to natural processes that continually cycle them back to the atmosphere from the surface environment, such as the transport from seawater to marine air by sea spray aerosols.



“The extreme persistence and continual global cycling of certain PFAS will lead to the continued exceedance of the above-mentioned guidelines,” said study co-author Martin Scheringer, a professor of Environmental Science at ETH Zurich. “So now, due to the global spread of PFAS, environmental media everywhere will exceed environmental quality guidelines designed to protect human health and we can do very little to reduce the PFAS contamination. In other words, it makes sense to define a planetary boundary specifically for PFAS and, as we conclude in the paper, this boundary has now been exceeded.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.2c02765">Environmental Science &amp; Technology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Forever chemicals are raining down all over the world

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) – also known as “forever...

When compared to adults, children usually experience milder <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/multiple-covid-strains-jumped-to-humans-at-wuhan-market/">Covid-19</a> symptoms and are even less susceptible to infection. Until recently though, the factors driving this pediatric resistance to SARS-CoV-2 were largely unknown. 



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au/">University of Queensland</a> in Australia has found that children’s nasal epithelium (the lining of the nose) inhibits infection and replication of the ancestral strain of the virus that emerged in Wuhan, as well as the Delta variant. Unfortunately, these results were not found in the case of the Omicron variant.



The scientists collected samples of primary nasal epithelium cells (NECs) from 23 healthy children aged 2-11 and 15 healthy adults aged 19-66 from Australia, and exposed them to SARS-CoV-2 in order to assess the infection kinetics and antiviral responses in children compared to adults. 



The results revealed that the ancestral strain of the coronavirus replicated less efficiently and was linked to a heightened antiviral response in the nasal epithelial cells of children – features which were also observed with the Delta variant, but not the more recent Omicron one.



&nbsp;“We have provided the first experimental evidence that the pediatric nasal epithelium may play an important role in reducing the susceptibility of children to SARS-CoV-2,” the study authors wrote. “The data strongly suggest that the nasal epithelium of children is distinct and that it may afford children some level of protection from ancestral SARS-CoV-2.”&nbsp;



“Importantly, the Delta variant also replicated to significantly lower titers in the NECs of children. This trend was markedly less pronounced in the case of Omicron. It is also striking to note that, at least in terms of viral RNA, Omicron replicated better in pediatric NECs compared to both Delta and the ancestral virus. Taken together, these data show that the nasal epithelium of children supports lower infection and replication of ancestral SARS-CoV-2, although this may be changing as the virus evolves.”



The study – published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3001728">PLoS Biology</a> – has several limitations, such as the small sample size. Future clinical studies are needed to validate these preliminary findings in a larger population and to clarify the role of other factors, like antibody levels, in protecting children against Covid-19. Moreover, the fact that children seem less resistant to infection with the highly contagious and immune-evasive Omicron variant suggests the need for careful investigation of how newly emergent variants may impact various age groups.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

The lining of children’s noses protects against Covid-19

When compared to adults, children usually experience milder Covid-19 symptoms...

Far from leading to “digital dementia”, as predicted by some neuroscientists, using a digital device as an external memory store can actually result in improved memory skills. This is the finding of a new study, published in the <a href="https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/xge">Journal of Experimental Psychology</a>.



We might imagine that using smartphones, tablets and laptops to store important information would make our own memories lazy and forgetful. The new study, which was led by researchers at <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College London</a>, reveals exactly the opposite. People who use digital devices to store information actually remember that information more effectively. Individuals using mobile devices also seem to have an improved memory of information that they didn’t even save.&nbsp;



In order to explore how storing information on a digital device influences memory abilities, the researchers developed a task to be played on a touchscreen digital tablet or computer. The memory test was undertaken 16 times by each of the 158 volunteers, who were aged between 18 and 71.



Participants were shown up to 12 numbered circles on the screen, and had to remember to drag some of these to the left and some to the right. The number of circles that they remembered to drag to the correct side determined their pay at the end of the experiment. One side was designated ‘high value’, meaning that remembering to drag a circle to this side was worth 10 times as much money as remembering to drag a circle to the other ‘low value’ side.



The participants had to use their own memory to remember on half of the trials and they were allowed to set reminders on the digital device for the other half.



As might be expected, the participants chose mostly to store information about the high-value circles on their digital devices when this option was allowed. And the mere act of thinking about and storing these details, improved their memory for those high-value circles by 18 percent. At the same time, however, their memory for details of the low-value circles also improved – by a whopping 27 percent. And this was seen even in people who had not set any reminders for low-value circles.&nbsp;



Making use of an external storage device for reminders did have a potential cost though. When the device was taken away, the participants remembered the low-value circles better than the high-value ones. This indicates that they had trusted in the device to do the remembering while they, themselves, had forgotten the important details.&nbsp;



“We found that when people were allowed to use an external memory, the device helped them to remember the information they had saved into it," said study senior author Dr. Sam Gilbert from the UCL Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience. "This was hardly surprising, but we also found that the device improved people’s memory for unsaved information as well.”



“This was because using the device shifted the way that people used their memory to store high-importance versus low-importance information. When people had to remember by themselves, they used their memory capacity to remember the most important information. But when they could use the device, they saved high-importance information into the device and used their own memory for less important information instead.”



“The results show that external memory tools work. Far from causing ‘digital dementia’, using an external memory device can even improve our memory for information that we never saved. But we need to be careful that we back up the most important information. Otherwise, if a memory tool fails, we could be left with nothing but lower-importance information in our own memory.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Digital devices can actually improve our memory skills

Far from leading to “digital dementia”, as predicted by some...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/limiting-global-warming-could-reduce-human-risk-by-85/">Global warming</a> could become catastrophic for humanity, if temperature rises turn out to be worse than predicted – which has been <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/live/2022/07/19/world/uk-europe-heat-fires-weather">seen recently in the UK</a>, for instance – or cause unexpected cascades of events. Thus, according to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a>, the world should start preparing for the possibility of a “climate endgame.”



The researchers call on the <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a> (IPCC) to dedicate a future report to catastrophic climate change - which should include outcomes ranging from a loss of ten percent of the human population to eventual human extinction -&nbsp; in order to galvanize research and inform the public.&nbsp;



“There are plenty of reasons to believe climate change could become catastrophic, even at modest levels of warming,” said study lead author Luke Kemp, a research associate at Cambridge’s <a href="https://www.cser.ac.uk/">Center for the Study of Existential Risk</a>. “Climate change has played a role in every mass extinction event. It has helped fell empires and shaped history. Even the modern world seems adapted to a particular climate niche.”&nbsp;



“Paths to disaster are not limited to the direct impacts of high temperatures, such as extreme weather events. Knock-on effects such as financial crises, conflict, and new disease outbreaks could trigger other calamities, and impede recovery from potential disasters such as nuclear war.”



By modelling possible bad-to-worst-case scenarios, Dr. Kemp and his colleagues have found that areas of extreme heat (with annual average temperatures of over 29°C) could affect over two billion people by 2070. The affected regions are not only some of the most densely populated in the world, but also some of the most politically fragile.



“Average annual temperatures of 29 degrees currently affect around 30 million people in the Sahara and Gulf Coast,” said co-author Chi Xu, an expert in ecological systems complexity at <a href="https://www.nju.edu.cn/en">Nanjing University</a>. “By 2070, these temperatures and the social and political consequences will directly affect two nuclear powers, and seven maximum containment laboratories housing the most dangerous pathogens. There is serious potential for disastrous knock-on effects.”



The scientists propose a research agenda including what they call the “four horsemen” of the climate endgame: famine and malnutrition, extreme weather events, conflicts, and vector-borne diseases. While rising temperatures could cause significant threats to the global food supply, hotter and more extreme weather might also lead to new infectious diseases outbreaks, as habitats for both humans and wildlife shift and shrink. Moreover, these climatic changes could also give rise to inequality, misinformation, democratic breakdowns, and even new forms of destructive AI weaponry.



Further research is needed to identify all possible tipping points leading to a “Hothouse Earth.” “The more we learn about how our planet functions, the greater the reason for concern,” said co-author Johan Rockström, the director of the <a href="https://www.pik-potsdam.de/en/home">Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research</a>. “We increasingly understand that our planet is a more sophisticated and fragile organism. We must do the math of disaster in order to avoid it.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2108146119">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Humanity should brace for catastrophic climate change

Global warming could become catastrophic for humanity, if temperature rises...

A new study published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2022.05.033">Journal of the American College of Cardiology</a> has found that projected rates of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/common-air-pollutants-contribute-to-cardiovascular-disease/">cardiovascular</a> risk factors and disease will increase significantly in the United States by 2060, contributing to a rising burden on the U.S. health care system. According to the experts, there is an urgent need for equitable access to prevention education and treatments in order to prevent such future outcomes.



By using data from the 2020 U.S. Census Bureau report for the years 2025 to 2060, combined with the prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors and disease based on the&nbsp;U.S. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, the scientists evaluated future cardiovascular risk factors (including diabetes, hypertension, dyslipidemia, and obesity) and disease (heart attack, stroke, ischemic heart disease, and heart failure) in different groups, based on sex, age, and race/ethnicity.



The analysis revealed that all four risk factors are expected to increase from 2025 to 2060, with the largest percentage increase in diabetes (39.3 percent), followed by dyslipidemia (27.6), hypertension (25.1), and obesity (18.3). Stroke and heart failure are estimated to be the leading cardiovascular diseases (increasing by 33.8 and 33.4 percent, respectively), followed by ischemic heart disease (30.7), and heart attack (16.9).



While these problems will likely affect equally both genders, the researchers expect the cardiovascular risks to increase substantially for racial and ethnic minorities. “Our analysis projects that the prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors and diseases will continue to rise with worrisome trends,” said study senior author James L. Januzzi Jr, a professor of Medicine at <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/">Harvard University</a>.



“These striking projections will disproportionately affect racial and ethnic minority populations in the U.S. Understanding these results will hopefully inform future public health policy efforts and allow us to implement prevention and treatment measures in an equitable manner.”



The scientists emphasize the importance of preventive education regarding cardiovascular risk factors. Moreover, improving access to quality health care, facilitating lower-cost access to effective treatments, and dismantling broader systems that leave racial and ethnic minorities at higher risk are all crucial for reversing this worrisome trend.



“Ultimately, as prevention is imperative to tackle the future burden of cardiovascular disease, the results from this study pose an important challenge,” said study lead author Reza Mohebi, an expert in Cardiology at Harvard. “In order to reduce the burden of cardiovascular disease in the U.S. population, health care policymakers will need to allocate preventive measures and health care resources to the more vulnerable populations we projected to have higher percentage rise in disease,” he concluded.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;

Steep rise in cardiovascular disease expected in the U.S.

A new study published in the Journal of the American...

The North American West Coast is home to an underwater ocean highway - the California Current marine ecosystem (CCME), which extends from the southernmost tip of California up through Washington. Seasonal upward currents of cold, nutrient-rich water support a larger food web of krill, squid, fish, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seabirds-struggle-to-find-food-in-cloudy-ocean-water/">seabirds</a> and marine mammals.&nbsp;



Climate change and subsequent changes in ocean pH, temperature and oxygen levels are altering the CCME - and not for the better. In a new study from <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/">McGill University</a>, experts warn that over the next 80 years, climate impacts will significantly affect twelve economically and culturally important species that make their home in the CCME.



The region can expect to see substantial losses of kelp, red urchins, Dungeness crab and razor clams. In addition, habitat for anchovy and pink shrimp is expected to decline.&nbsp;



The results demonstrate how complex climate research can be. For example, while some environmental changes will result in benefits such as a higher metabolism and increased growth, other changes are severe, and could decrease survival rates.&nbsp;



Physiological increases in size or consumption are not always beneficial. This is especially the case when resources such as food and oxygenated water are limited.



Of all the climate effects modeled, ocean acidification was associated with the largest decreases in biological rates in some species, and the largest increases in others. This emphasizes how climate modeling is critical to safeguarding coastal ecosystems and the future of fisheries.



These impacts will likely have socio-economic consequences across the West Coast, but they will likely not affect everyone and every place equally.&nbsp; Since the area is highly productive, supporting fisheries and livelihoods for tens of millions of residents will require the ability to predict expected change across a range of species. This could shed light on potential economic impacts and optimal adaptive measures for the future.



“The time to accelerate science-based actions is now,” said study first author Professor Jennifer Sunday..“Integrating scientific information, predictive models and monitoring tools into local and regional decision-making can promote stewardship of marine resources and contribute to human wellbeing as we face inevitable changes in the marine life that sustains us.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652486">Global Change Biology</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Key ocean species on the West Coast face an uncertain future

The North American West Coast is home to an underwater...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aerosols-play-a-mysterious-yet-powerful-role-in-arctic-warming/">Aerosols</a> are tiny particles suspended in the atmosphere, which play a fundamental role in the formation of clouds. With aerosols significantly increasing due to human activities, many assessments of the <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a> (IPCC)&nbsp;have suggested that these particles could have an important impact on climate change because clouds reflect sunlight and maintain lower temperatures.&nbsp;



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> has found that aerosol particles in the atmosphere have a bigger impact on cloud cover than previously thought, but less effect on cloud brightness.



The scientists used 20 years of satellite cloud images from two different satellite platforms to compare the periods before and after the 2014 volcanic eruption from Iceland.&nbsp;



“This massive aerosol plume in an otherwise near-pristine environment provided an ideal natural experiment to quantify cloud responses to aerosol changes, namely the aerosol’s fingerprint on clouds,” said study lead author Ying Chen, an expert in aerosol-cloud-climate interactions at the University of Exeter.



“Our analysis shows that aerosols from the eruption increased cloud cover by approximately ten percent. Based on these findings, we can see that more than 60 percent of the climate cooling effect of cloud-aerosol interactions is caused by increased cloud cover. Volcanic aerosols also brightened clouds by reducing water droplet size, but this had a significantly smaller impact than cloud-cover changes in reflecting solar radiation.”



While previous models and observations suggested that cloud brightening accounted for the majority of cooling caused by cloud-aerosols interaction, this study sheds new light on the complex – and sometimes unexpected – ways in which these particles interact with the climate.



&nbsp;“Our earlier work&nbsp;had showed that model simulations could be used to disentangle the relative contribution of aerosol-cloud-climate impacts and potentially confounding meteorological variability,” said study co-author Jim Haywood, a professor of Atmospheric Science at Exeter.



“This work is radically different as it does not rely on models; it uses state-of-the-art machine learning techniques applied to satellite observations to simulate what the cloud would look like in the absence of the aerosols. Clear differences are observed between the predicted and observed cloud properties which can be used to assess aerosol-cloud-climate impacts,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41561-022-00991-6">Nature Geoscience</a>.



&nbsp;---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Aerosols have a bigger impact on cloud cover than expected

Aerosols are tiny particles suspended in the atmosphere, which play...

Oakleaf butterflies are marvelous mimics. Although the upper surfaces of their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insect-wings-inspire-new-method-to-kill-bacteria-on-food/">wings</a> are colored with bright oranges and blues, the lower surfaces are dull brown and resemble dead leaves. When an oakleaf butterfly alights on a plant and folds its wings closed, it masquerades perfectly as a dead leaf, right down to the fine details of leaf stalk, midrib, veins and patches of decay. Until now, the genetics controlling this remarkable phenomenon have not been revealed.



In recent research, published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/">Cell</a>, scientists have investigated the underlying genetic basis of leaf resemblance in Kallima butterflies, that are found in locations in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Asia">east</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Asia">south</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asia">southeast Asia</a>. The study was focused on species found in montane and lowland biodiversity hotspots, including several islands to the south and east of the Asian mainland. By using butterflies from these diverse locations, the researchers hoped to access as many different patterns of leaf resemblance as possible, and to understand the evolution of this phenotypic diversity.



“Butterfly wings have relatively simple structures, but this simple structure is responsible for some very complex functions: locomotion, thermoregulation, mate preference, and predator avoidance,” said Wei Zhang, a butterfly researcher at Peking University in China. “Because these wings are structurally simple but functionally complex, I think butterfly wings are the ideal system to address multiple evolutionary questions.”



First, the researchers sequenced the genomes of 105 butterflies from 21 different genera in the family Nymphalidae. The results showed that leaf mimic butterflies from the Kallima genus formed a monophyletic group that was genetically distinct from butterflies of other genera in the family.&nbsp;



Next, the team analyzed the genomes of 36 butterflies from the genus Kallima, collected from 11 geographic locations in east and southeast Asia. This enabled the researchers to get an idea of the evolutionary history of this fascinating group of leaf mimics. The results suggest that this group of butterflies diversified in the eastern Himalayas during the Pleistocene Period, and subsequently dispersed to other regions in Asia, as well as to areas that are now islands. &nbsp;



The experts also sequenced the genomes of 78 individuals, all of the species K. inachus, that showed a range of different leaf patterns on their wings. By doing this, they hoped to reveal the genetic basis for the variety of different dead-leaf wing patterns found amongst this species. They were fascinated to find ten distinct leaf wing forms in total, which were most likely determined by combinations of five alleles (alternative gene forms) of the gene known as cortex. This gene is known to control wing and body color in various other moths and butterflies.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The five alleles were associated with underwing patterns that the researchers termed plain, veined, scrambled, rippled and moldy. They hypothesized that the ten distinct wing leaf patterns were likely the result of different combinations of these alleles. When this pattern of phenotypic variation exists within natural populations, it is often an indication that several different selection pressures act on the trait (lower wing pattern) and cause certain outcomes to be selected for because they increase the survival chances of individuals that carry them.&nbsp;



The researchers noted that Kallima butterflies have derived protection from resembling leaves for millions of years and that the variety of wing patterns found today are the result of evolutionary pressures on the cortex gene. The effects of the various selection pressures have resulted in balanced polymorphism, a state where the ten wing leaf patterns are all maintained in the butterfly populations today.&nbsp;



“This leaf wing polymorphism has been maintained in multiple&nbsp;Kallima&nbsp;species, but different species may have different phenotype frequencies,” explained Zhang. “I think this is due to the proliferation of specific plants in particular habitats, so the butterflies will gain more protective benefits by having different frequencies of wing phenotypes.”



The experimental method used by the team enabled them to investigate both the macroevolution and microevolution of leaf mimicry in oakleaf butterflies. “We generally focus on biodiversity at a macroevolutionary level,” said Zhang. “But we seldom have cases that illustrate in detail how species diversity and genetic diversity originated in such a diversity hotspot.”



In the future, Zhang and her team intend to examine how wing coloration and patterns vary in different regions and with different plant life. “We would like to understand how these genes facilitate, and originated, such beautiful diversifying wing patterns,” said Zhang



Further details about the study are available at:&nbsp;<a href="https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(22)00794-2">https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(22)00794-2</a>



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How do oakleaf butterflies mimic dead leaves?

Oakleaf butterflies are marvelous mimics. Although the upper surfaces of...

The 2013-2015 marine heatwave, known as The North Pacific Blob, was the most significant marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-heatwaves-could-severely-affect-the-fishing-industry/">heatwave</a> on record. Now, data collected with the help of elephant seals is giving scientists a deeper understanding of the event.&nbsp;



Much of the information from The Blob event was collected from relatively small, shallow areas. However, elephant seals allowed for a more thorough investigation.



"Female elephant seals go out into the open ocean where a ship might go through and collect data only once in awhile, whereas we have elephant seals out there collecting data all over the place," explained first author Rachel Holser. "It's unusual to have this kind of data at the resolution we have in both time and space, and at depths below several hundred meters."



Researchers have been collecting data from elephant seal migrations in the North Pacific Ocean for decades. They use advanced sensors to collect depth, temperature, and salinity data.&nbsp;



"The elephant seals collect data in different locations than existing oceanographic platforms," said study senior author Christopher Edwards, a professor of ocean sciences at <a href="https://www.ucsc.edu/">UC Santa Cruz</a>. "This is an underutilized dataset that can inform us about important oceanographic processes, as well as helping biologists understand the ecology of northern elephant seals."



The sensors revealed that The Blob created abnormally warm temperatures as far as 1,000 meters (3,280 feet) beneath the surface. The temperatures didn't return to normal until 2017, two years after the incident occurred. Experts are still unsure precisely what caused the subsurface temperature to rise dramatically.&nbsp;



"Those temperature anomalies are so deep it's unlikely it would be due to mixing from the surface," Edwards said. "One reasonable mechanism is that the unusually warm waters were transported northward from further south. What we don't know yet is whether that northward transport is directly or indirectly related to the surface warming. Changes at the surface could have altered deeper currents transiently to draw southern waters to the north."



Sub-surface warming has enormous impacts on ocean ecology and human economics. The authors hope the information in this study will help us better protect the oceans and prepare for the future.&nbsp;



"The more information we can collect, the better off we'll be in terms of understanding what's happening and facing the challenges. This study shows the value of collaborating with elephant seals to collect oceanographic data that is complementary to other methods," said Holser.&nbsp;



The study is published in <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2021JC018356">the Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Elephant seals could help us understand ocean warming

The 2013-2015 marine heatwave, known as The North Pacific Blob,...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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