Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

After more than three years since its beginning, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-largest-covid-wave-currently-unfolding-across-china/">Covid-19</a> pandemic still wreaks havoc around the world, with increasingly more immune-evasive variants emerging in various countries. An aspect of SARS-CoV-2 that makes it so infectious and challenging to control is its ability to outwit the body’s innate, as well as acquired (through prior infection or vaccination) immune defenses.&nbsp;



Now, by using a groundbreaking technique known as serial femtosecond X-ray crystallography, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.asu.edu/">Arizona State University</a> (ASU) has examined a viral protein called NendoU that appears to be responsible for the virus’s tactics of immune evasion.



“Our study focuses on how Covid-19 hides from the immune system using the NendoU protein,” said study lead author Rebecca Jernigan, a postdoctoral researcher in Biodesign at ASU. “As we better understand the structure and mechanics of NendoU, we have a better idea of how we can design antiviral drugs against it.”



Viruses have evolved a variety of complex strategies to evade the body’s defense mechanisms. In the case of SARS-CoV-2, the protein NendoU helps the virus hide from the immune system, in plain sight. Once a viral particle binds to a receptor on a cell’s surface, it inserts its genetic material into the cell, causing it to manufacture multiple copies of the viral genome that consists of RNA. When the viruses replicate within cells, their growing RNA structure produces a tail at the end, known as a poly-U tail.



Although human cells are equipped with fine-tuned sensors for detecting invading RNA viruses - because the poly-U tail gives away their identity as foreign invaders, allowing the immune system to attack them - SARS-CoV-2 is highly adept at using its NendoU protein to bind with, then cut-off the poly-U tail, and thus causing the virus to be less visible to the immune system.



The scientists discovered that the NendoU protein acts through a two-step process. First, its more rigid half binds to the active site of the substrate - in this case, a citrate molecule – while the flexible half also binds citrate (or the RNA), but less tightly. However, once the rigid half cleaves the RNA strand, it releases the strand, and becomes flexible. At the same time, the flexible half switches to a rigid state and the cycle is repeated. This scissor-like movement of NendoU’s two main components helps to erase the telltale signal of the virus’s presence within the cell, disabling an appropriate immune response.&nbsp;



“This work is so exciting as it shows for the first time that the differences in flexibility of the protein play an important role in the functional mechanism,” said senior author Petra Fromme, the director of the Biodesign Center for Applied Structural Discovery at ASU. “This will be critical for development of drugs against NendoU, with potential to reveal the presence of the virus to the immune system, which can then react and hinder serious infections.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.str.2022.12.009">Structure</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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How Covid-19 evades the immune system

After more than three years since its beginning, the Covid-19...

From a biological perspective, islands are special places. Their isolation from mainlands leads to more rapid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-study-changes-our-understanding-of-mammal-evolution/">evolution</a> and results in the formation of unique forms of plants and animals that are found nowhere else on Earth. Madagascar is one such island. It is the fifth largest island in the world, and is known for its diversity of endemic and unique species. Sadly, many of these species are now threatened with extinction as they struggle to adapt to habitat loss, exploitation and climate change.



Approximately 90 percent of all Malagasy plants and animals occur on this island and nowhere else. Among the mammals there are more than 100 endemic species of lemurs, which are adapted to the many different habitats found on the island. There is also the cat-like fossa, which is a formidable predator, and in excess of 20 species of tenrecs. The remarkable diversity of unique animals and plants reflects the fact that the island has been isolated for about 88 million years after it split from the Indian landmass.



A team of biologists and paleontologists from Madagascar, Europe and the United States set out to understand the extent to which Madagasy mammals have been perturbed by human disturbance. They were concerned that so many of the mammal species are facing threats to their existence and set out to ascertain exactly what is at stake if environmental change and human pressures on the island wildlife continue.



The team, led by biologists from the University of Groningen (Netherlands), Naturalis Biodiversity Center (Netherlands) and the Association Vahatra (Madagascar), first established a new dataset describing the evolutionary relationships of all 249 species of mammals that were present on Madagascar at the time that humans settled permanently on the island, around 2,500 years ago. They established that of the 249 mammal species, 30 are now extinct, and a further 120 are listed in the IUCN’s Red List as threatened with extinction.



The experts estimated how long it took all these species to evolve from their common ancestors, and could then extrapolate how long it took this level of biodiversity to evolve. In this way the researchers predicted the length of time it would take for evolutionary processes to “replace” all the endangered mammals, if they were to go extinct.&nbsp;



Using a computer simulation model based on island biogeography theory, the team found that it would take approximately 3 million years to regain the number of mammal species already lost from Madagascar in the time since humans arrived. However, if currently threatened species go extinct, it would take much longer: about 23 million years of evolution would be needed to recover the same number of species.&nbsp;



Put simply, this is really bad news. “It's abundantly clear that there are whole lineages of unique mammals that only occur on Madagascar and that have either gone extinct or are on the verge of extinction, and if immediate action isn't taken, Madagascar is going to lose 23 million years of evolutionary history of mammals, which means whole lineages unique to the face of the Earth will never exist again,” said study co-author Steve Goodman, MacArthur Field Biologist at Chicago’s <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/">Field Museum</a> and Scientific Officer at Association Vahatra in Antananarivo.



The staggering time it would take to recover this diversity surprised the scientists: “It is much longer than what previous studies have found on other islands, such as New Zealand or the Caribbean,” said lead researcher Luis Valente.&nbsp;



The results of this new research, published in the scientific journal&nbsp;<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-35215-3">Nature Communications</a>, suggest Madagascar has reached a biodiversity tipping point and that an extinction wave with deep evolutionary impact is imminent unless immediate conservation actions are taken. However, the study finds that, with adequate conservation action, we may still preserve over 20 million years of unique evolutionary history on the island.&nbsp;



“It was already known that Madagascar was a hotspot of biodiversity, but this new research puts into context just how valuable this diversity is. These findings underline the potential gains of the conservation of nature on Madagascar from a novel evolutionary perspective," said Valente.



That doesn’t mean that, if we let all of the lemur, tenrecs, fossas and other unique Malagasy mammals go extinct, evolution will recreate them if we just wait around for 23 million more years. “It would be simply impossible to recover them,” said Goodman. Instead, the model means that to achieve a similar level of evolutionary complexity, whatever those new species might look like, would take 23 million years.



This urgent conservation work is made difficult by inequality and political corruption that keeps land-use decisions out of the hands of most Malagasy people, noted Goodman. “Madagascar’s biological crisis has nothing to do with biology. It has to do with socio-economics.” But while the situation is dire, “we can't throw in the towel. We’re obliged to advance this cause as much as we can and try to make the world understand that it’s now or never.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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It's "now or never" for Madagascar’s endangered mammals

From a biological perspective, islands are special places. Their isolation...

Several different types of medically assisted reproduction (MAR) techniques exist to help people to become parents. These include donor insemination, in vitro fertilization (IVF) using donor sperm, and insemination for heterosexual couples with severe male factor <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mediterranean-diet-improves-sperm-quality-and-fertility/">infertility</a>, and for single women or women in same-sex relationships. All these procedures rely on successful recruitment of sperm donors and, although much is made of the screening and assessment of donors from a safety perspective, little research has been done on the ease of the recruiting process itself. 



There is a constant need for sperm banks to replenish their stocks with sperm from new donors because national legislation usually limits the number of children that can be born from a single donor. Thus, the process of becoming a new donor should be as streamlined and simple as possible, to ensure ongoing supplies of sperm for MAR.&nbsp;



In a new study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/humrep/deac264">Human Reproduction</a>, scientists have tracked the progress of potential sperm donors through the recruitment process, and have identified the reasons that many men do not get to the stage of having their sperm frozen and released for use. A research team led by the <a href="https://www.sheffield.ac.uk/">University of Sheffield</a> found that, of a sample of 11,712 men who initially applied to become sperm donors, only 3.9 percent were ultimately accepted and donated sperm for use in reproductive procedures.&nbsp;



The researchers used data from all male applicants at Cryos International, one of the&nbsp;world’s largest sperm banks, during 2018 and 2019. This organization has sperm banks in several countries, and data from the U.S. and Denmark were accessed as these are the main sources of donor sperm for MAR procedures in the U.K.



“To our knowledge this is the largest study of sperm donor applicants outside China and, given that the U.K. relies so heavily on imported sperm from the U.S.A. and Denmark, it is important for us to understand the recruitment processes there and reassure ourselves that they are safe, as well as see if there is anything we can do to improve them," said study lead author Professor Allan Pacey.



Potential donors have to go through a number of steps during the selection process. Initially, a potential donor completes an application form online. If the details are acceptable, he is asked to submit a sperm sample for a quality check. At least 5 million swimming sperm must be present per milliliter of semen after freezing and defrosting, in order for the sample to be acceptable. If the donor passes this stage, he must complete a questionnaire about lifestyle, which can also result in his subsequent rejection. Lastly, the applicant must give information about any diseases or genetic issues present in himself or his close family members.&nbsp;



The results of the analysis revealed that most candidate donors were lost during recruitment because they: withdrew, failed to respond, did not attend an appointment, or did not return a questionnaire (54.91 percent); reported a disqualifying health issue or failed a screening test (17.41 percent); did not meet the eligibility criteria at the outset (11.71 percent); or did not have sperm samples of sufficient quality (11.20 percent).&nbsp;



There were statistically significant differences between the figures for Denmark and for the U.S.; more applicants were successfully recruited in Denmark (6.53 percent) than in the U.S.A. (1.03 percent). In addition, the chances of becoming a successful donor were also influenced by the donor’s choice of whether to allow himself to be identified to future offspring or to remain anonymous. Those who had chose to allow their initial identity (ID) to be released to any donor-conceived people (ID release) were more likely to have sperm samples frozen and released for use than those who chose not to release their identity (non-ID release).&nbsp;



A total of 40 percent of donor candidates initially agreed to be identifiable, and this approach was more common in applicants from Denmark than from the U.S. This has relevance for U.K. recipients because more than half of the new sperm donors registered in the U.K. are from foreign sperm banks, like Cryos in the U.S. and Denmark. Since 2006 it has been illegal in the U.K. to use sperm from donors who are unwilling to be identified to any people born from their donations.



The researchers found that, once men had been accepted as donors and had begun to make regular donations, many of them decided to change their initial identity choice. Although changes were made in both directions, it was more common for men who had chosen non-ID release to change their registration to ID release.&nbsp;



“The study with Cryos highlights how hard it is to become a sperm donor. It’s not like blood donation where once it’s done you can have a cup of tea and go home. Sperm donation is a regular commitment with lots of screening and regular testing as well as life-long implications for the donor if any children are born from their sample," said Professor Pacey.



“What’s particularly fascinating is that more donors, who initially wanted to remain anonymous, were willing to be identifiable as the screening and donation process continued. This is particularly good news for patients in the UK undergoing fertility treatment, as it is a legal requirement for sperm donors to be identifiable to any children born from their donations.”



Dr. Anne-Bine Skytte, Medical Director at Cryos International said:&nbsp;“We are very grateful to Professor Pacey and the team for their in-depth analysis of sperm donors which has already been very valuable in helping Cryos look at its recruitment process and try to make it more efficient.”



“If we can recruit donors more easily then this will help keep costs down for patients in the UK and elsewhere who often buy donor sperm with their own money because it’s not funded by the NHS."



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---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Only 4 out of 100 applicants become sperm donors

Several different types of medically assisted reproduction (MAR) techniques exist...

A team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/">University of California, Riverside</a> (UCR) has moved a step closer to finding a sustainable use for the hundreds of millions of tons of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/converting-plastic-waste-into-valuable-chemicals/">plastic waste</a> produced annually which frequently ends up clogging streams and rivers, and polluting the world’s oceans. The experts discovered a method to convert this waste into a highly porous form of charcoal or char that can capture carbon and could potentially be added to soils to improve water retention and aeration of farmlands, as well as to fertilize the soils as it breaks down.



The scientists mixed polystyrene (the type of plastic used for Styrofoam&nbsp;packaging) or polyethylene terephthalate (PET - the material often used to make water and soda bottles) with corn stover (the leftover stalks, husks, leaves, and cobs). This mixture was then cooked with highly compressed hot water, in a process called hydrothermal carbonization.



This study followed an earlier successful effort to use corn stover alone to produce activated charcoal that could help filter pollutants from drinking water. The researchers initially wanted to test whether activated charcoal produced from a combination of corn stover and plastic could also be an effective water treatment medium. Although this charcoal absorbed only about 45 percent of vanillin in test water samples – thus making it a rather ineffective medium for water cleanup – its potential use as a valuable soil additive remains an important discovery.



“It could be a very useful biochar because it is a very high surface area material,” said study senior author Kandis Leslie Abdul-Aziz. “So, if we just stop at the char and not make it in that turn into activated carbon, I think there are a lot of useful ways that we can utilize it.”



“I feel like we have more of an agnostic approach to plastic recycling when you can throw it in (with biomass) and use the char to better the soil. That’s what we’re thinking,” she concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.2c04815">ACS Omega</a>.  



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Plastic waste could be used as a valuable soil additive

A team of researchers from the University of California, Riverside...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.uef.fi/en">University of Eastern Finland</a> in collaboration with the <a href="https://www.psshp.fi/etusivu">Kuopio University Hospital</a> has found that people taking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vitamin-d-is-essential-for-heart-health/">vitamin D</a> supplements regularly have a considerably lower risk of developing melanomas (skin cancers).



Scientists have long known that vitamin D plays a key role in the normal functioning of the human body. While the relationship between vitamin D and skin cancers has been studied in the past, previous research has mainly focused on serum levels of calcidiol, a metabolite of vitamin D. However, the results of these studies have been inconclusive and even contradictory at times, since serum calcidiol levels have been associated both with a higher and lower risk of developing different types of melanomas.&nbsp;



In the new study, the experts enrolled 498 adult patients with increased risk of skin cancers and divided them into three groups, based on their vitamin D intake: non-users, occasional users, and regular users. Serum calcidiol levels were measured in half of the patients and found to correspond to their reported use of vitamin D.



The analysis revealed that there were significantly fewer cases of melanoma among regular vitamin D users, and that even occasional users had a lower risk of skin cancers than non-users. These findings reinforce results from other recent studies that have provided evidence of the benefits of vitamin D in melanoma, such as the association of vitamin D regular use and less aggressive skin cancers.



“These earlier studies back our new findings from the North Savo region here in Finland. However, the question about the optimal dose of oral vitamin D in order to for it to have beneficial effects remains to be answered. Until we know more, national intake recommendations should be followed,” concluded senior author Ilkka Harvima, a professor of Dermatology and Allergology&nbsp;at the University of Eastern Finland.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/CMR.0000000000000870">Melanoma Research</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Vitamin D reduces risk of skin cancer

A new study led by the University of Eastern Finland...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgac285">PNAS Lexus</a> has found that, despite policymakers’ efforts to reduce lead exposure since the 1970s, children living near a California airport have higher levels of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-blame-lead-pollution/">lead</a> in their blood, due to the fact that leaded gasoline is still used by piston-engine aircrafts across the United States.



Over the past 40 years, the blood lead levels of U.S. children declined significantly due to policies that forbidden the use of lead in plumbing, paint, food cans, and automotive gasoline. According to many scientists, the decision to phase-out the use of tetraethyl lead from automotive gasoline (under provisions of the Clean Air Act of 1970) was the most effective of these policies.



However, leaded gasoline has not disappeared completely, and remains a major part of aviation gasoline, being used by about 170,000 piston-engine aircrafts nationwide (accounting for two-thirds of lead emissions in the United States). As the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/">U.S. Environmental Protection Agency</a> (EPA) estimates, about four million people reside within half a mile of airports servicing piston-engine planes, and nearly 600 elementary or secondary schools are located close to such facilities.



By analyzing the blood lead levels of children under six years of age during a ten-year period (2011-2020) who resided near the Reid-Hillview Airport in Santa Clara County, California, the scientists found that many children living near the airport had blood lead levels exceeding the <a href="https://www.cdph.ca.gov/">California Department of Public Health</a>-defined threshold of 4.5 micrograms per deciliter.



The analysis showed that, for children living a mile or more from the airport, the probability of lead levels exceeding this threshold was 21.4 percent lower than for those living within a half mile of the airport. Moreover, children residing east of the airport (downwind) were 2.18 times more likely to have blood lead levels above the threshold of concern.



“Across an ensemble of tests, we find consistent evidence that the blood lead levels of children residing near the airport are pushed upward by the deposition of leaded aviation gasoline. This indicates we should support policy efforts to limit aviation lead emissions to safeguard the welfare of at-risk children,” concluded study lead author Sammy Zahran, a professor of Demography at <a href="https://www.colostate.edu/">Colorado State University</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Children near airports are exposed to high levels of lead

A new study published in the journal PNAS Lexus has...

Coastal lagoons&nbsp;are transitional environments between inland and marine aquatic systems. They are of great ecological and economic importance, and provide valuable ecosystem services, such as generating food for humans and other animals. However, they are fragile environments and are subject to pressure from several different human activities, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-caused-one-million-deaths-in-africa-in-2019/">pollution</a>.&nbsp;



In a recent review, published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2022.120366">Environmental Pollution</a>, experts from Spain, Colombia and Chile identified and summarized the advances in research on microplastic (MP) pollution in coastal lagoons across the world. They searched peer−reviewed publications on this topic, published in English and Spanish, between the years of 2000 and 2022. In total, 57 relevant publications were found, with data on MP abundances and their characteristics in 50 coastal lagoons from 20 countries on different continents, including Europe (32 percent), Asia (20 percent), Latin America and the Caribbean (18 percent), Africa (12 percent), North America (10 percent), and Oceania (8 percent).



Although 58 percent of the lagoons studied have some form of environmental protection status&nbsp;(e.g., Ramsar Convention on wetlands of international importance, biosphere reserves, areas of importance for wildlife conservation), none of them was immune to contamination from microplastics. Fiber/filament and fragment shapes, and&nbsp;polyethylene, polyester, and&nbsp;polypropylene&nbsp;polymers were the predominant microplastic pollutants present.&nbsp;



“In these natural habitats, peak levels of microplastic pollution result from a combination of several factors. For example, the residence time and water renewal rate of lagoons, the nearby location of large urban and industrial developments with insufficient waste management, river and outfall discharges, seasonal climate fluctuations, natural phenomena (hurricanes, typhoons, etc.) and the typology of microplastics,” says study first author Ostin Garcés-Ordóñez, a member of the Consolidated Research Group in Marine Geosciences.



Coastal lagoons with slow, or very slow, water turnover rates are the most susceptible to high microplastic pollution. In the case of the Mosquito Lagoon in Florida (USA), it takes 200-300 days to renew 50 percent of the water, and therefore microplastics entering this lagoon can remain in this ecosystem for considerable periods of time.



“During the rainy season, the concentration of microplastics also increases in surface water compared to the dry season, a phenomenon that has been observed in the lagoon of Rio Lagarto (Mexico) and in the Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta (Colombia), with maximum levels in areas where the most intense human activities are recorded,” says Garcés-Ordóñez.



Globally, the coastal lagoons most affected by MP pollution are found in Lagos (Nigeria), Sakumo (Ghana) and Bizerte (Tunisia), in close proximity to large urban centers that have no waste or sewage treatment systems. However, the study also found that the highest concentrations of microplastics have been detected in Barnes Sound and other small lagoons in a protected area in the north of Florida Bay (USA); in this case, they were transported there by hurricanes, from polluted areas further afield.



The study also reviewed the impact of microplastics on 96 different species of fish and found a maximum impact on fish that inhabit the coastal lagoons of Bizerte and Ghar El Melh in Tunisia. Fish are of great commercial interest and are also one of the best-studied groups of organisms when it comes to microplastic impacts. The study found that the species&nbsp;Liza aurata&nbsp;(golden grey mullet) and&nbsp;Sarpa salpa (dreamfish or salema) had intakes of up to 65 microplastics per individual. Mollusks, are also seriously affected, with levels of up to 17 microplastics per individual. The mollusks with the highest MP loads were Eastern oysters (Crassostrea virginica) found in the Mosquito Lagoon (USA).



Regarding the Iberian Peninsula, coastal lagoons are relatively few in number and small in comparison with other coastal lagoon systems in the world. Most of them are associated with the lower courses of rivers and their former mouths, as well as with the coastal drift of sediments, as is the case of the marshes of Empordà, the Ebro delta, the Valencia lagoon or the lagoon system of the Portuguese Algarve.



“The environmental state of these lagoons is variable and changes over time. Some suffer the effects of pollution from urban, industrial and agricultural sources, such as the Valencia lagoon and the Mar Menor in Murcia, where there have recently been massive deaths of fish due to episodes of anoxia,” notes Professor Miquel Canals, director of the UB&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ub.edu/portal/web/dp-dinamica-terra-ocea/">Department of Earth and Ocean Dynamics</a>&nbsp;and a leading member of the research team.



“The Mar Menor, which is the largest coastal lagoon in Spain, has unique characteristics among the Iberian coastal lagoons, given the high salinity of its waters as a result of its permanent communication with the open sea and the presence of several volcanic islets. Episodes of drought can have notable effects on some of these lake systems, as is already happening in the marshes of the Empordà or in Doñana.'



The study reveals the presence of microplastics in the water column, sediments and fish in the coastal lagoons of the Mar Menor (Murcia), the Pletera (Catalonia) and in Ria Formosa and Aveiro (Portugal). "In Spanish lagoons, an average of 20.1 ±2.9&nbsp; microplastics per kilogram of the digestive tract has been found in sea bream (Sparus aurata) in the Mar Menor, and an abundance of up to 2.5 microplastics per individual in the eastern mosquitofish (Gambusia holbrooki) in the restored Pletera lagoon in Girona", says Canals.



The review highlighted the fact that microplastics can end up being accumulated in certain areas of coastal lagoons, or they can be exported out to the sea, depending on the influence of seasonal weather, hydrodynamics, anthropogenic pressures, and the types of MPs involved.



“We can certainly say that the different environmental matrices of coastal lagoons –i.e., waters, sediments and organisms living in these habitats – are receptors of microplastics and are affected by the pollution they cause. However, we do not yet know to what extent coastal lagoons are ultimate sinks for microplastics,” says Canals.



“This is related to the characteristics and dynamics of each lagoon, as well as to the quantities and properties of incoming microplastics. Thus, some lagoons may be true sinks while others may function as temporary sinks in the microplastic cycle, easing, for example, their transfer from river systems to beaches and the marine environment. Such criteria could be used to classify coastal lagoons according to the balance between inward and, eventually, outward fluxes of microplastics.



The scientists found it challenging to combine data from all the different published studies on coastal lagoons all over the world. This was due to the fact that the research reported in these studies made use of a variety of different methods to assess the presence and impacts of microplastics.&nbsp;



“In many parts of the world, research is limited by the limited availability of financial, human and infrastructure resources (e.g. Raman or Fourier-Transform infrared spectrometers to characterize the composition of plastic polymers),” says Garcés-Ordóñez. “Extensively applying both simple and more advanced methodologies will answer many open questions about the dynamics of microplastics in these environments or the role of lagoons as temporary or permanent microplastic sinks,” he adds.



Ideally, the scientists would like to see preventative measures that stop microplastics from entering the lagoon systems in the first place. As Miquel Canals notes, “the best way to tackle and minimize the problem of microplastic pollution in general, and in coastal lagoons specifically, is to stop it from entering natural systems from the roots. It is necessary to act on the sources and the causes that favor their arrival in coastal lagoons and the rest of the ecosystems.”



Achieving this goal would require a series of combined actions at global, regional, national and local levels. Initially there would have to be an adequate regulatory framework, and then this would have to be implemented effectively. Actions would need to be taken to minimize plastic waste generation at all levels, for example by proper management of waste and wastewater discharged into aquatic ecosystems, and by instituting strategies to eliminate the accumulation of large waste in the environment.



“It is obvious that these examples are only some of the existing options, which should also be accompanied by environmental education and monitoring programs in order to be able to assess their effectiveness objectively. Other options, such as the recovery of microplastics from the natural environment, are not, for the moment, viable,” concludes Miquel Canals.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Coastal lagoons have high loads of microplastics

Coastal lagoons&nbsp;are transitional environments between inland and marine aquatic systems....

As more and more of the world’s population moves to cities, the extent of the land occupied by urbanization increases. Currently, approximately 56 percent of people (4.4 billion) on Earth live in cities, and this is set to increase to over six billion by 2050. Urbanization brings radical changes to landscapes and ecosystems, and results in significant losses in biodiversity. However, some species can adapt to life in these areas, and may even thrive.&nbsp;



A study of Puerto Rican crested <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/anole-lizards-have-lungs-that-develop-in-less-than-two-days/">anoles</a> in three cities and three adjacent forested regions has now shown that these lizards have adapted morphologically to life in urban environments, and that their adaptations are reflected in their genomes.



“Urbanization impacts roughly two-thirds of the Earth and is expected to continue to intensify, so it’s important to understand how organisms might be adapting to changing environments,” said study first author Professor Kristin Winchell of <a href="https://www.nyu.edu/">New York University</a>. “In many ways, cities provide us with natural laboratories for studying adaptive change, as we can compare urban populations with their non-urban counterparts to see how they respond to similar stressors and pressures over short periods of time.”



Crested anoles (Anolis cristatellus) are small-bodied lizards&nbsp;that are commonly found in both urban and forested areas in Puerto Rico. Prior studies by Winchell and her colleagues found that urban&nbsp;Anolis cristatellus&nbsp;have evolved certain traits that are beneficial to them in cities. They have larger toe pads with more specialized scales that allow them to cling to smooth surfaces, like walls and glass, and have longer limbs that help them sprint across open areas.&nbsp;



In the current study, published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2216789120">PNAS</a>, the researchers looked at 96&nbsp;Anolis cristatellus&nbsp;lizards from three regions of Puerto Rico – San Juan, Arecibo, and Mayagüez – and compared lizards living in urban centers with those living in forests surrounding each city.&nbsp;They investigated whether the physical adaptations were similar in lizards from all three cities, and analyzed their genomes to establish genetic differences between urban-dwelling and forest-dwelling lizards in each region.



After confirming that the lizard populations in the three regions were genetically distinct from each other, they measured the toe pads and leg lengths of all 96 lizards that they collected. They found that the urban lizards did indeed show similar morphological changes in all three cities, including having significantly longer limbs and larger toe pads, with more specialized scales on the toes, than did the forest lizards.&nbsp;



The researchers were able to conclude that these similarities could be attributed to similar environmental pressures on lizards that lived in the cities, and that the evolution of these traits helped urban lizards to survive and thrive.&nbsp;



Furthermore, analysis of exome DNA (the regions of the genome that code for production of proteins) revealed that there was a genetic basis for the physical changes observed in the urban-living lizards. The researchers identified a set of 33 genes, found in three regions of the lizard genome, that were repeatedly associated with urbanization across populations, including genes related to immune function and metabolism.



“While we need further analysis of these genes to really know what this finding means, we do have evidence that urban lizards get injured more and have more parasites, so changes to immune function and wound healing would make sense. Similarly, urban anoles eat human food, so it is possible that they could be experiencing changes to their metabolism,” said Professor Winchell.



In additional analysis, the researchers found 93 genes in the urban lizards that are important for limb and skin development, offering a possible genetic explanation for the increases in their leg lengths and toe morphology.&nbsp;



“The physical differences we see in the urban lizards appear to be mirrored at the genomic level,” said Professor Winchell. “If urban populations are evolving with parallel physical and genomic changes, we may even be able to predict how populations will respond to urbanization just by looking at genetic markers.”



Animals that adapt to living in urban environments typically experience a change in diet and probably an increased ambient temperature, since urban areas are often “heat islands” when compared to surrounding rural areas. Urban animals would thus be expected to show changes in behavior and metabolism, as well as increased tolerance of heat.&nbsp;



“Understanding how animals adapt to urban environments can help us focus our conservation efforts on the species that need it the most, and even build urban environments in ways that maintain all species."



Do the differences in urban lizards apply to people living in cities? Not necessarily, according to Professor Winchell, as humans aren’t at the whim of predators like lizards are. But humans are subject to some of the same urban factors, including pollution and higher temperatures, which seem to be contributing to adaptation in other species.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Urban lizards show physical and genetic adaptations

As more and more of the world’s population moves to...

A team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.ubc.ca/">University of British Columbia</a> (UBC) has recently investigated over 350 compounds derived from natural sources such as plants, fungi, and sea sponges in order to find new antiviral drugs that can be used to treat Covid-19. By bathing human lung cells in solutions made from these compounds and then infecting the cells with SARS-CoV-2, the experts discovered 26 compounds that completely reduced viral infection in the cells. These findings pave the way for the development of new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-largest-covid-wave-currently-unfolding-across-china/">Covid</a> treatments made from natural sources.



“This interdisciplinary research team is unraveling the important possibilities of biodiversity and natural resources and discovering nature-based solutions for global health challenges such as Covid-19,” said study senior author François Jean, an associate professor of Microbiology and Immunology at UBC.



“The advantage of these compounds is that they are targeting the cells, rather than the virus, blocking the virus from replicating and helping the cell to recover,” added co-first author, Jimena Pérez-Vargas, a research associate specializing in the same fields at UBC. “Human cells evolve more slowly than viruses, so these compounds could work against future variants and other viruses such as influenza if they use the same mechanisms.”



The scientists used a version of SARS-CoV-2 that causes cells to become fluorescent green when infected, together with a groundbreaking screening technique, in order to identify natural compounds which showed inhibition of Covid infection with low cell damage.&nbsp;



The three most effective compounds were discovered in Canada: alotaketal C from a sea sponge collected in Howe Sound, British Columbia (B.C.), bafilomycin D from a marine bacterium from Barkley Sound, B.C., and holyrine A from marine bacteria from Newfoundland waters.



The analysis revealed that these compounds were effective against the Delta variant, as well as several Omicron variants. Moreover, they appeared to be as safe for human cells as current Covid-19 treatments. Since many of these existing treatments – such as those based on monoclonal antibodies – are ineffective against several Omicron sub-variants, there is an urgent need for new antivirals, which could be combined with other drugs for combating the new coronavirus. For instance, bafilomycin D appeared to be highly effective against the Omicron subvariant BA.2 when used in combination with a&nbsp;recently discovered&nbsp;antiviral (the molecule N-0385).



The scientists aim to test the newly discovered compounds in animal models over the next six months. “Our research is also paving the way for large-scale testing of natural product medicines that can block infection associated with other respiratory viruses of great concern in Canada and around the world, such as influenza A and RSV,” Professor Jean concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.antiviral.2022.105484">Antiviral Research</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Sea sponges contain compounds that block Covid infection

A team of researchers led by the University of British...

A new study of vegetation across New York City and densely populated surrounding areas has found that, on summer days, photosynthesis by trees and grasses absorbs a massive amount of the carbon dioxide emissions produced by vehicles and other greenhouse-emitting sources. This surprising discovery highlights the underappreciated importance of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-green-spaces-are-urgently-needed-to-improve-health/">urban green spaces</a> in the carbon cycle.



By using fine-grained vegetation maps, the scientists documented massive amounts of previously unrecognized greenery scattered in small spots even in highly developed areas, and found that they are performing a substantial role in the exchange of hazardous atmospheric gases. Since urban areas account for over 70 percent of human CO2 emissions – with New York City as the U.S.’s number one emitter, and third largest in the world – these findings are highly significant, showing that even individual street trees, little backyard gardens, overgrown vacant lots, and other small greenery can play an outsize role in carbon absorption.



“There is a lot more greenery than we thought, and that’s what drives our conclusion,” said study lead author Dandan Wei, a climate expert at <a href="https://www.columbia.edu/">Columbia University</a>. “This tells us that the ecosystem matters in New York City, and if it matters here, it probably matters everywhere else.”



“Most people have assumed that New York City is just a grey box, that it’s biogenically dead. But just because there’s a concrete sidewalk somewhere doesn’t mean there’s not also a tree that’s shading it,” added co-author Roísín Commane, an atmospheric chemist at the same university.



The analysis revealed that tree canopies cover about 170 square kilometers of New York City (about 22 percent of its area), while grasses account for another 94 square kilometers (12 percent of the city’s area). By examining carbon emissions from June to August 2018, the researchers found that the total uptake from the city’s trees and grasses equaled up to 40 percent of a summer afternoon’s total emissions from all sources.



Unfortunately, in relatively chilly New York, carbon uptake occurs only during the local growing season, roughly from mid-April to mid-October. However, vegetation in cities with warmer climates most likely plays an even larger role in carbon uptake.



In future research, the scientists aim to characterize coverage by species, and thus figure out the relative benefits of different types of trees and grasses. “More trees are always going to be better, no matter what they are. But we could use an assessment of which ones are the best,” Wei concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aca68f">Environmental Research Letters</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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New York City greenery absorbs vast amounts of carbon

A new study of vegetation across New York City and...

The results of a new study modeling the effects of the world’s current emission reduction pledges has concluded that it’s no longer about whether we will overshoot the 1.5 degree Celsius warming target or not; it’s now about how much we will overshoot. This is a stark and sobering finding, against the backdrop of the 2022 United Nations Climate Change Conference (<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/on-a-highway-to-climate-hell-cop27-begins-in-egypt/">COP27</a>) currently taking place in Sharm El Sheikh, Egypt.



According to the study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41558-022-01508-0">Nature Climate Change</a>, it is now highly likely that the world is going to warm past the 1.5 degree rise in average temperature, set as a goal of the 2015 Paris Agreement. The world’s current climate pledges are simply insufficient&nbsp;to limit global warming to this level, say the researchers from the Department of Energy’s Pacific Northwest National Laboratory(PNNL), the University of Maryland and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. However, the experts note there is still time to adopt mechanisms that can limit the extent of the overshoot.



Although exceeding the 1.5-degree target appears inevitable, the researchers say that countries can minimize the time spent in a warmer world by adopting more ambitious climate pledges and decarbonizing faster. Their study suggests various mechanisms whereby the overshoot period is shortened, in some cases by decades, and the researchers say this will be critical in reducing the extent of the damage.&nbsp;



“Let’s face it. We are going to breach the 1.5 degrees limit in the next couple of decades,” said corresponding author and PNNL scientist Haewon McJeon. “That means we’ll go up to 1.6 or 1.7 degrees or above, and we’ll need to bring it back down to 1.5. But how fast we can bring it down is key.”



According to the study, every second shaved off the overshoot translates to less time spent courting the most harmful consequences of global warming, from extreme weather to rising sea levels. Forgoing or delaying more ambitious goals could lead to “irreversible and adverse consequences for human and natural systems,” said lead author Gokul Iyer, a scientist alongside McJeon at the Joint Global Change Research Institute, a partnership between PNNL and the University of Maryland.



“Moving fast means hitting net-zero pledges sooner, decarbonizing faster, and striking more ambitious emissions targets,” said Iyer. “Every little bit helps, and you need a combination of all of it. But our results show that the most important thing is doing it early. Doing it now, really.”



During COP26 in 2021, the same research team found that the then updated pledges could substantially increase the chance of limiting warming to 2 degrees Celsius over pre-industrial levels. In their new paper, the authors take an additional step in proposing how to move the needle from 2 to 1.5 degrees.



“The 2021 pledges don’t add up to anywhere near 1.5 degrees – we are forced to focus on the overshoot,” said PNNL scientist Yang Ou, who co-led the study. “Here, we’re trying to provide scientific support to help answer the question: What type of ratcheting mechanism would get us back down and below 1.5 degrees? That’s the motivation behind this paper.”



The researchers modelled the predicted consequences of 27 scenarios involving different levels of emissions and climate actions, from the least ambitious to the most. They tracked the effect on global warming if each of these pathways was followed, in order to identify particular approaches that could limit temperature rise or, indeed, return the world to the desired 1.5 degree average temperature rise after overshooting this goal.&nbsp;&nbsp;



As a starting point, the researchers assumed that countries will meet their emissions pledges and long-term strategies on schedule. If countries do uphold their nationally determined contributions through 2030 and follow a two percent minimum decarbonization rate, for example, global carbon dioxide levels would not reach net zero this century.



However, in the more ambitious scenarios, they model the extent to which warming is limited when countries decarbonize faster and advance the dates of their net-zero pledges. Their results underscore the significance of “ratcheting near-term ambition,” which entails rapid reductions in carbon dioxide emissions from all sectors of the energy system, immediately and through 2030.



Taking the most ambitious path outlined could even bring net-zero carbon dioxide emissions by 2057. Such a path, the authors write, is marked by “rapid transformations throughout the global energy system” along with the scaling up of “low-carbon technologies like renewables, nuclear energy, as well as carbon capture and storage.”



“The technologies that help us get to zero emissions include renewables, hydrogen, electric cars, and so on. Of course those are important players,” said Iyer. “Another important piece of the puzzle is the technologies that can remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, like direct air capture or nature-based solutions.”



The most ambitious scenarios outlined in their work are meant to be illustrative of the pathways on offer. But the central takeaway remains clear throughout all modeled scenarios: if 1.5 degrees is to be re-attained sooner after we warm past it, more ambitious climate pledges must be adopted.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Global warming will exceed 1.5 degrees, but by how much?

The results of a new study modeling the effects of...

From April to May 2019, the coral reefs close to the French Polynesian island of Moorea in the central South Pacific Ocean suffered prolonged and severe thermal bleaching, despite the absence of El Niño conditions that year, a phenomenon which intrigued oceanologists around the world. 



Now, a team of scientists led by the <a href="https://hkust.edu.hk/">Hong Kong University of Science and Technology</a> has investigated this surprising and apparently paradoxical event, and discovered that it was related to passage of anti-cyclonic eddies which elevated sea levels and concentrated hot water over the coral reef, leading to a massive underwater marine heatwave that was invisible from the sea surface.



Most studies of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reef-fish-struggle-to-recognize-competitors-after-coral-bleaching/">coral bleaching</a> rely on sea-surface measurements of water temperatures, a method that cannot fully capture the threats from ocean heating to various ecosystems, including coral reefs. By analyzing data collected at Moorea over a period of 15 years (from 2005 to 2019) through a combination of remotely sensed sea-surface temperatures and high-resolution, long-term in-situ temperatures and sea level anomalies, the Hong Kong experts found that the passage of anti-cyclonic eddies in the open ocean near the island raised sea levels, pushing internal waves down into deeper water. As a result, internal wave cooling was shut down in early 2019, leading to unexpected heating over the reef and large-scale coral bleaching and mortality.



Interestingly, in contrast with the situation in 2019, the reefs near Moorea did not undergo significant bleaching mortality in 2016, regardless of the prevailing El Niño conditions which decimated many shallow reefs worldwide. Since relying solely on sea-surface temperature data would have predicted only moderate bleaching in both 2016 and 2019, the new findings stress the importance of collecting temperatures across the whole range of depths that coral reefs occupy.&nbsp;



“The present study highlights the need to consider environmental dynamics across depths relevant to threatened ecosystems, including those due to the passage of underwater ocean weather events.&nbsp;This kind of analysis depends on long-term, in situ data measured across ocean depths, but such data is generally lacking,” said study lead author Alex Wyatt, an expert in Ocean Science at Hong Kong.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Our paper provides a valuable mechanistic example for assessing the future of coastal ecosystems in the context of changing ocean dynamics and climates.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-35550-5">Nature Communications</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Hidden heatwave led to massive coral bleaching event

From April to May 2019, the coral reefs close to...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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