<p>NASA pumpkin carving contest shows that NASA engineers are good at most things. Earlier today their pumpkin carving contest went viral. See why<a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/nasa-jpl/sets/72157672207667603/with/30490806042/"> here.</a></p>
<p>Happy Halloween from Earth.com.</p>


NASA pumpkin carving contest puts us all to shame

<p>In a comprehensive new study, scientists have assembled a detailed 66 million-year history of Earth's atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) levels and corresponding temperatures. The research offers critical insights into the current and future state of our planet's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/indisputable-evidence-of-human-caused-climate-change/">climate</a>.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The study was conducted over the course of seven years by a consortium of over 80 researchers from 16 countries.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sensitivity-of-earth-s-climate-nbsp">Sensitivity of Earth's climate&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The experts determined that the last time Earth's atmosphere contained CO2 levels comparable to today was 14 million years ago, which is much earlier than previously estimated.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This revelation underscores the sensitivity of Earth's climate to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/state-of-the-climate-greenhouse-gases-hit-a-record-high-in-2022/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gases</a> and human-driven concentrations of CO2, with potential long-term effects spanning millennia.</p>



<p>“We have long known that adding CO2 to our atmosphere raises the temperature,” said Bärbel Hönisch, a geochemist at <a href="https://www.columbia.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Columbia University</a>’s Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory who coordinated the consortium. “This study gives us a much more robust idea of how sensitive the climate is over long time scales.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-co2-levels-and-global-temperature-rise">CO2 levels and global temperature rise </h2>



<p>The research suggests that for every doubling of atmospheric CO2, average global temperatures could increase by 1.5 to 4.5 degrees Celsius (2.7 to 8.1 Fahrenheit) in the near future, with some studies proposing even higher increases.</p>



<p>The study highlights a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-tipping-points-report-shows-humanity-on-a-disastrous-trajectory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">concerning trend</a>: from around 280 parts per million (ppm) of CO2 in the late 1700s, we have reached approximately 420 ppm today, a 50% increase. </p>



<p>This trajectory could lead to levels of 600 ppm or more by the century's end, pushing the planet along a path of uncertain but significant warming, with an increase of about 1.2 degrees C (2.2 degrees F) already observed since the late 19th century.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-historical-co2-levels">Studying historical CO2 levels</h2>



<p>The researchers used a range of scientific methods, including analysis of air bubbles in ice cores, ancient soil and ocean sediment chemistry, and fossil plant leaf anatomy, to track historical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-accelerated-in-the-last-decade-making-it-the-hottest-on-record/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperature trends</a> relative to CO2 levels. </p>



<p>The team meticulously reviewed and recalibrated existing data, excluding less reliable studies in light of new findings, to create a more accurate and comprehensive CO2 versus temperature curve over 66 million years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dramatic-prediction-nbsp">Dramatic prediction&nbsp;</h2>



<p>This new curve suggests a dramatic prediction: a doubling of CO2 could increase global temperatures by 5 to 8 degrees C. However, this "Earth system sensitivity" metric reflects climate changes over hundreds of thousands of years, not the shorter timescales directly relevant to human experience.</p>



<p>The study authors explained that over long periods, increases in temperature may emerge from intertwined Earth processes that go beyond the immediate greenhouse effect created by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-carbon-emissions-hit-a-record-high-in-2023/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CO2 in the air</a>. </p>



<p>These include melting of polar ice sheets, which would reduce the Earth’s ability to reflect solar energy; changes in terrestrial plant cover; and changes in clouds and atmospheric aerosols that could either heighten or lower temperatures.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cascading-effects-of-co2-levels">Cascading effects of CO2 levels</h2>



<p>“If you want us to tell you what the temperature will be in the year 2100, this does not tell you that. But it does have a bearing on present climate policy,” said study co-author Dana Royer, a paleoclimatologist at Wesleyan University. “It strengthens what we already thought we knew. It also tells us that there are sluggish, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-climate-change-and-biodiversity-loss-are-one-indivisible-global-health-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cascading effects</a> that will last for thousands of years.”</p>



<p>Hönisch said the study will be useful for climate modelers trying to predict what will happen in coming decades, because they will be able to feed the newly robust observations into their studies, and disentangle processes that operate on short versus long time scales. She noted that all the project’s data are available in an open database, and will be updated on a rolling basis.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-insights-nbsp">Critical insights&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Covering the Cenozoic era, the study offers a refined understanding of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenhouse-gas-emissions-reach-another-all-time-high/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CO2-temperature relationship</a>, particularly for certain time periods. It confirms that the hottest period was around 50 million years ago, with CO2 levels reaching up to 1,600 ppm.</p>



<p>The researchers conclude that the last time CO2 was consistently higher than now was about 16 million years ago at about 480 ppm. By 14 million years ago, atmospheric CO2 had decreased to today’s human-induced level of 420 ppm.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-messing-with-the-atmosphere">Messing with the atmosphere</h2>



<p>The decline continued, and by 2.5 million years ago, atmospheric CO2 reached about 270 or 280 ppm, kicking off a series of ice ages. It was at or below that when modern humans came into being about 400,000 years ago, and persisted there until we started messing with the atmosphere on a grand scale 250 years ago, said the experts.</p>



<p>"Regardless of exactly how many degrees the temperature changes, it’s clear we have already brought the planet into a range of conditions never seen by our species,” said study co-author Gabriel Bowen, a professor at the University of Utah. “It should make us stop and question what is the right path forward.”</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.adi5177" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Science</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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CO2 levels linked to cascading effects that last for millennia 

In a comprehensive new study, scientists have assembled a detailed...

<p>In a world increasingly aware of environmental issues, many people desire to adopt a more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wealthy-nations-are-making-more-progress-toward-sustainable-development/">sustainable</a> lifestyle. Yet, the transition to sustainable behavior is not as simple as it may seem.&nbsp;</p>



<p>A new review article by Professor Wilhelm Hofmann of <a href="http://www.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ruhr University Bochum</a> explains why self-control is more complex than a mere lack of self-discipline.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-motivational-conflicts-nbsp">Motivational conflicts&nbsp;</h2>



<p>"People often encounter motivational conflicts in which they must somehow choose between a highly enjoyable, tempting option and an option that is more long-term oriented or prosocial," said Professor Hofmann.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"This phenomenon is the focus of self-control research, where self-control is typically defined as the process of advancing a self-control goal over a conflicting motivation."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-external-environment-nbsp">The external environment&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Hofmann argues that when psychological studies are focused on the individual, they often overlook structural factors. His analysis of numerous research studies uncovers the significant role of the physical and social environment in shaping individual behavior.</p>



<p>For instance, when an eco-conscious consumer faces a choice between multiple meat dishes and a single, possibly more expensive vegetarian option, the environmental setup plays a key role in decision-making. This example illustrates the conflict between personal goals and available choices.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-individual-discipline-nbsp">Beyond individual discipline&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Traditional theories like self-determination emphasize personal autonomy and the preservation of freedom of choice. However, Hofmann points out that this approach is flawed.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The assumption that providing sufficient information about risks and trusting individuals to make the right decisions is insufficient. Environmental and social norms significantly influence decisions, like the tendency to conform to peer choices in matters like car ownership.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-structural-changes-are-needed">Structural changes are needed</h2>



<p>“Many people try to live in a more sustainable manner, but fail to do so in reality,” said Hofmann. Unsustainable options are often cheaper, more visible and more available than sustainable ones.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Relying on individual discipline, willingness to make sacrifices and a sense of guilt won’t get us very far. We need to question and change the structures that contribute to social problems such as the overuse of natural resources and make sustainable behavior more difficult. And in order to achieve this, we need sound and effective political decisions.”&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-escalating-climate-crisis-nbsp">Escalating climate crisis&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Hofmann suggests that society needs to agree on good rules in order to provide individuals with the best possible support on the path to sustainable behavior.</p>



<p>"The accelerating climate crisis is the best example of how the unlimited exercise of personal consumer freedoms leads to negative consequences for society as a whole,” explained Hofmann.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“We’ve forgotten to a certain extent to look at the collective benefit, i.e. the common good, and need to recognize the importance of good regulation once again. By this I mean that we need to agree on effective and fair rules that protect us from risks and that apply to everyone equally. Such as are standard practice in road traffic, for example.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-the-individual-nbsp">The role of the individual&nbsp;</h2>



<p>While acknowledging the importance of structural changes, Hofmann does not diminish the role of individual efforts in achieving sustainability.</p>



<p>“Everyone can take small steps and help shape their environment wherever possible. And once your own creative power as a citizen, employee or customer reaches its limits, you can advocate for people with decision-making power to take up the cause. We always have the power to influence."</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s44159-023-00256-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Reviews Psychology</em></a>.</p>



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Why is the transition to sustainable behavior so difficult?

In a world increasingly aware of environmental issues, many people...

Few,Indian,Elephants,Walking,Near,Garbage,Dump,Against,The,Background

<p>The <a href="https://www.unep.org/resources/state-finance-nature-2023" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">State of Finance for Nature</a> report, released at COP28 by the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) and its partners, reveals a sobering reality: nearly $7 trillion, or about 7% of the global GDP, is invested annually in activities detrimental to nature. This stark revelation brings into focus the urgent need to redirect these investments towards more nature-positive initiatives.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disturbing-imbalance-in-nature-related-investments">Disturbing imbalance in nature-related investments</h2>



<p>The report highlights a worrying disparity in investment patterns. While $200 billion was invested in nature-based solutions in 2022, investments in activities harming nature were over 30 times larger. This imbalance underlines the critical need to confront the combined crises of climate change, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-climate-change-and-biodiversity-loss-are-one-indivisible-global-health-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity loss</a>, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/land-degradation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">land degradation</a>.</p>



<p><a href="https://www.unep.org/people/inger-andersen" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Inger Andersen</a>, UNEP's Executive Director, emphasizes the underfunding of nature-based solutions. “Nature-based solutions are dramatically underfunded. Annual nature-negative investments are over 30 times larger than financing for nature-based solutions that promote a stable climate, and healthy land and nature,” said Andersen.</p>



<p>The stark contrast between annual investments in nature-negative activities and those promoting a stable climate and healthy ecosystems is alarming. Andersen calls for a reversal of this trend, advocating for Indigenous Peoples as primary beneficiaries.</p>



<p>"To have any chance of meeting the sustainable development goals, these numbers must be flipped – with true custodians of the land, such as Indigenous Peoples, among the chief beneficiaries," Andersen implores.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-the-nature-investment-funds-flow">Where the nature investment funds flow</h2>



<p>The analysis unveils that private nature-negative finance flows amount to a colossal $5 trillion annually, dwarfing the modest $35 billion in private investments for nature-based solutions. Predominant sectors contributing to these negative flows include construction, electric utilities, real estate, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-chief-fossil-fuel-era-must-end-for-humanitys-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oil and gas</a>, and food and tobacco.</p>



<p><a href="https://globalcanopy.org/team/niki-mardas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Niki Mardas</a>, Executive Director of Global Canopy, stresses the danger of persisting with current business practices. He highlights the need for a transition to sustainable practices and the cessation of financing activities that destroy nature. </p>



<p>“This year’s report is a stark reminder that continuing with 'business as usual' poses a severe threat to our planet, reinforcing the urgent need for a transition to sustainable business practices and to stop the financing of nature destruction," said Mardas.</p>



<p>Mardas points to increasing regulatory pressure and the availability of data and frameworks as tools for companies to commit to a nature-positive future.</p>



<p>"The net is tightening, with increased regulatory pressure in key areas like tackling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-deforestation-crisis-how-can-we-stop-massive-forest-losses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deforestation</a>, it means that those companies and financial institutions still driving the problem now need to make best use of the excellent data, guidance and frameworks already available to urgently commit to a nature-positive future," Mardas concludes.</p>



<p>The report sheds light on government spending on environmentally harmful subsidies, estimating it at $1.7 trillion in 2022 across agriculture, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-carbon-emissions-hit-a-record-high-in-2023/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil fuels</a>, fishery, and forestry sectors. A notable increase in fossil fuel subsidies underscores the necessity of policy reform in these areas.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-funding-gap-and-future-targets">The funding gap and future targets</h2>



<p>There's a notable gap in financing for nature-based solutions, with governments leading the meager $200 billion allocated in 2022. To meet the Rio Convention targets and the Global Biodiversity Framework, funding for nature-based solutions needs to almost triple by 2030 and quadruple by 2050.</p>



<p><a href="https://www.bmz.de/en/ministry/leadership-ministry/flasbarth-100040" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jochen Flasbarth</a>, from the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development, underscores the importance of investing in nature-based solutions. </p>



<p>“The widespread degradation of nature is not only exacerbating the climate crisis but also pushing us towards exceeding planetary boundaries. Investing in nature-based solutions provides a strategic and cost-effective avenue to address the interconnected challenges of climate change, biodiversity loss, and land degradation while at the same time making tangible headway towards the sustainable development goals,” said Flasbarth.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-investment-opportunities-in-nature-based-solutions">Investment opportunities in nature-based solutions</h2>



<p>The report highlights substantial investment opportunities in sustainable land management and ecosystem protection. These investments are not only cost-effective but also provide multiple benefits, including long-term profitability and private investment catalysis.</p>



<p>To achieve the Rio targets, there needs to be a dramatic reduction in the nearly $7 trillion currently flowing into nature-negative practices. The financial sector and businesses must increase their investments in nature-based solutions and foster incentives to divert finance from harmful activities.</p>



<p>Government policies are critical in creating an environment conducive to nurturing nature-positive investment opportunities. This includes repurposing subsidies and encouraging private sector participation.</p>



<p>In summary, the <a href="https://www.unep.org/resources/state-finance-nature-2023" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">State of Finance for Nature</a> report calls for a significant shift in global investment patterns. The need to realign nearly $7 trillion from nature-negative to nature-positive investments is paramount. This shift presents a critical opportunity to impact climate change positively, protect biodiversity, and prevent land degradation, marking a pivotal moment for transformative change in global finance.</p>



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$7 trillion invested every year in products and activities that directly harm nature

The State of Finance for Nature report, released at COP28...

Closeup,Orion,Constellation,On,Night,Starry,Sky,Above,Forest,Silhouette,

<p>Next week, the night sky will witness an extraordinary astronomical event, as Betelgeuse, one of the most luminous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-six-planet-star-system-moves-in-strange-perfect-synchrony/">stars</a> in the constellation Orion, temporarily vanishes from view.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This unusual occurrence, set to happen on Monday night, December 11, is due to an asteroid, 319 Leona, passing directly in front of the star, causing it to disappear for approximately 12 seconds.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-occlusion-nbsp">Rare occlusion&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Astronomical phenomena like this are not uncommon, but the upcoming event involving Betelgeuse is unique due to the specific alignment that will create a striking ‘ring of fire’ effect.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Observers in Florida, parts of eastern Mexico, southern Europe, and northern Asia will be ideally positioned to witness this rare ‘occlusion.’ For those not in these regions, the <a href="https://www.virtualtelescope.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Virtual Telescope Project</a> in Italy will be streaming the event live from 8 PM Eastern on Monday.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-once-in-a-lifetime-opportunity-nbsp">Once-in-a-lifetime opportunity&nbsp;</h2>



<p>This brief occlusion is more than just a spectacular sight; it presents a valuable scientific opportunity. Astronomers are eager to use this time to study the surface of Betelgeuse, a red supergiant sun, which has shown unusual dimming patterns over the past four years.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Miguel Montargès, an astrophysicist at the <a href="https://www.observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/-observatoire-de-paris-.html?lang=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Paris Observatory</a>, expressed excitement about this event, calling it a “once-in-a-lifetime opportunity.” The occlusion will enable scientists to examine the star’s outer region, which is normally overwhelmed by its bright core.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-new-insights">Critical new insights</h2>



<p>This research is expected to provide insights into the ‘convective cells’ of Betelgeuse, which are the pathways for heated gas movement across the star. Montargès anticipates that the data gathered might also enhance understanding of how planetary systems, like our own solar system, form.</p>



<p>Gianluca Masi, director of the Virtual Telescope Project, pointed out that the event will also aid in studying asteroid 319 Leona.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“These kinds of occultations,” Masi stated, "are very useful to constrain the shape of the asteroid involved.” He also noted that this occlusion is not only rare but symbolic of Betelgeuse’s eventual fate. “For a very short time, we will see the legendary Orion constellation without its famous, orange shoulder,” referencing the eventual supernova explosion of Betelgeuse.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-viewing-the-betelgeuse-event">Viewing the Betelgeuse event</h2>



<p>Astronomers are meticulously tracking the trajectory of asteroid 319 Leona, with the occultation anticipated to occur around 8:17 PM Eastern Time. Those within the correct viewing line will have the chance to see Betelgeuse, typically the 10th-brightest star, fade from sight, an experience that can be enhanced with binoculars or a telescope.</p>



<p>Even for observers outside the optimal viewing areas, there’s still a chance to witness Betelgeuse dimming in an unusual manner. Residents of the Northern Hemisphere can find Betelgeuse in December by looking east about two hours after sunset, near Orion’s Belt.</p>



<p>For those seeking more information, the <a href="https://occultations.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Occultation Timing Association</a> has dedicated a <a href="https://www.iota-es.de/betelgeuse2023.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">page</a> to the event, complete with a downloadable Google Earth file to assist in tracking the visibility of the event globally.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-betelgeuse">More about Betelgeuse</h2>



<p>Betelgeuse, often pronounced "Beetlejuice," is a red supergiant star that has captivated astronomers and stargazers alike with its distinctive red hue and immense size. Located in the constellation of Orion, it's one of the most easily recognizable stars in the night sky and has been a subject of fascination and study for centuries.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-astronomical-significance">Astronomical significance</h3>



<p>As discussed above, Betelgeuse holds a special place in astronomy due to its enormous size and relatively close proximity to Earth. It's one of the largest stars visible to the naked eye, with a radius over 1,000 times that of the Sun. If placed at the center of our solar system, Betelgeuse would engulf the inner planets, reaching out nearly to the orbit of Jupiter.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stellar-characteristics">Stellar characteristics</h3>



<p>This celestial giant is a red supergiant, a stage in the lifecycle of a star that occurs after it has exhausted the hydrogen in its core. During this phase, the star expands significantly and cools down, giving it a distinctive red color. Betelgeuse's surface temperature is around 3,500 Kelvin, much cooler than the Sun’s 5,778 Kelvin.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-variability-and-brightness">Variability and brightness</h3>



<p>Betelgeuse is a variable star, meaning its brightness changes over time. These fluctuations in brightness are due to complex processes happening in its vast, bubbling surface. The star’s light can vary in a somewhat irregular pattern, making it a subject of interest for those studying stellar behavior.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distance-and-visibility">Distance and visibility</h3>



<p>Located approximately 642 light-years from Earth, Betelgeuse is relatively close in astronomical terms, allowing for detailed observation. Its brightness usually ranks it among the top ten brightest stars in the night sky, making it easy to spot even in areas with moderate light pollution.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-supernova">Future supernova</h3>



<p>One of the most intriguing aspects of Betelgeuse is its potential future as a supernova. Astronomers predict that within the next million years, Betelgeuse will exhaust its nuclear fuel and undergo a spectacular supernova explosion. This event will be so bright that it will be visible from Earth even during the day and will mark the end of this star’s life cycle.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-and-historical-impact">Cultural and historical impact</h3>



<p>Betelgeuse has also played a significant role in various cultures and mythologies. Its position in the constellation of Orion, a prominent figure in Greek mythology, and its visibility across the globe have made it a point of interest and storytelling for many civilizations.</p>



<p>In summary, Betelgeuse stands as a magnificent example of the wonders of the universe. Its immense size, changing brightness, and inevitable fate as a supernova continue to make it a subject of both scientific study and popular fascination. As we gaze upon this red supergiant, we are reminded of the vastness and beauty of the cosmos.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-the-orion-constellation">More about the Orion constellation</h2>



<p>As discussed above, <a href="https://universe.nasa.gov/news/147/discovering-the-universe-through-the-constellation-orion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the Orion constellation</a>, one of the most recognizable and prominent constellations in the night sky, captivates observers across the globe. Named after the Greek mythological hunter, Orion, this constellation not only boasts significant astronomical importance but also holds a rich cultural and mythological heritage.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-astronomical-features-of-orion">Astronomical features of Orion</h3>



<p>Orion is home to some of the brightest stars in the night sky. Betelgeuse, the protagonist of this article, marks Orion's right shoulder. Bellatrix serves as his left shoulder. Rigel, a brilliant blue-white star, represents Orion's left foot, and Saiph constitutes his right knee. These stars form the distinct hourglass shape of the constellation.</p>



<p>A striking feature of Orion is his belt, comprised of three aligned stars: Alnitak, Alnilam, and Mintaka. Below the belt, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jumbos-james-webb-reveals-free-floating-worlds-that-cant-be-explained/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Orion Nebula </a>(M42), a vibrant, star-forming region, dazzles astronomers and astrophotographers alike. This nebula, visible to the naked eye under dark skies, is a popular target for telescopic observation.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orion-in-culture-and-mythology">Orion in culture and mythology</h3>



<p>In Greek mythology, Orion is depicted as a formidable hunter, often associated with tales of bravery and prowess. Various cultures have their own interpretations of this constellation, each adding to its rich narrative tapestry.</p>



<p>The stars of Orion have been significant in various ancient civilizations, from the Egyptians, who associated the constellation with Osiris, the god of the afterlife, to the Native American cultures, where it held various meanings and stories.</p>



<p>In summary, Orion continues to be a source of wonder and inspiration. Its prominent place in the night sky makes it a gateway for amateur astronomers and a subject of ongoing study for professionals. Whether it's through the lens of science, culture, or mythology, the Orion constellation remains an enduring and captivating presence in our night sky.</p>



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"Betelgeuse" star in constellation Orion will vanish from sight tomorrow

Next week, the night sky will witness an extraordinary astronomical...

The,Ethereal,Beauty,Of,The,Aurora,Borealis,,Also,Known,As

<p>The enchanting auroras, with their vibrant displays of green, red, and purple curtains, have long captivated observers of the night sky. However, the recent emergence of peculiar aurora-like phenomena -- the mauve and white streaks known as "Steve" and their often accompanying <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/aurora_Steve_green_1medium.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glowing green</a> "picket fence" -- has intrigued scientists and sky-watchers alike. </p>



<p>First identified in 2018 as distinct from the more familiar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aurora-borealis-seen-as-far-south-as-the-equator-after-largest-known-solar-storm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">auroras</a>, Steve, named after a character in a 2006 children's movie, and the picket fence phenomenon were initially believed to be products of the same physical processes as the auroras. However, this assumption left many questions unanswered about the origins of their unique glowing emissions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-mechanism-is-generating-sky-glows">New mechanism is generating sky glows</h2>



<p>Enter Claire Gasque, a promising graduate student in physics at the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Berkeley</a>. Gasque has proposed an intriguing explanation for these phenomena, suggesting a physical mechanism vastly different from those responsible for the traditional auroras.</p>



<p>"This would upend our modeling of what creates light and the energy in the aurora in some cases," Gasque said. "It's really cool, one of the biggest mysteries in space physics right now."</p>



<p>Collaborating with the Space Sciences Laboratory (<a href="https://www.ssl.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SSL</a>) at Berkeley, Gasque advocates for a <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a> mission to launch a rocket into an aurora to validate her hypothesis. This research coincides with the sun entering a more active phase of its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/northern-lights-activity-will-intensify-over-the-next-18-months/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">11-year cycle</a>, making this an opportune moment for studying rare events like Steve and the picket fence.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distinguishing-steve-from-a-common-aurora">Distinguishing "Steve" from a common aurora</h2>



<p>Gasque's research focuses on the peculiar behavior of electric fields in the upper atmosphere. She suggests that these fields, parallel to <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/earths-magnetic-field-origin-structure-and-impact-on-humanity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's magnetic field</a>, might produce the color spectrum observed in the picket fence phenomenon.</p>



<p>This hypothesis challenges existing models of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/northern-lights-captivated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">auroral light</a> and energy generation and has significant implications for our understanding of the interaction between Earth's magnetosphere and the ionosphere.</p>



<p>Common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breathtaking-red-auroras-ignited-northern-hemisphere-skies-this-week/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">auroras</a> result from solar wind energizing particles in Earth's magnetosphere, causing oxygen and nitrogen molecules in the upper atmosphere to emit specific frequencies of light. </p>



<p>Steve, however, exhibits a broad range of frequencies centered around purple or mauve, without the blue light typical of the most energetic particle interactions in auroras. Interestingly, Steve and the picket fence occur at lower latitudes than typical auroras, potentially even near the equator.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-parallel-electric-fields-at-play">Parallel electric fields at play</h2>



<p>Gasque's research posits that the emissions from the "picket fence" are generated by low-altitude electric fields parallel to Earth's magnetic field. Employing a widely accepted physical model of the ionosphere, she demonstrated that a parallel electric field of approximately 100 millivolts per meter at an altitude of about 110 km could accelerate electrons. </p>



<p>This acceleration is sufficient to energize oxygen and nitrogen atoms, resulting in the emission of the <a href="https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/12865" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spectrum of light</a> observed in the "picket fence" and "Steve" aurora. She also identified unique conditions in this region, such as a reduced plasma density and an increased presence of neutral oxygen and nitrogen atoms. These could serve as an insulator, preventing the electric field from short-circuiting.</p>



<p>"If you look at the spectrum of the picket fence, it's much more green than you would expect. And there's none of the blue that's coming from the ionization of nitrogen," Gasque said. "What that's telling us is that there's only a specific energy range of electrons that can create those colors, and they can't be coming from way out in space down into the atmosphere, because those particles have too much energy."</p>



<p>Instead, she said, "the light from the picket fence is being created by particles that have to be energized right there in space by a parallel electric field, which is a completely different mechanism than any of the aurora that we've studied or known before."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-searching-for-steve-with-rockets">Searching for Steve with rockets</h2>



<p><a href="https://www.ssl.berkeley.edu/full-directory/name/brian-harding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brian Harding</a>, an assistant research physicist at SSL and co-author of Gasque's paper, highlights the significance of this discovery. </p>



<p>"The really interesting thing about Claire's paper is that we've known for a couple of years now that the Steve spectrum is telling us there's some very strange physics going on. We just didn't know what it was," said&nbsp;Brian. "Claire's paper showed that parallel electric fields are capable of explaining this strange spectrum."</p>



<p>The team proposes launching rockets from Alaska to measure electric and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/solar-wind-collides-magnetic-field/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetic fields</a> within these phenomena, aiming to validate their hypotheses. This endeavor aligns with NASA's Low Cost Access to Space (<a href="https://www.science.gov/topicpages/l/low-cost+space+access" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LCAS</a>) program and is expected to deepen our comprehension of the upper atmosphere's chemistry and physics. Initially, the target would be what's known as an enhanced aurora, which is a normal aurora with "Steve" and "picket fence"-like emissions embedded in it.</p>



<p>"The enhanced aurora is basically this bright layer that's embedded in the normal aurora. The colors are similar to the picket fence in that there's not as much blue in them, and there's more green from oxygen and red from nitrogen. The hypothesis is that these are also created by parallel electric fields, but they are a lot more common than the picket fence," Gasque said.</p>



<p>The plan is not only "to fly a rocket through that enhanced layer to actually measure those parallel electric fields for the first time," she said, but also send a second rocket up to measure the particles at higher altitudes, "to distinguish the conditions from those that cause the auroras." Eventually, she hopes for a rocket that will fly directly through "Steve and the "picket fence."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-curiosity-drives-this-steve-aurora-research">Curiosity drives this "Steve" aurora research</h2>



<p>Gasque credits her success to collaborations with experts studying various atmospheric layers, including the mesosphere and stratosphere. This interdisciplinary approach enabled significant progress in understanding the difference between an aurora and Steve. </p>



<p>Harding, Gasque, and their colleagues submitted a proposal to NASA for a sounding rocket campaign this fall, anticipating a response about its selection in the first half of 2024. Gasque and Harding view the experiment as a crucial step towards comprehending the chemistry and physics of the upper atmosphere, ionosphere, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/geomagnetic-storms-are-influenced-by-earths-atmosphere/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s magnetosphere</a>. </p>



<p>"It's fair to say that there's going to be a lot of study in the future about how those electric fields got there, what waves they are or aren't associated with, and what that means for the larger energy transfer between Earth's atmosphere and space," Harding said. "We really don't know. Claire's paper is the first step in the chain of that understanding."</p>



<p>The team eagerly awaits NASA's decision on their proposed rocket campaign, anticipated in the first half of 2024.</p>



<p>In summary, the research led by Claire Gasque marks a pivotal advancement in space physics. Gasque has shed light on the elusive nature of "Steve" and the "picket fence" as being something other than an aurora. As the solar cycle progresses, these findings promise not only to unravel the mysteries of these phenomena but also to enhance our broader understanding of the dynamic interplay between Earth and space.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-auroras">More about auroras</h2>



<p>Auroras, commonly known as the Northern and Southern Lights, stand as a mesmerizing natural light show in the Earth's polar skies. They occur due to the fascinating interplay between the Earth's atmosphere and solar winds.</p>



<p>As discussed in detail above, scientists believed that the "Steve" and the "picket fence" phenomenon resulted from the same physical processes as an aurora. However, this belief left many questions unanswered about the origins of their unique glowing emissions.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Origin: The solar connection</h3>



<p>The Sun, a powerhouse of energy and particles, constantly emits solar winds, streams of charged particles. These particles, on their journey towards Earth, encounter the Earth's magnetic field, which plays a crucial role in the formation of auroras.</p>



<p>Upon reaching Earth, the solar winds get influenced by its magnetic field. The Earth's magnetic field, extending into space, acts as a shield and directs these particles towards the poles. Here, the magnetic field lines funnel these charged particles into the Earth's upper atmosphere.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Science of "Steve" and aurora displays</h3>



<p>The core phenomenon of auroras occurs when these charged particles, primarily electrons, collide with gases like oxygen and nitrogen in the Earth's atmosphere. This collision transfers energy to the gas molecules, exciting them and causing them to emit light - the essence of auroral displays. </p>



<p>The specific colors of the aurora and of Steve, ranging from greens and reds to blues and purples, depend on the type of gas involved and the altitude of these interactions.</p>



<p>Solar activity significantly impacts the intensity and frequency of auroras. During the solar maximum, increased solar flares and coronal mass ejections result in more intense and frequent auroras. Conversely, the solar minimum leads to reduced auroral activity.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Cultural and historical significance</h3>



<p>Beyond their visual splendor, auroras offer valuable insights into the Earth's magnetosphere dynamics and its interaction with solar radiation. The study of auroras contributes to our understanding of how the Earth's magnetic field protects us from harmful solar emissions.</p>



<p>Auroras have held a special place in various cultures, inspiring myths and folklore. From being seen as the Valkyries' shields in Norse mythology to representing ancestral spirits in indigenous beliefs, auroras have been a source of wonder and inspiration throughout history.</p>



<p>In summary, auroras, with their breathtaking beauty, are more than just a visual spectacle. They are a dynamic interaction between solar winds and our planet's magnetic field, offering insights into Earth's protective shield and continuing to captivate people across cultures and generations.</p>



<p>The full study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2023GL106073" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a></em>.</p>



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"Steve" looks like an aurora, acts like an aurora, but it's not an aurora

The enchanting auroras, with their vibrant displays of green, red,...

<p>The moon has entered into a new phase of existence due to human influence. In a new study from the <a href="https://ku.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Kansas</a>, experts say that it is time to recognize a new epoch on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orion-spacecraft-captures-stunning-photo-of-earth-and-the-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon</a>: the Lunar Anthropocene.</p>



<p>This proposal is rooted in the first human-induced disturbance on the moon on September 13, 1959, when the USSR's <a href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1959-014A#:~:text=Luna%202%20was%20the%20second,%2C%20Archimedes%2C%20and%20Autolycus%20craters." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luna 2 mission</a> made contact with the lunar surface. </p>



<p>Since then, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/timeless-mystery-solved-scientists-uncover-what-is-inside-the-moons-core/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon</a> has been host to over 100 spacecraft, including the famed Apollo Lunar Modules. These visits have left indelible marks on the moon, altering its landscape in ways previously unimagined.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lunar-anthropocene-nbsp">Lunar Anthropocene&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“The idea is much the same as the discussion of the Anthropocene on Earth - the exploration of how much humans have impacted our planet,” said study lead author Justin Holcomb, a postdoctoral researcher with the <a href="https://kgs.ku.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kansas Geological Survey</a> at KU.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“The consensus is on Earth the Anthropocene began at some point in the past, whether hundreds of thousands of years ago or in the 1950s. Similarly, on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/days-are-getting-longer-as-the-moon-drifts-away-from-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon</a>, we argue the Lunar Anthropocene already has commenced, but we want to prevent massive damage or a delay of its recognition until we can measure a significant lunar halo caused by human activities, which would be too late."</p>



<p>Collaborating with Professor Rolfe Mandel and Professor Karl Wegmann at <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Carolina State University</a>, Holcomb emphasizes that the lunar landscape is no longer a static, untouched entity. </p>



<p>“Cultural processes are starting to outstrip the natural background of geological processes on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-are-moon-tides/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon</a>,” said Holcomb. “These processes involve moving sediments, which we refer to as ‘regolith,’ on the moon."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-initiating-discussions">Initiating discussions </h2>



<p>"Typically, these processes include meteoroid impacts and mass movement events, among others. However, when we consider the impact of rovers, landers and human movement, they significantly disturb the regolith. In the context of the new space race, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/man-in-the-moon-craters-are-200-million-years-older-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lunar landscape</a> will be entirely different in 50 years." </p>



<p>"Multiple countries will be present, leading to numerous challenges. Our goal is to dispel the lunar-static myth and emphasize the importance of our impact, not only in the past but ongoing and in the future. We aim to initiate discussions about our impact on the lunar surface before it's too late.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-delicate-exosphere-nbsp">Delicate exosphere&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“We know that while the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-plasma-sheet-may-be-forming-water-on-the-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Moon</a> does not have an atmosphere or magnetosphere, it does have a delicate exosphere composed of dust and gas, as well as ice inside permanently shadowed areas, and both are susceptible to exhaust gas propagation,” wrote the study authors. “Future missions must consider mitigating deleterious effects on lunar environments.”</p>



<p>While Holcomb and his colleagues want to use the Lunar Anthropocene to highlight the potential for humanity’s potential negative environmental impact to the moon, they also hope to call attention to the vulnerability of lunar sites with historical and anthropological value, which currently have no legal or policy protections against disturbance.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lunar-anthropocene-artifacts">Lunar Anthropocene artifacts</h2>



<p>The team's concern extends to the remnants of human missions on the moon, ranging from scientific equipment to more unconventional items like golf balls and religious texts. These artifacts, they argue, are not merely litter but constitute a unique archaeological record of human presence in space.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“A recurring theme in our work is the significance of lunar material and footprints on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-moon-is-40-million-years-older-than-previously-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon</a> as valuable resources, akin to an archaeological record that we’re committed to preserving,” said Holcomb. </p>



<p>“The concept of a Lunar Anthropocene aims to raise awareness and contemplation regarding our impact on the lunar surface, as well as our influence on the preservation of historical artifacts.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-space-heritage-movement">Space heritage movement</h2>



<p>Holcomb said this field of “space heritage” would aim to preserve or catalog items such as rovers, flags, golf balls and footprints on the moon’s surface.</p>



<p>“As archaeologists, we perceive footprints on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/could-moon-dust-help-slow-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon</a> as an extension of humanity's journey out of Africa, a pivotal milestone in our species' existence."</p>



<p>“These imprints are intertwined with the overarching narrative of evolution. It’s within this framework we seek to capture the interest of not only planetary scientists but also archaeologists and anthropologists who may not typically engage in discussions about planetary science.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-the-moon">More about the moon</h2>



<p>The moon, Earth's only natural satellite, presents a fascinating subject for exploration and study. Radiating a ghostly glow in our night sky, it has captivated human imagination for millennia.</p>



<p>Formed about 4.5 billion years ago, the moon likely resulted from a colossal impact between Earth and a Mars-sized body. This dramatic event spewed material into orbit, which eventually coalesced into the moon we see today. Orbiting Earth at an average distance of about 238,855 miles (384,400 kilometers), it completes a revolution approximately every 27.3 days.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-characteristics">Characteristics</h3>



<p>The moon's surface, characterized by its distinctive craters, mountains, and 'seas' (or maria), tells a story of ancient violence. These features formed primarily due to meteorite impacts and volcanic activity. The most notable feature, the Tycho crater, with its prominent ray system, serves as a testament to these violent impacts.</p>



<p>Unlike Earth, the moon lacks an atmosphere, leading to extreme temperature variations. Its surface experiences scorching heat exceeding 250°F (121°C) during the day and plunging to below -250°F (-157°C) at night. This lack of atmosphere also means the moon provides no sky or weather changes, offering a constant view of the universe.</p>



<p>The moon's gravitational pull plays a crucial role in Earth's life. It stabilizes our planet's axial tilt, influencing climate and seasons. More visibly, it drives the tides, rhythmically raising and lowering our oceans.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploration-and-lunar-anthropocene">Exploration and Lunar Anthropocene</h3>



<p>NASA's Apollo missions from 1969 to 1972 marked a significant milestone in lunar exploration, with Apollo 11 being the first to land humans on the moon. These missions brought back lunar rocks for study and deepened our understanding of the moon's geology and history. However, as discussed above, they also left indelible marks, changing it forever and prompting the Lunar Anthropocene epoch.</p>



<p>Currently, the moon remains a key focus for space exploration. Plans for further manned missions, lunar bases, and even mining operations are in the works. These endeavors aim to unlock the moon's potential as a stepping stone for deeper space exploration, possibly even serving as a gateway for missions to Mars and beyond.</p>



<p>In essence, the moon is more than just a celestial body orbiting Earth. It's a historical archive of our solar system, a catalyst for Earth's stability, and a gateway to the wider cosmos. Its silent presence in the night sky continues to inspire and challenge us, beckoning future explorers to uncover its secrets.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41561-023-01347-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Geoscience</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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Lunar Anthropocene: How humans have permanently changed the moon

The moon has entered into a new phase of existence...

<p>New research led by Dr. Florian Klein at the <a href="https://portal.uni-koeln.de/en/uoc-home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cologne</a> has revealed incredible new details about how the immune system responds to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-clues-about-the-household-spread-of-covid-19/">SARS-CoV-2</a> and its variants. </p>



<p>Despite the familiarity of the immune system with the virus, new variants continue to present challenges.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Two recent studies from Dr. Klein's group have shed light on the evolution of the antibody response to SARS-CoV-2 and the immune system's proactive strategies against emerging variants.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-affinity-maturation-nbsp">Affinity maturation&nbsp;</h2>



<p>One of the key processes in this battle is "affinity maturation," where antibodies mature over time through mutations of individual amino acids. This maturation enhances the detection and neutralization of infectious pathogens.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The researchers found that an infection with the Omicron variant triggers a renewed immune response in vaccinated individuals, primarily through the reactivation of memory B cells.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Interestingly, the antibodies produced by these cells had matured even before the emergence of Omicron, suggesting that the immune system was preemptively prepared.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



<p>“Our first goal was to investigate how the antibody response in healthy subjects changes through a third vaccination against the original SARS-CoV-2 strain,” said study first author and doctoral candidate Svea Rose.</p>



<p>“We were initially surprised by the results. Although the third vaccination significantly increased the SARS-CoV-2 immune response overall, there was hardly any further maturation at the level of individual antibodies.”&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-affinity-maturation-nbsp-0">Affinity maturation&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Further analysis, particularly in individuals infected with Omicron variants BA.1 and BA.2 post-vaccination, revealed that memory B cells that were capable of forming antibodies to neutralize the Omicron variant had proliferated.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to the study's first author Dr. Timm Weber, these immune cells were already in existence prior to contact with the Omicron variant.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Interestingly, the immune cells directed against the Omicron variant were already present before contact with Omicron and were not induced by Omicron,” said Dr. Weber.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proactive-response-nbsp">Proactive response&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Furthermore, the team discovered broad neutralizing antibodies - which had appeared early on in the pandemic - that were effective against all tested new variants.</p>



<p>The working group also looked at the molecular mechanism of affinity maturation. The clock was turned back and individual antibodies, which were isolated throughout the world in the first year of the pandemic, were restored to their original state, explained study lead authors Michael Korenkov and Dr Matthias Zehner.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-random-modifications-nbsp">Random modifications&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The analysis revealed that some modifications during affinity maturation occur randomly, and surprisingly, these random modifications were crucial for neutralizing the Omicron variants.</p>



<p>“The immune system expands the arsenal of existing antibodies by inserting arbitrary mutations and thus increases the likelihood of having a suitable antibody in the repertoire when a new virus variant appears,” explained Dr. Christoph Kreer, who led the study together with Professor Klein.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This insight led to the modification of a therapeutic antibody, previously ineffective against Omicron, to effectively neutralize Omicron variants.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Ultimately, these studies not only illuminate how the human immune system reacts to a new virus and its evolving variants but also highlight the potential therapeutic and preventive applications of the newly isolated broad neutralizing antibodies against newer Omicron variants.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The research marks a significant advancement in our understanding of the immune system's adaptability and resilience in the face of emerging viral threats.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2023.11.004" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Immunity</em></a>.</p>



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Our immune system has a proactive response to Covid variants

New research led by Dr. Florian Klein at the University...

<p>New research has unveiled a new piece of this cosmic puzzle, pointing towards the role of nuclear fission in the creation of heavy elements throughout the universe.</p>



<p>For decades, scientists have been intrigued by the origin of elements heavier than iron in the periodic table. The prevailing theory suggested these elements were born from cataclysmic stellar events such as supernovae or the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-star-explosion-created-elements-essential-for-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">merger of neutron stars</a>. However, recent studies involving old stars have revealed intriguing data suggesting the presence of nuclear fission in the universe. </p>



<p>Matthew Mumpower, a theoretical physicist at <a href="https://www.lanl.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Los Alamos National Laboratory</a>, emphasized the novelty of this discovery. "People have thought fission was happening in the cosmos, but to date, no one has been able to prove it," Mumpower stated. His research indicates that superheavy nuclei, beyond the heaviest elements known, may be naturally produced.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nuclear-fission-s-role-in-element-formation">Nuclear fission's role in element formation</h2>



<p>The researchers observed a positive correlation between light precision metals like silver and rare earth nuclei such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/europium/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">europium</a> across different stars. "The only plausible way this can arise among different stars is if there is a consistent process operating during the formation of the heavy elements," Mumpower explained. After exhaustive testing, fission emerged as the only viable explanation for this trend.</p>



<p>"This is incredibly profound and is the first evidence of fission operating in the cosmos, confirming a theory we proposed several years ago," Mumpower declared. </p>



<p>The observations suggest that elements with an atomic mass of 260, heavier than any currently on the periodic table, might exist. These findings stem from fission models developed by Mumpower and observational leadership by Ian Roederer of <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Carolina State University</a>.</p>



<p>Traditionally, astrophysicists believed heavy elements beyond iron were formed in supernovae or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-alien-radio-signals-may-be-caused-by-starquakes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neutron star</a> mergers. These processes involve the rapid-neutron capture process, or r-process, where atomic nuclei capture neutrons to form heavier elements. The possibility of these elements undergoing fission, splitting into lighter elements while releasing energy, had been a mystery until now.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observational-evidence-of-nuclear-fission">Observational evidence of nuclear fission</h2>



<p>In a 2020 <a href="https://journals.aps.org/prc/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevC.101.054607" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">paper</a>, Mumpower first predicted the distributions of fission fragments for r-process nuclei. A subsequent <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-4357/ab91a9/meta" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> predicted the co-production of light precision metals and rare earth nuclei. Roederer's analysis of data from 42 stars found the precise correlation predicted, providing a clear signature of fission in the creation of these elements.</p>



<p>"The correlation is very robust in r-process enhanced stars where we have sufficient data," Mumpower pointed out. He explained that the creation of an atom of silver is proportionally linked to the production of heavier rare earth nuclei. "We have shown that only one mechanism can be responsible — fission," he added.</p>



<p>Mumpower highlighted the significance of nuclear fission models developed at Los Alamos, initially intended for weapons research. These models have proven effective in interpreting experimental data and filling gaps where measurements are lacking. Since the cessation of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/risk-of-nuclear-winter-underestimated-by-most-people/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nuclear weapon</a> testing in the United States in 1992, experimental data on fission has been limited, making these models even more crucial.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-chapter-in-astrophysics">A new chapter in astrophysics</h2>



<p>In summary, this research opens a new chapter in our understanding of the universe and the formation of heavy elements. It confirms the occurrence of fission in cosmic processes while also hinting at the existence of elements beyond our current knowledge. </p>



<p>As Mumpower and his team continue to unravel the mysteries of the cosmos, we are reminded of the ever-evolving nature of scientific discovery and its ability to challenge and refine our understanding of the universe.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adf1341" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a></em>.</p>



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'Incredibly profound' evidence of nuclear fission discovered in the cosmos

New research has unveiled a new piece of this cosmic...

<p>The Atlantic Ocean has experienced significant changes over the past 40 years, according to the Bermuda Atlantic Time-series Study (BATS). The recent findings from this long-term monitoring effort present a concerning picture of the ocean's health.</p>



<p>The research project, which was launched in 1988 about 80 kilometers southeast of Bermuda, has been meticulously recording the physics, biology, and chemistry of the ocean's surface and depths through monthly samples.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-insights-nbsp">Key insights&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Based on this data, experts found that the Bermuda Atlantic is hotter and more acidic than ever before.</p>



<p>Professor Nicholas Bates is an ocean researcher at the Bermuda Institute of Ocean Sciences, a unit of the Julie Ann Wrigley Global Futures Laboratory at Arizona State University (ASU).&nbsp;</p>



<p>“We show that the surface ocean in the subtropical North Atlantic Ocean has warmed by around 1°C over the past 40 years. Furthermore, the salinity of the ocean has increased, and it has lost oxygen,” said Professor Bates. “In addition, ocean acidity has increased from the 1980s to the 2020s.”</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surface-temperatures">Surface temperatures</h3>



<p>The BATS data reveals that the ocean surface <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-temperatures-hit-a-record-high-this-week-with-the-worst-heat-still-to-come/">temperatures</a> have increased by about 0.24°C per decade since the 1980s, and this warming trend has accelerated in the last four years.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-salinity">Salinity</h3>



<p>The ocean's surface salinity has also increased, particularly in recent years. “We suspect this is part of the broader, more recent trends and changes in ocean temperatures and environmental changes, like atmospheric warming and having had the warmest years globally,” said Professor Bates.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oxygen">Oxygen</h3>



<p>One of the most concerning findings is the reduction in oxygen, which has decreased by 6% over the last 40 years. This decrease has serious implications for ocean health, as well as for marine life.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-acidity">Acidity</h3>



<p>Moreover, the ocean's acidity has increased by 30% since the 1980s, leading to lower concentrations of carbon ions. This change in ocean chemistry can adversely affect marine organisms, especially those with shells, by hampering their ability to maintain their shells.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-ocean-chemistry-nbsp">Changing ocean chemistry&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“The ocean chemistry of surface waters in the 2020s is now outside of the seasonal range observed in the 1980s and the ocean ecosystem now lives in a different chemical environment to that experienced a few decades ago,” explained Professor Bates. “These changes are due to the uptake of anthropogenic CO2 from the atmosphere.”</p>



<p>The importance of long-term data collection in understanding and predicting shifts in ocean health cannot be overstated.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“These observations give a sense of the rate of change in the recent past of ocean warming and ocean chemistry. They provide key indications of future changes in the next decades,” said Professor Bates. “They also are proof of regional and global environmental change and the existential challenges we face as individuals and societies in the near future.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-stations">Monitoring stations</h2>



<p>The BATS monitoring station is one of several long-term sustained ocean time-series sites across the globe. Other key stations are located off Hawaii, the Canary Islands, Iceland, and New Zealand.</p>



<p>The researchers noted that similar ocean processes have been observed at some of those stations, highlighting the challenges and complexities of understanding the long-term interactions between warming, salinification, and ocean acidification.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2023.1289931" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Frontiers in Marine Science</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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Alarming shifts in ocean health: Less oxygen, more heat and acidity

The Atlantic Ocean has experienced significant changes over the past...

<p>Red sprites, also known as "red fairies" are a type of transient luminous event (TLE), primarily appearing as red flashes of light occurring above thunderstorms. They are part of a larger family of upper-atmospheric phenomena linked to thunderstorm activity, alongside blue jets and elves. </p>



<p>Discovered only in the late 20th century, red sprites have since captivated scientists and sky-watchers alike with their elusive and spectacular nature.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-andreas-mogensen-video">Andreas Mogensen video</h2>



<p>ESA astronaut <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/Astronauts/Andreas_Mogensen" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Andreas Mogensen</a> captured <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/red-sprite_ISS_Andreas-Mogensen_1medium.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">this image</a> of a red fairy hovering above a thundercloud as a part of the Thor-Davis experiment at <a href="https://www.dtu.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Danish Technical University</a>. “Red sprites,” as they are called in scientific circles, are rare Transient Luminous Events (TLEs) that form above thunderclouds. They typically emerge between 40 to 80 kilometers above Earth.</p>



<p>As demonstrated in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/red-sprite_Davis-camera-video_ISS_ESA_1big.gif">Davis camera video</a>, thunder precedes the appearance of <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/red-sprites-above-the-u-s-and-central-america/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">red fairies</a> higher in the sky. The Davis camera's uniqueness lies in its operation. It functions more like our eyes' retinas, sensitive to light changes, allowing it to capture up to the equivalent of 100,000 frames per second, unlike a standard camera.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-red-sprite-discovery-and-background">Red sprite discovery and background</h2>



<p>The existence of red sprites eluded scientific documentation until 1989, largely due to their brief duration and high altitude. </p>



<p>Pilots had reported sightings of unusual aerial phenomena for years. However, these accounts remained anecdotal until researchers, using high-speed cameras, captured the first images of red sprites. This breakthrough paved the way for a new field of atmospheric research.</p>



<p>Red sprites manifest as reddish-orange flashes, often accompanied by tendrils extending both upward and downward. They typically occur in clusters and can stretch 50 to 90 kilometers above the Earth's surface, into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/u-s-rocket-launch-ripped-a-hole-in-earths-ionosphere/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ionosphere</a>. The coloration is a result of nitrogen molecules in the atmosphere getting excited by the electrical discharge.</p>



<p>Red sprites develop in conjunction with large-scale thunderstorm activity, specifically above the intense electrical discharges of positive cloud-to-ground lightning. They are believed to arise from the imbalance in electrical charge between the upper atmosphere and the thunderclouds below.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance-and-research">Scientific significance and research</h2>



<p>The study of red sprites offers valuable insights into atmospheric electricity and upper-atmosphere conditions. They play a role in the Earth’s electrical balance and can impact various atmospheric chemical processes.</p>



<p>Advancements in high-speed photography and observational techniques have significantly enhanced our understanding of red sprites. Satellites, airborne observations, and ground-based photometric arrays are now instrumental in studying these transient events.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-of-studying-red-sprites">Challenges of studying red sprites</h2>



<p>Despite advancements, observing and studying red sprites remain challenging due to their unpredictability and brief lifespan. Future research aims to better understand the impact of sprites on the atmosphere and their relation to other meteorological phenomena.</p>



<p>In summary, red sprites, while still shrouded in mystery, offer a fascinating glimpse into the complex interplay of Earth's weather systems and atmospheric electricity. Continued research and observation promise to uncover more secrets of these ephemeral lights, deepening our understanding of our planet's atmospheric dynamics.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-red-sprites">More about red sprites</h2>



<p>As discussed above, red sprites are a form of upper atmospheric lightning, a spectacular and somewhat mysterious phenomenon that captures the curiosity of scientists and sky-watchers alike. Unlike the more familiar lightning that occurs within clouds or between clouds and the ground, red sprites are transient luminous events that appear high above thunderstorms, reaching into the Earth's ionosphere.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovery-and-characteristics">Discovery and characteristics</h3>



<p>The story of red sprites begins with their discovery. Although pilots had reported seeing unusual red lights above thunderstorms for decades, the scientific community largely dismissed these reports until 1989. That year, scientists at the University of Minnesota accidentally captured images of red sprites while filming a thunderstorm. This serendipitous discovery marked the beginning of focused scientific research into these elusive phenomena.</p>



<p>Red sprites are named for their distinct coloration. Typically, they appear as red at higher altitudes and fade to blue at lower altitudes. This coloration is due to the interaction of electrical discharges with nitrogen in the Earth's atmosphere. Sprites can take various shapes, including jellyfish-like forms with tendrils extending downward and columnar shapes known as "carrot sprites."</p>



<p>Forming at altitudes between 50 to 90 kilometers (31 to 56 miles), red sprites occur directly above large thunderstorm systems. They are fleeting, lasting only milliseconds, and are best observed at night. Their formation is thought to be linked to the intense electrical activity in thunderstorms. When a powerful positive lightning strike occurs within the cloud, it can create an imbalance in the electric field above the storm, triggering the appearance of sprites.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-importance">Scientific importance</h3>



<p>The study of red sprites is not just for aesthetic appreciation. It also holds significant scientific importance. Understanding sprites can provide insights into the electrical and chemical processes in the upper atmosphere. They are also thought to play a role in the Earth's global electric circuit, a complex system that involves the entire planet's electromagnetic environment.</p>



<p>Research into red sprites is challenging due to their brief and unpredictable nature. Scientists use specialized high-speed cameras and sensitive telescopes to capture and study these elusive events. Additionally, research aircraft and satellites are employed to gain a better vantage point for observing and analyzing sprites.</p>



<p>In recent years, public interest in red sprites has grown, thanks in part to the spread of information on social media and the increasing accessibility of high-quality cameras. Amateur astronomers, astronauts and photographers have captured stunning images of red sprites, contributing to both the public's awareness and the scientific community's understanding of these fascinating natural phenomena.</p>



<p>In summary, red sprites are a mesmerizing and complex element of our planet's atmospheric behavior. They represent a beautiful intersection of earth science and atmospheric physics, offering both aesthetic wonder and scientific intrigue. As research continues, we can expect to learn more about how these fleeting flashes of light fit into the broader puzzle of Earth's atmospheric processes.</p>



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"Red sprite" phenomenon captured by space station astronaut

Red sprites, also known as "red fairies" are a type...

<p>A recent study published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-023-01884-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Climate Change</em></a> reveals significant insights into the future of the Earth's jet streams amid escalating climate change. </p>



<p>Conducted by Professor Tiffany Shaw from the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Chicago</a> and Osamu Miyawaki from the National Center for Atmospheric Research, the research presents a concerning scenario. As the planet warms, the fastest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strong-winds-help-pathogens-spread-on-poultry-farms/">winds</a> in the upper-level jet streams are predicted to increase in speed substantially.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study-nbsp">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



<p>"Earth’s upper-level jet streams influence the speed and direction of travel of weather systems and commercial aircraft, and are linked to severe weather occurrence," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Climate change is projected to accelerate the average upper-level jet stream winds. However, little is known about how fast (&gt;99th percentile) upper-level jet stream winds will change."&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Here we show that fast upper-level jet stream winds get faster under climate change using daily data from climate model projections across a hierarchy of physical complexity."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-findings-nbsp">Key findings&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Jet streams, the high-altitude winds steering global weather patterns, are expected to undergo drastic changes. The study finds a direct correlation between rising temperatures and the acceleration of these winds.&nbsp;</p>



<p>For every degree Celsius increase in global temperatures, the fastest upper-level jet stream winds could speed up by approximately 2%. This rate of increase is notably higher than the average wind speed escalation, estimated to be 2.5 times slower.</p>



<p>Professor Shaw emphasizes the gravity of these findings. “Based on these results and our current understanding, we expect record-breaking winds."</p>



<p>“And it’s likely that they will feed into decreased flight times, increased clear-air turbulence and a potential increase in severe weather occurrence.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-faster-jet-stream-winds-nbsp">Faster jet stream winds&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Looking at recent news reports of speed-record-breaking flights over the Atlantic, the researchers discovered that there had been very little exploration of how the very fastest jet stream winds would respond to climate change. To investigate, the team combined existing climate change models with known physics of jet streams.</p>



<p>Jet streams form due to the temperature contrast between the cold, dense air at the poles and the warmer, lighter air in the tropics, a phenomenon first demonstrated by UChicago meteorologists Carl-Gustaf Rossby and Dave Fultz in the early 1900s.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Climate change, the study suggests, intensifies this contrast. As tropical air warms and holds more moisture, the overall density difference between the poles and the tropics increases, resulting in faster jet stream winds.</p>



<p>“The increase is multiplicative - about 2% per degree - rather than linear,” said Shaw. “Thus, not only does it go up over time, the steeper the contrast you start with, the larger the increase you get - leading to fast winds getting faster.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-climate-models-nbsp">Global climate models&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The researchers acknowledge the need for further research to predict specific impacts on storms and severe weather.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Current global climate models, although effective in representing the jet stream, fall short in predicting smaller-scale extreme weather events. Newer, more detailed models are expected to provide a clearer picture.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The prospect of faster flights may seem advantageous, but it comes with a downside. While faster trans-Atlantic flights might not seem so bad, the flip side is that planes are likely to experience more turbulence, said Shaw.</p>



<p>Moreover, while record-high jet stream wind speeds have been observed in recent decades, their statistical significance is yet to be established.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“We would expect the signal to emerge in the next few decades, if humans continue the path we’re on with carbon emissions,” Shaw said. “In the end, it’s important to remember that we’re in the driver’s seat here.”</p>



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Climate change will accelerate jet stream winds and airplane turbulence

A recent study published in the journal Nature Climate Change...

3d,Rendering,Of,Tyrannosaurus,Rex,,And,Its,Young,One,,Storming

<p>A recent discovery sheds light on the dietary habits of a juvenile tyrannosaur, revealing its last meal to be two baby <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-self-regulated-their-body-temperature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a>. This finding offers a rare glimpse into the life and development of these prehistoric creatures.</p>



<p>In the Alberta Badlands, a hotspot for dinosaur hunters, a remarkable fossil was unearthed in 2009. It was the ribcage of a juvenile gorgosaurus, a close relative of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-rex-may-have-weighed-up-to-33000-pounds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">T. rex</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-juvenile-gorgosaurus">Juvenile gorgosaurus</h2>



<p>After meticulous preparation, researchers at the <a href="https://tyrrellmuseum.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Tyrell Museum of Palaeontology</a> discovered the remains of two small bird-like dinosaurs, known as citipes, inside the ribcage.</p>



<p>The juvenile gorgosaurus, about seven years old and weighing approximately 330kg, was in a developmental stage equivalent to a human teenager.&nbsp;Its size was roughly a tenth of a fully grown adult tyrannosaur.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tyrannosaur-dietary-shifts">Tyrannosaur dietary shifts</h2>



<p>The presence of the citipes' hind limbs within its ribcage is "solid evidence that tyrannosaurs drastically changed their diet as they grew up,'' according to Dr. Darla Zelenitsky from the <a href="https://www.ucalgary.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Calgary</a>.</p>



<p>The findings highlight a significant shift in the feeding habits of tyrannosaurs as they matured.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"We now know that these teenage (tyrannosaurs) hunted small, young dinosaurs," explained Dr. Zelenitsky. </p>



<p>Dr. Francois Therrien described these adult tyrannosaurs as "quite indiscriminate eaters." They probably pounced on large prey, "biting through bone and scraping off flesh," he told BBC News.</p>



<p>But, these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-tyrannosaurs-were-surprisingly-small/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">immature</a> tyrannosaurs were probably not ready to jump into a group of horned dinosaurs, where the adults weighed thousands of kilograms, said Dr. Zelenitsky.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-selective-eaters">Selective eaters</h2>



<p>Interestingly, researchers found only the legs of the baby dinosaurs inside the gorgosaurus. This suggests that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-tyrannosaurs-practiced-biting-as-they-waited-for-adult-teeth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">young</a> tyrannosaur was selective, possibly preferring the meatiest parts.</p>



<p>"The rock within the ribcage was removed to expose what was hidden inside," explained Dr. Therrien. "And lo and behold - the complete hind legs of two baby dinosaurs, both under a year old."</p>



<p>Dr. Zelenitsky said that the teenage gorgosaurus seems to have wanted the drumsticks - probably because that's the meatiest part.</p>



<p>"This animal was selecting and even dissecting its prey - biting off the legs and swallowing them whole."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-physical-transformations-of-tyrannosaurs">Physical transformations of tyrannosaurs</h2>



<p>As tyrannosaurs grew, they underwent significant physical transformations. Juveniles were lighter and had blade-like teeth, whereas adults developed rounder teeth, dubbed "killer bananas" by Dr. Therrien.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This change in dentition reflects a shift in feeding strategy from selective predation in juveniles to a more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-rex-was-even-more-fearsome-than-previously-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">powerful</a> and indiscriminate approach in adults.</p>



<p>The discovery provides a window into the lives of these ancient creatures, debunking the stereotype of dinosaurs as mindless monsters. </p>



<p>Professor Steve Brusatte is a palaeontologist from the <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Edinburgh</a>. He said that seeing prey in the dinosaur's guts gave a real insight into the animals. "They weren't just monsters, they were real, living things and pretty sophisticated feeders."</p>



<p>In the 1993 film Jurassic Park, a giant T. rex chased a car through a fictional theme park. Professor Brusatte noted that an adult T. rex wouldn't have chased after a car - its body was too big, and it couldn't move that fast.</p>



<p>"It would be the youngsters - (like this gorgosaur) - the children of T. rex that you'd have to keep an eye on."</p>



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Juvenile tyrannosaurs hunted baby dinosaurs as part of their diet

A recent discovery sheds light on the dietary habits of...