<p><strong>Aurichalcite</strong> is a mineral, usually found as a secondary mineral in copper and zinc deposits. Its chemical formula is (Zn,Cu)5(CO3)2(OH)6.</p>
<p>The name probably originates from the Greek oreichalchos meaning “mountain copper”.</p>


What is Aurichalcite?

<p>Over the past 20 years, the world has witnessed a concerning decline in coral reefs, a crucial ecosystem that supports about 25 percent of all marine life. Extreme weather events have primarily driven this loss of reefs, particularly due to widespread <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rescue-underway-florida-is-battling-an-unprecedented-coral-bleaching-crisis/">coral bleaching</a>.</p>



<p>The Great Barrier Reef, the world's most extensive coral reef system, has not been spared, with a shocking 91% of its reefs undergoing bleaching in the years 2016 and 2017.</p>



<p>As the frequency and intensity of mass bleaching events is expected to increase in the near future, scientists have been urgently searching for countermeasures.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reef-restoration-nbsp">Reef restoration&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The Reef Restoration and Adaptation Program (RRAP) is dedicated to creating strategies to help coral reefs withstand and bounce back from the rising ocean temperatures.&nbsp;</p>



<p>A recent study led by Dr. Peter Butcherine from <a href="https://www.scu.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Southern Cross University</a> has revealed a potential new solution to help corals recover by shading them. As part of the RRAP, the researchers examined the effectiveness of shading on two coral species.</p>



<p>The study primarily focused the yellow scroll coral (Turbinaria reniformis) and whisker coral (Duncanopsammia axifuga).</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-promising-results">Promising results</h2>



<p>By reducing sunlight by 30% for a span of four hours around solar noon, the onset of coral bleaching in certain shallow corals can be slowed down, according to the study. This approach to intermittent shading was shown to ease the impact of light stress.</p>



<p>The experts found that shaded corals bleached significantly less than unshaded ones, and corals that were shaded for 24 hours bleached less than those shaded for four hours. Higher water temperatures also favored bleaching.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shade-as-a-refuge">Shade as a refuge</h2>



<p>The research also introduced the concept of degree heating weeks (DHW). Once water temperatures surpass the maximum monthly average by more than 1°C, corals begin to accumulate DHW.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Crossing a threshold of four consecutive degree heating weeks can lead to considerable coral bleaching. Interestingly, shading proved effective in delaying the bleaching response by up to three DHW.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-interactions">Complex interactions</h2>



<p>Not all corals react to shading in the same manner. For instance, while the yellow scroll coral benefited from just four hours of daily shading, the whisker coral needed a 24-hour shading period to showcase a positive response.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“The complex nature of coral interactions with their environment means there are likely to be a range of responses to shading. We showed that coral species can respond differently when shaded, but these differences were not necessarily detrimental, just different from each other,” explained Dr. Butcherine.</p>



<p>While shading offers some reprieve, it might not be enough during intense and prolonged marine heatwaves, noted the researchers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shading-reefs">Shading reefs</h2>



<p>"This work directly informs the development of cooling and shading interventions to help protect the Great Barrier Reef during future bleaching events,” said Dr Daniel Harrison, a researcher at Southern Cross University and program lead of RRAP Cooling and Shading.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Coral reefs are a critically important ecosystem so it is vital to investigate all the possible ways we can help them survive climate change.”</p>



<p>There are several ways to shade reefs, including the use of artificial coverings and seawater fogging systems.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“The focus of the fogging technologies we are developing is for deployment at an individual reef site of some tens of hectares in size,” said Harrison.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The team’s efforts are currently aimed at localized cooling and shading of small high-value reef environments.</p>



<p>“Our trials show some promising results, but there is still more research and development required before the current technologies are ready for scaled up deployment in the field,” Harrison concluded.</p>



<p>The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2023.1162896" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Frontiers in Marine Science</em></a>.</p>



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Shading the Great Barrier Reef may slow coral bleaching

Over the past 20 years, the world has witnessed a...

<p>After years of negotiations, a historic agreement to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-high-seas-treaty-to-protect-the-oceans-nears-ratification/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">protect the world’s oceans</a> was reached in March 2023 at the UN headquarters in New York. In June, the pact was formally adopted by the United Nations.</p>



<p>Just this week, the treaty was signed by 67 countries. The primary objective of the treaty is to safeguard marine life in the high seas – international waters that are not part of any country’s jurisdiction.</p>



<p>Since all countries have the right to fishing and other activities in the high seas, it is important that nations can agree on how this part of the ocean can be used. </p>



<p>Still yet, only 1.2 percent of the high seas are in protected areas. Outside of these boundaries, marine life is threatened by overfishing and other human activities.</p>



<p>"With the signature of the High Seas Treaty, we can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/historic-treaty-adopted-to-protect-biodiversity-in-the-high-seas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">safeguard the ocean</a> from human pressures, and get closer to our objective of protecting at least 30% of the planet by 2030," said European Environment Commissioner Virginijus Sinkevičius, calling the treaty "our constitution for the ocean.”</p>



<p>"We only really have two major global commons - the atmosphere and the oceans," noted Georgetown marine biologist Rebecca Helm. While the oceans may draw less attention, protecting this half of earth's surface is absolutely critical to the health of our planet, said Helm.&nbsp;</p>



<p><a href="https://press.un.org/en/highlights/BBNJ" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Treaty of the High Seas</a> will create a new body to manage conservation of ocean life and establish marine protected areas.</p>



<p>Nichola Clark, an oceans expert at the <a href="https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pew Charitable Trusts</a> observed the treaty discussions in New York. Clark noted that the agreement is a critical step to achieve the U.N. Biodiversity Conference's recent pledge to protect 30 percent of the planet's waters, as well as its land, for conservation.</p>



<p>"This is a once in a generation opportunity to protect the oceans - a major win for biodiversity," said Clark.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The high seas treaty has also established rules for conducting environmental impact assessments for commercial projects in the ocean.</p>



<p>"It means all activities planned for the high seas need to be looked at, though not all will go through a full assessment," said Jessica Battle, an oceans governance expert at the Worldwide Fund for Nature.</p>



<p>"Governments have taken an important step that strengthens the legal protection of two-thirds of the ocean and with it marine biodiversity and the livelihoods of coastal communities," said Gladys Martínez de Lemos, executive director of the nonprofit Interamerican Association for Environmental Defense.</p>



<p>Malin Pinsky, a biologist at <a href="https://www.rutgers.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rutgers University</a>, said the new treaty is about "acknowledging that the ocean is not a limitless resource, and it requires global cooperation to use the ocean sustainably."</p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



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High Seas Treaty signed by 67 countries this week

After years of negotiations, a historic agreement to protect the...

Europa,One,Of,Jupiters,Moons,Its,Surface,Is,A,Ice

<p>In a revolutionary discovery that further intensifies the debate surrounding extraterrestrial life, astronomers utilizing NASA’s <a href="https://webb.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Webb Space Telescope</a> have detected the presence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/Europa_carbon-discovery-image_JWST_1big.png" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon dioxide</a> on Jupiter’s moon, Europa. </p>



<p>This vital find opens the gateway to a plethora of speculations and possibilities regarding the existence of conditions conducive to life, considering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stealth-ocean-discovered-on-one-of-saturns-moons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Europa</a> is one of the few worlds in our solar system believed to potentially harbor life.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beneath-the-icy-crust-a-saltwater-ocean">Beneath the icy crust: A saltwater ocean</h2>



<p>Previous studies highlighted the existence of a salty ocean beneath Europa’s water-ice crust, concealing a rocky seafloor. However, what eluded scientists was the confirmation of whether this ocean housed life-essential chemicals, specifically carbon. </p>



<p>The breakthrough findings from the Webb have now identified <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/Europa_carbon-discovery-image_JWST_2big.png" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CO2</a> in a region known as Tara Regio on Europa's icy surface, an area also known for its “chaos terrain” due to the disrupted surface ice and indications of material exchange between the ocean and the surface.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-source-of-carbon-an-internal-gift">Source of carbon: An internal gift</h2>



<p>Analysis reveals this identified carbon likely originates from the subsurface ocean and is not a product of external entities like meteorites, dismissing prior uncertainties regarding its origin. Its presence in a geologically young area suggests its deposition on a relatively recent timescale, adding a crucial layer to our understanding of Europa’s potential habitability.</p>



<p>“Understanding the chemistry of Europa’s ocean will help us determine whether it’s hostile to life as we know it, or if it might be a good place for life,” stated Geronimo Villanueva of NASA’s <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Goddard Space Flight Center</a>, the lead author of one of the illuminating papers describing the findings.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-extraterrestrial-life">Implications for extraterrestrial life</h2>



<p>These revelations bear immense significance as they not only strengthen the claims of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-confirms-an-ocean-on-europa-may-be-habitable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Europa’s ocean</a> potentially being a refuge for life but also help to decipher the intricate chemical composition of the ocean. </p>



<p>Carbon, being the backbone of life as we comprehend it, its presence and origin in Europa provide pivotal insights into the conditions and possibilities of life on this distant moon.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-into-ocean-surface-connection">Insights into ocean-surface connection</h2>



<p>There has been extensive debate among scientists about the extent of connectivity between Europa’s ocean and its surface. </p>



<p>“This suggests that we may be able to learn some basic things about the ocean’s composition even before we drill through the ice to get the full picture,” Villanueva added.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-s-near-infrared-spectrograph">Webb's Near-Infrared Spectrograph</h2>



<p>The utilization of the integral field unit of Webb’s <a href="https://webb.nasa.gov/content/observatory/instruments/nirspec.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Near-Infrared Spectrograph</a> (NIRSpec) enabled astronomers to pinpoint the location of specific chemicals, giving an unprecedented glimpse into the chemical localization on Europa’s surface.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-for-future-missions">Significance for future missions</h2>



<p>The discoveries not only shape the direction of future research endeavors but also form the basis for upcoming missions, notably NASA’s <a href="https://europa.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Europa Clipper</a> spacecraft, set to launch in October 2024. It is designed to perform numerous close flybys of Europa to delve deeper into its potential to support life. </p>



<p>Additionally, these findings will significantly inform ESA’s forthcoming <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Juice" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer</a> (JUICE) mission.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plume-activity-a-continuous-enigma">Plume activity: A continuous enigma</h2>



<p>While the new data does not reveal any evidence of plume activity, it does establish a stringent upper limit on the rate of material potentially being ejected. However, the non-detection of plumes doesn’t conclusively rule out their existence. </p>



<p>“All we can say with 100% confidence is that we did not detect a plume at Europa when we made these observations with Webb,” stated Heidi Hammel from the <a href="https://www.aura-astronomy.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy</a>.</p>



<p>In summary, the revelation of carbon dioxide on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jupiters-moons-are-warming-each-other-up/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Europa’s surface</a> is a monumental stride in our pursuit of extraterrestrial life, enriching our understanding of this distant moon and its ocean’s chemistry. As researchers continue to unravel Europa’s mysteries, the knowledge acquired will be pivotal for forthcoming missions and explorations, potentially rewriting our understanding of life in the universe. </p>



<p>The publication of these groundbreaking findings in <em>Science</em> stands as a testament to the unrelenting human endeavor to reach beyond the known and explore the unseen realms of our universe.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-europa">More about Europa</h2>



<p>Jupiter's moon, Europa, draws attention as one of the most intriguing celestial bodies in our solar system due to its potential to harbor life. With its icy façade and underlying mysteries, Europa kindles curiosity and exploratory fervor among scientists and space enthusiasts.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-concealed-oceanic-wonder">Concealed oceanic wonder</h3>



<p>Beneath its icy shell, Europa conceals a vast ocean of salty liquid water. Scientists believe that this ocean harbors twice the amount of water found on Earth, making it a prime location in the search for extraterrestrial life. The icy crust encapsulating this ocean possibly ranges from 10 to 30 kilometers in thickness, acting as a shield against Jupiter's harsh radiation belts.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tantalizing-geology">Tantalizing geology</h3>



<p>Europa presents a dynamic and complex geological surface. It possesses a predominantly water-ice surface, intertwined with a myriad of fractures and ridges. Some areas, known as "chaos terrains," exhibit disrupted and restructured ice, indicative of potential exchanges between the subsurface ocean and the surface, a phenomenon that further fuels scientific inquiries into Europa's internal activities.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-magnetic-field-mysteries">Magnetic field mysteries</h3>



<p>The magnetic field measurements taken by the Galileo spacecraft hint at the existence of a subsurface conductive layer, speculated to be Europa's salty ocean. This presumed ocean could be a host to hydrothermal vents on the seafloor, which, on Earth, support diverse and robust ecosystems, fostering hopes for the presence of life in Europa's dark, submerged world.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-radiation-scarred-surface">Radiation-scarred surface</h3>



<p>Europa endures a relentless bombardment of intense radiation from Jupiter’s magnetic field, which scars its surface and creates a hostile environment. However, this radiation also interacts with the icy surface to produce oxidants, compounds that could potentially fuel life in the subsurface ocean.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-for-astrobiology">Potential for astrobiology</h3>



<p>The presence of essential elements such as hydrogen, oxygen, and now, as recent discoveries suggest, carbon dioxide, elevate Europa's status as a prime candidate in the search for life beyond Earth. Scientists postulate that the interplay between the irradiated surface and the concealed ocean could generate the chemical energy necessary for life to thrive.</p>



<p>Europa, with its concealed ocean and compelling geological features, stands as a beacon in our pursuit of unraveling the mysteries of the cosmos. The prospect of life in its hidden, watery realms propels scientific investigations and explorations, seeking to expand our knowledge of our solar system and life's existence within it. As advancements in technology pave the way for more in-depth explorations, Europa continues to tantalize our imaginations and beckon us closer to uncovering its secrets.</p>



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CO2 found on Jupiter’s moon Europa suggests the presence of alien life

In a revolutionary discovery that further intensifies the debate surrounding...

<p>NASA is edging closer to the conclusion of its ambitious seven-year mission, aiming to prevent a catastrophic collision of a massive asteroid named <a href="https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/asteroids-comets-and-meteors/asteroids/101955-bennu/overview/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bennu</a> with Earth. Recent findings have indicated that there's a 1 in 2700 chance of Bennu slamming into Earth on September 24, 2182.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-menace-of-asteroid-bennu">The menace of asteroid Bennu</h2>



<p>Roughly the size of the iconic Empire State Building, Bennu spans about a third of a mile wide. The potential aftermath of its predicted collision with Earth could equate to the explosive energy of 22 atomic bombs. </p>



<p>The asteroid makes its presence felt by passing Earth approximately every six years. However, scientists anticipate that its most perilous close encounter could be a mere 159 years away.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">OSIRIS-REx mission</h2>



<p>In a proactive move, <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a> dispatched a spacecraft to Bennu in 2016. This mission was crucial for collecting samples and advancing the agency's strategy to stave off a doomsday-like asteroid deflection scenario.</p>



<p>"It feels very much like the last few miles of a marathon, with a confluence of emotions like pride and joy coexisting with a determined focus to complete the race well,” expressed an impassioned Rich Burns, the project manager for OSIRIS-REx at NASA’s <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Goddard Space Flight Center</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Historic sample collection</h2>



<p>In October 2020, NASA's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/osiris-rex-is-bringing-an-asteroid-sample-back-to-earth-this-month-worrying-many-people/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">OSIRIS-REx</a> spacecraft made history by alighting on Bennu's surface and procuring a chunk of rocky material. Weighing in at approximately 8.8 ounces (250 grams), this represents not only NASA's inaugural asteroid sample but also the largest ever extracted from space.</p>



<p>Come next Sunday, at around 3.42 pm BST, the world will watch with bated breath as the OSIRIS-REx mission dispatches this precious sample <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/OSIRIS-REx_mission_infographic_2big-scaled.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">back to Earth</a>. After traversing 63,000 miles, the spacecraft will relinquish a capsule, roughly the size of a mini-fridge, preserving the sample.</p>



<p>Hurtling towards Earth at an intense 28,000 mph and enduring temperatures akin to double that of lava, the capsule's descent will be <a href="https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/20381/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tempered using parachutes</a>. This will ensure a controlled landing in the Great Salt Lake Desert, Utah, marking the culmination of the OSIRIS-REx's monumental seven-year odyssey.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Deciphering the secrets of the solar system</h2>



<p>These asteroid fragments are expected to furnish scientists with a rare peek into the planet formation phenomena that created our solar system approximately 4.5 billion years ago.</p>



<p>"Pristine material from asteroid Bennu will help shed light on the formation of our solar system 4.5 billion years ago and perhaps even on how life on Earth began,” elucidated Nicola Fox, an associate administrator of NASA’s Science Mission Directorate.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Origin of asteroid Bennu's name</h2>



<p>Discovered in September 1999 by the <a href="https://www.ll.mit.edu/impact/watch-potentially-hazardous-asteroids" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research</a> (LINEAR) survey, the asteroid initially bore the moniker 1999 RQ36. It wasn't until 2013 that a nine-year-old from North Carolina christened it Bennu. Following his triumph in the 'Name that Asteroid!' competition, he drew inspiration for the name from an ancient Egyptian deity.</p>



<p>As NASA approaches the final leg of this critical mission, the world watches in anticipation, rooting for its success and the vast potential knowledge it promises to unravel about our universe.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-asteroid-bennu">More about asteroid Bennu</h2>



<p>As mentioned above, asteroid Bennu stands as one of the most intriguing celestial bodies in our solar system. This near-Earth asteroid, discovered in 1999, presents scientists with both a chance to study the early solar system and an opportunity to better understand potential asteroid threats.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-and-composition">Formation and composition</h3>



<p>Bennu originated from the primordial debris that helped form our solar system about 4.5 billion years ago. This diamond-shaped rock measures about 500 meters in diameter. This is roughly equivalent to the height of the Empire State Building. Researchers believe that Bennu offers insights into the raw materials present during the solar system's early days because of its rudimentary nature.</p>



<p>When scientists examine Bennu's surface, they find a dark and rocky world. The asteroid's rough landscape consists primarily of boulders and rocks, with very few flat areas. The darkness of Bennu's surface comes from its carbon-rich composition, indicating that organic molecules, which form the basis for life as we know it, might exist there.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-path-and-potential-threat">Path and potential threat</h3>



<p>Bennu orbits the Sun on a trajectory that occasionally brings it close to Earth. While currently it poses no direct threat, its orbit intersects with Earth's, which classifies Bennu as a potentially hazardous asteroid (PHA). </p>



<p>As mentioned previously, researchers estimate that there is a 1 in 2,700 chance of Bennu impacting Earth in the late 22nd century. However, scientists constantly monitor its trajectory to ensure we have an accurate understanding of any future threat.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-osiris-rex-a-truly-groundbreaking-mission">OSIRIS-REx: A truly groundbreaking mission</h3>



<p>The allure and potential importance of Bennu led NASA to launch the OSIRIS-REx mission in 2016. This spacecraft aimed to approach, study, and collect a sample from Bennu's surface. The mission achieved multiple milestones. These include the detailed mapping of the asteroid's surface, gaining insights into its geology, and understanding its rotational dynamics.</p>



<p>In 2020, a significant achievement for the mission occurred when OSIRIS-REx touched Bennu's surface and successfully collected samples. The spacecraft will return these samples to Earth on September 24, 2023, offering scientists a pristine piece of the early solar system to analyze.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-the-future">Implications for the future</h3>



<p>Understanding Bennu serves a dual purpose. On one hand, its study aids our comprehension of the origins of life on Earth. The presence of organic molecules on Bennu could provide clues about the building blocks of life and their distribution throughout the solar system. </p>



<p>On the other hand, understanding the properties and trajectories of near-Earth asteroids like Bennu is crucial for planetary defense. This knowledge enables us to predict and possibly mitigate potential future impacts.</p>



<p>In summary, Bennu represents more than just a floating rock in space. It's a bridge to our past, a beacon for scientific discovery, and a reminder of the dynamic nature of our solar system. Through the combined efforts of observational astronomy and space missions like OSIRIS-REx, we continue to unveil the secrets Bennu holds.</p>



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NASA mission to stop asteroid Bennu collision returns sample to Earth this weekend

NASA is edging closer to the conclusion of its ambitious...

<p>Researchers at <a href="https://www1.lehigh.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lehigh University</a> have made a groundbreaking discovery - sand that can flow uphill. This finding has the potential to redefine our understanding of granular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biodegradable-plastic-materials-do-not-biodegrade-in-the-ocean/">materials</a> and their behavior.</p>



<p>The research also opens the door to numerous applications ranging from healthcare to material transport.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-phenomenon">New phenomenon</h2>



<p>The Lehigh team demonstrated that when torque and an attractive force are applied to sand grains, they can flow uphill, ascend walls, and even traverse stairs.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This behavior defies our traditional understanding of gravity-driven granular flow and could signify the start of a new chapter in the study of granular materials.</p>



<p>“After using equations that describe the flow of granular materials, we were able to conclusively show that these particles were indeed moving like a granular material, except they were flowing uphill," said study co-author Professor James Gilchrist.</p>



<p>Dr. Samuel Wilson-Whitford, the lead author of the paper and a former research associate at Gilchrist’s laboratory, first stumbled upon this phenomenon while researching microencapsulation.&nbsp;</p>



<p>He found that when a magnet was rotated beneath a vial containing iron oxide-coated polymer particles, known as microrollers, the grains began heaping uphill.</p>



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="EHnaCnkpka-3013499-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-mechanics">Understanding the mechanics</h2>



<p>The researchers found that activating the microrollers with the magnet resulted in the particles rotating and forming temporary doublets. This dynamic leads to cohesion that yields a negative angle of repose due to a previously unheard-of negative coefficient of friction.</p>



<p>“Up until now, no one would have used these terms,” said Professor Gilchrist. “They didn’t exist. But to understand how these grains are flowing uphill, we calculated what the stresses are that cause them to move in that direction."&nbsp;</p>



<p>"If you have a negative angle of repose, then you must have cohesion to give a negative coefficient of friction. These granular flow equations were never derived to consider these things, but after calculating it, what came out is an apparent coefficient of friction that is negative.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-applications">Potential applications</h2>



<p>The implications of this discovery are far-reaching. The microrollers can potentially be utilized to mix substances, segregate materials, or move objects.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The newfound understanding of their collective behavior suggests that they could be employed in microrobotics, which could revolutionize healthcare.</p>



<p>The team is now using a laser cutter to build tiny staircases, and is taking videos of the material ascending one side and descending the other. A single microroller couldn’t overcome the height of each step, but working together they can, said Professor Gilchrist.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-nbsp">Future research&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“This first paper just focuses on how the material flows uphill, but our next several papers will look at applications, and part of that exploration is answering the question, can these microrollers climb obstacles? And the answer is yes.”</p>



<p>Gilchrist has submitted a paper that delves into using these microrollers for delivering nutrients through soil, emphasizing their potential in agricultural applications.</p>



<p>"We’re studying these particles to death, experimenting with different rotation rates, and different amounts of magnetic force to better understand their collective motion. I basically know the titles of the next 14 papers we’re going to publish.”</p>



<p>The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-41327-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Communications</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<p><em>Video Credit: Laboratory for Particle Mixing and Self-Organization, Lehigh University</em></p>



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Defying gravity: Team discovers sand that can flow uphill

Researchers at Lehigh University have made a groundbreaking discovery -...

<p>The vast green expanse of the Amazon <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-amazon-rainforest-is-on-the-brink-of-collapse/">rainforest</a> stands in sharp contrast to the infertile lands that lie beneath its canopy. A large portion of Amazonian soil is nutrient-deprived and acidic, which is not conducive to agriculture.</p>



<p>In hundreds of sites across the Amazon, archaeologists have dug up patches of black, fertile soil. This “dark earth” has been found near ancient human settlements that date back hundreds of thousands of years.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The origin of this fertile land - whether a deliberate creation or an unintended byproduct of old civilizations - has been a subject of dispute.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-supporting-large-settlements">Supporting large settlements</h2>



<p>However, new research from MIT, the <a href="https://www.ufl.edu/">University of Florida</a>, and several Brazilian institutions indicates that ancient Amazonians consciously produced this “dark earth” to boost soil quality and uphold expansive societies.</p>



<p>Professor Taylor Perron from MIT highlights the significant role humans played in this transformation.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“If you want to have large settlements, you need a nutritional base. But the soil in the Amazon is extensively leached of nutrients, and naturally poor for growing most crops,” said Professor Perron.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“We argue here that people played a role in creating dark earth, and intentionally modified the ancient environment to make it a better place for human populations.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-powerful-carbon-sink-nbsp">Powerful carbon sink&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Over centuries, the soil's enrichment through organic waste, food remnants, and charcoal led to the accumulation of carbon-rich residues. This means that early Amazonians may have unintentionally created a powerful carbon sink.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“The ancient Amazonians put a lot of carbon in the soil, and a lot of that is still there today,” said study co-author Samuel Goldberg, who performed the data analysis as a graduate student at MIT and is now at the University of Miami.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“That’s exactly what we want for climate change mitigation efforts. Maybe we could adapt some of their indigenous strategies on a larger scale, to lock up carbon in soil, in ways that we now know would stay there for a long time.”&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intentional-actions">Intentional actions</h2>



<p>The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adh8499"><em>Science Advances</em></a>, draws heavily on data and observations from earlier studies.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Focusing on the Kuikuro Indigenous Territory in the southeastern Amazon, the team observed modern-day Kuikuro's soil management practices. They found striking parallels between these practices and the ancient dark earth creation methods.</p>



<p>The team noted intentional soil modification activities among the Kuikuro, such as waste pile decomposition into fertile land and the scattering of ash and organic waste in fields, which led to dark earth formation.</p>



<p>“We saw activities they did to modify the soil and increase the elements, like spreading ash on the ground, or spreading charcoal around the base of the tree, which were obviously intentional actions,” said former MIT postdoc and lead author Morgan Schmidt.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultivating-fertile-soil">Cultivating fertile soil</h2>



<p>Through meticulous analysis, the research team found consistencies in the spatial arrangement of ancient and modern dark earth, further supporting the idea that ancient Amazonians purposefully cultivated the soil to sustain larger populations.</p>



<p>Modern and ancient dark earth was also similar in composition, containing elements such as carbon, phosphorus, and other nutrients.</p>



<p>“These are all the elements that are in humans, animals, and plants, and they’re the ones that reduce the aluminum toxicity in soil, which is a notorious problem in the Amazon,” Schmidt says. “All these elements make the soil better for plant growth.”</p>



<p>“The key bridge between the modern and ancient times is the soil,” said Goldberg. “Because we see this correspondence between the two time periods, we can infer that these practices that we can observe and ask people about today, were also happening in the past.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invaluable-knowledge-nbsp">Invaluable knowledge&nbsp;</h2>



<p>By estimating carbon content in ancient dark earth, the team determined that each old village could have sequestered several thousand tons of carbon, which would be preserved over centuries.</p>



<p>The researchers conclude that the lessons from the Amazon's ancient dark earth could serve as a beacon for modern sustainable farming, emphasizing the invaluable knowledge passed down by Indigenous Amazonians.</p>



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Ancient Amazonians modified the soil to create fertile “dark earth”

The vast green expanse of the Amazon rainforest stands in...

<p>Researchers unearthed a new species of tarantula exhibiting a vibrant electric blue coloration, nestled within the enigmatic landscapes of Thailand’s mangrove forests. This exciting discovery unfolded in the Phang-Nga province and is the inaugural record of a tarantula species dwelling in Thai mangrove ecosystems.</p>



<p>Dr. Narin Chomphuphuang and his research ensemble, accompanied by local wildlife aficionado and YouTuber <a href="https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCwahnsJVPWodYOLoTQl3q6A" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JoCho Sippawat</a>, embarked on this trailblazing expedition following the revelation of Taksinus bambus -- the first <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/four-new-tarantula-species-discovered-in-colombia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tarantula</a> known to inhabit bamboo stalks, in Thailand. Their quest was driven by the zeal to delve deeper into the secretive world of these arachnids.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-encounter-with-the-vibrant-creature">Encounter with the vibrant creature</h2>



<p>The distinctive <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/spider_Chilobrachys-natanicharum_Yuranan-Nanthaisong_2medium.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electric blue</a> of the tarantula immediately distinguished it from its peers, its color acting as a beacon in the dense, dark green foliage. </p>



<p>Narin explained, “The first specimen we found was on a tree in the mangrove forest. These tarantulas inhabit hollow trees, presenting a challenge in catching them, as one needs to climb trees and lure them out of complex hollows amidst humid and slippery conditions.”</p>



<p>The expedition meticulously maneuvered through the terrain in the evenings and nocturnal hours during low tide, overcoming obstacles to collect two specimens, showcasing the tarantula’s elusive nature.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-symphony-of-colors">A symphony of colors</h2>



<p>The electric blue tarantula, it was discovered, doesn’t owe its striking coloration to pigments, but rather to the intricate nanostructures within their hair, manipulating light to craft the illustrious blue hue, sometimes revealing an enchanting violet tint, creating a mesmerizing iridescent effect. </p>



<p>The mechanism to appear blue necessitates the absorption of minimal energy while reflecting high-energy blue light, making blue one of the most scarce and fascinating colors in nature.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-prior-commercial-appearance">A prior commercial appearance</h2>



<p>Before its scientific documentation, this species had been seen in commercial tarantula markets as the "Chilobrachys sp. Electric Blue Tarantula," however, without any records of its distinctive attributes or its natural surroundings.</p>



<p>Dr. Narin elucidated the adaptability of the electric blue tarantula, explaining, “These tarantulas can flourish in both arboreal and terrestrial environments in evergreen forests but are confined to tree hollows in mangrove forests due to tidal activities.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-naming-the-new-tarantula-species">Naming the new tarantula species</h2>



<p>The scientific designation, <em>Chilobrachys natanicharum</em>, resulted from an auction campaign, with Nichada Properties Co., Ltd., Thailand, emerging victorious, proposing a blend of the names of company executives Mr. Natakorn Changrew and Ms. Nichada Changrew. </p>



<p>The proceeds from the auction have been channeled to bolster the education of Lahu children in Thailand and to aid impoverished cancer patients. The Lahu people, an indigenous tribe known for their rich culture and traditions, face stark educational disparities due to financial constraints. </p>



<p>Similarly, many cancer sufferers grapple with economic adversities, hindering their access to quality medical care. The donation aims to bridge these gaps and extend support to those in dire need.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-concerns-over-habitat-destruction">Concerns over habitat destruction</h2>



<p>Dr. Narin emphasized the indispensability of taxonomy in research, from resolving everyday queries about species names to undertaking pivotal conservation research to thwart species extinction. He underscored its critical role in advancing knowledge and fostering conservation efforts.</p>



<p>The looming menace of deforestation imperils mangrove forests and their unique inhabitants like the electric blue tarantula—one of the world’s rarest. This discovery brings forth pertinent questions about humanity's inadvertent role in habitat destruction and the subsequent displacement of these exceptional species, prompting reflections on conservation imperatives.</p>



<p>This discovery, a beacon of Thailand’s rich biodiversity, has not only expanded the realms of arachnological knowledge but has also sparked crucial conversations about ecological conservation, habitat preservation, and the proactive roles that can be played to shield these extraordinary creatures from extinction.</p>



<p>The study was published in the <a href="https://zookeys.pensoft.net/article/106278/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">journal ZooKeys</a>.</p>



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Electric blue tarantula discovered in a Thai mangrove forest

Researchers unearthed a new species of tarantula exhibiting a vibrant...

Happy,Relaxed,Young,Woman,Sitting,On,Couch,Using,Cell,Phone,

<p>A meticulous and expansive global study has unveiled intricate patterns in life satisfaction and emotional states across various age demographics.</p>



<p>The extensive participant pool comprised 460,902 individuals across 443 samples, providing a diverse spectrum of data. This was essential to discerning patterns in subjective well-being throughout different life stages. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-core-findings-on-life-satisfaction">Core findings on life satisfaction</h2>



<p>The researchers focused primarily on exploring alterations in life satisfaction, positive emotional states, and negative emotional states. Professor Susanne Bücker, who initiated the project at <a href="https://www.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ruhr University Bochum</a> before transitioning to <a href="https://www.dshs-koeln.de/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">German Sport University, Cologne</a>, illuminated the study's core insights. </p>



<p>Life satisfaction reportedly experiences a decrement from the ages of 9 to 16, sees a subtle elevation until the age of 70, and then witnesses a gradual decline until 96. The decline during adolescence is chiefly associated with the tumultuous phase of puberty and its consequential impacts on physical and social development.</p>



<p>Conversely, negative emotional states exhibit variability from ages 9 to 22, decrease progressively until 60, and then ascend once again. </p>



<p>In contrast, positive emotional states predominantly undergo a decline from ages 9 to 94. The research reveals a pronounced median change in both positive and negative emotional states compared to life satisfaction.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-age-and-emotion-a-positive-trend">Age and emotion: A positive trend</h2>



<p>Summarizing the findings, Professor Bücker emphasized the predominantly positive trend in life satisfaction and negative emotional states spanning a substantial period of one's life. </p>



<p>Notably, satisfaction experiences a resurgence from early adulthood, notwithstanding the diminishment of positive states from childhood to late adulthood.</p>



<p>However, all aspects of subjective well-being tend to face deterioration in extremely late adulthood. The researchers theorize that this could be attributed to several factors. These include the decline in physical performance, deterioration of health, and the decrease in social contacts experienced by older individuals, primarily due to the loss of peers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-future-interventions">Implications for future interventions</h2>



<p>This extensive research serves as a pivotal resource, enlightening the understanding of subjective well-being across various life stages. The insights derived are invaluable for devising targeted intervention strategies, especially those aimed at alleviating the challenges faced by older adults. </p>



<p>By focusing on mitigating the decline in life satisfaction and emotional states in later life stages, interventions can significantly enhance the quality of life for older people. This would involve treating their unique needs and circumstances.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comprehensive-insights-on-life-satisfaction">Comprehensive insights on life satisfaction </h2>



<p>In summary, this important study offers profound insights into the intricate patterns of life satisfaction, happiness, and emotional states across different age groups. The detailed analysis and diverse participant pool ensure the reliability and relevance of the findings, serving as a beacon for future research and intervention strategies. </p>



<p>The emphasis on life stages, from puberty to extremely late adulthood, presents a holistic view, elucidating the multifaceted nature of human emotional states and satisfaction levels throughout life. By leveraging these insights, there is immense potential to enhance subjective well-being and life satisfaction for individuals at every stage of life.</p>



<p>The study was executed by researchers from prominent universities such as the German Sport University, Cologne, Ruhr University Bochum, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, and the Universities of Bern and Basel in Switzerland.</p>



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The science of happiness: What makes people satisfied with their lives?

A meticulous and expansive global study has unveiled intricate patterns...

<p>A new study published by <a href="https://global.oup.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oxford University Press</a> uncovers the evolutionary adaptations in bats that may explain their extraordinary capability to ward off <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-increases-risk-of-fatal-bacterial-infections/">infections</a> and resist cancer. This discovery, believed to be associated with bats' rapid evolution, may have promising implications for cancer research.</p>



<p>Bats have long fascinated scientists due to their unique attributes. Not only are they the only mammals capable of sustained flight, but they also boast long lifespans, remarkably low cancer rates, and incredibly robust immune systems.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Furthermore, it is widely believed that bats played a pivotal role in the emergence of the novel SARS-CoV-2 virus. Their peculiar ability to tolerate various viral infections possibly arises from distinct features in their innate immune response.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-human-health-nbsp">Implications for human health&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The implications of understanding bats are far-reaching, especially for human health. Gaining insights into the bat immune system's mechanisms that enable it to withstand viral infections might pave the way for better strategies in preventing zoonotic disease transmissions to humans.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Furthermore, by comparing the genomic data of bats to other mammals more susceptible to cancer, researchers could unearth new knowledge about cancer's origins and its intricate relationship with immunity.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While mice remain a primary organism for experimental studies due to their ease of manipulation, they lack many attributes relevant to human diseases. In contrast, bats offer a more comprehensive perspective.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



<p>"The ability of bats to tolerate viral infections may stem from unusual features of their innate immune response. Together, these adaptations make bats a powerful system for investigating a wide variety of genotype-to-phenotype relationships, including several with implications for human health," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"For example, by better understanding the mechanisms of the bat immune system that allow them to tolerate viral infections, researchers may be better able to prevent zoonotic outbreaks."</p>



<p>"In addition, comparative genomic analyses of bats and cancer-susceptible mammals may shed new light on the causes of cancer and links between cancer and immunity."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted-nbsp">How the research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



<p>For their investigation, the researchers used the Oxford Nanopore Technologies long-read platform, along with bat samples from the American Museum of Natural History in Belize. The genomes of two bat species, the Jamaican fruit bat and the Mesoamerican mustached bat, were sequenced.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The team conducted an extensive comparative genomic analysis involving various bats and other mammals.</p>



<p>"Our comparative genomic analysis of these genome sequences, which have been released as a public resource, provides several new insights into unique features of innate immune response and cancer resistance in bats," said the researchers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered-nbsp">What the researchers discovered&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The scientists identified genetic modifications in six DNA repair-related proteins in bats.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Furthermore, 46 proteins related to cancer suppression were found to be altered in bats. These modified genes related to cancer were present over two times more in bats than in other mammals.</p>



<p>“By generating these new bat genomes and comparing them to other mammals we continue to find extraordinary new adaptations in antiviral and anticancer genes,” said study lead author Armin Scheben.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“These investigations are the first step towards translating research on the unique biology of bats into insights relevant to understanding and treating aging and diseases, such as cancer, in humans.”</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gbe/evad148" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Genome Biology and Evolution</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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Unique biology of bats may hold secrets of cancer resistance

A new study published by Oxford University Press uncovers the...

<p>The Balanophoraceae family, when stumbled upon in the forest, might be dismissed as mere <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-distribute-enormous-amounts-of-co2-to-mycorrhizal-fungi/">fungi</a>, thanks to their peculiar mushroom-like structures. However, these aren't your average mushrooms. They are actually inflorescences, small gatherings of flowers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-parasitism-nbsp">Extreme parasitism&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Rather than simply taking nutrients from host plants using a haustorium, as seen in many parasitic species, Balanophora takes parasitism to another level. It encourages the host plant's vascular system to grow into its tuber.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This results in an unprecedented underground organ formed from both the host and parasite tissue. It's within this chimeric tuber that Balanophora steals nutrients from its host.</p>



<p>Dr. Xiaoli Chen of <a href="https://www.bgi.com/global" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BGI Research</a> and her team set out to explore the evolutionary origins of these subtropical parasites. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shrinking-genomes">Shrinking genomes</h2>



<p>In collaboration with Dr. Sean Graham, a botanist from the <a href="https://www.ubc.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of British Columbia</a>, Dr. Chen compared the genomes of Balanophora and Sapria, another extreme parasitic plant. While they belong to different families and have varying appearances, their genomic narratives turned out to be surprisingly similar.</p>



<p>According to the study, both Balanophora and Sapria displayed record shrinkages for flowering plants, losing 28 and 38 percent of their genomes, respectively, as they evolved to full-blown parasitism.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“The extent of similar, but independent gene losses observed in Balanophora and Sapria is striking,” said Dr. Chen. “It points to a very strong convergence in the genetic evolution of holoparasitic lineages, despite their outwardly distinct life histories and appearances, and despite their having evolved from different groups of photosynthetic plants.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-discovery-nbsp">Unexpected discovery&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Both plants displayed an almost total loss of genes associated with photosynthesis, which is not surprising given that they give up their photosynthetic ability.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, what was unexpected was the discovery of the loss of genes vital for other biological functions such as root development, nitrogen absorption, and flower development regulation.&nbsp;</p>



<p>In essence, these parasites seemed to have discarded a significant amount of gene families typically found in green plants, only retaining crucial genes or their copies.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strategic-gene-loss">Strategic gene loss</h2>



<p>An astonishing revelation was the parallel loss of genes related to the synthesis of a significant plant hormone - abscisic acid (ABA) - in both plants.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Even in the absence of these genes, ABA hormone accumulation was found in Balanophora's flowering stems, with ABA signaling response genes still intact in both parasites.</p>



<p>"The majority of the lost genes in Balanophora are probably related to functions essential in green plants, which have become functionally unnecessary in the parasites,” said Dr. Graham.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“That said, there are probably instances where the gene loss was actually beneficial, rather than reflecting a simply loss of function. The loss of their entire ABA biosynthesis pathway may be a good example. It may help them to maintain physiological synchronization with the host plants. This needs to be tested in the future."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Highlighting the broader context, Dr. Huan Liu of BGI Research mentioned the 10KP project, which aims to sequence 10,000 plant genomes.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"The study of parasitic plants deepens our understanding of dramatic genomic alterations and the complex interactions between parasitic plants and their hosts," said Dr. Liu.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"The genomic data provides valuable insights into the evolution and genetic mechanisms behind the dependency of parasitic plants on their hosts, and how they manipulate host plants to survive."</p>



<p>The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41477-023-01517-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Plants</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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Extreme parasitism: Balanophora convinces a host to grow into its tissue

The Balanophoraceae family, when stumbled upon in the forest, might...

Dolphin,Portrait,Detail,Of,Eye,While,Looking,At,You,From

<p>In a recent study, researchers have discovered that a staggering 72% of cetacean and pinniped stocks under U.S. jurisdiction exhibit high or very high vulnerability to the threats posed by climate change.&nbsp;The main threats to these marine mammals include rising ocean temperatures and changes in water composition. </p>



<p>Pinnipeds are “flipper-footed” animals such as seals, sea lions, and walruses, while cetaceans are species that cannot survive on land, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-found-embedded-in-tissues-of-whales-and-dolphins/">whales</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/dolphin-everything-you-need-to-know-about-these-magical-mammals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dolphins</a> and porpoises.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-marine-mammals">Climate change and marine mammals</h2>



<p>The study, led by Matthew D. Lettrich from <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NOAA Fisheries</a>, sheds light on the susceptibility of marine mammals in US waters to the ever-intensifying impacts of a changing climate.</p>



<p>Several factors drive this vulnerability. As the Earth's climate undergoes rapid alterations, the distribution, behavior, and movements of marine mammals are being significantly influenced.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Key agents of this change include warming ocean temperatures, diminished sea ice cover, increased ocean acidity, changing salinity levels, and declining dissolved oxygen.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study-nbsp">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Until now, while <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/national/climate/climate-vulnerability-assessments" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Climate Vulnerability Assessments</a> (CVAs) provided insights into the climate impacts across a spectrum of species, none had specifically delved into US-managed marine mammals.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Recognizing this gap, the researchers embarked on a comprehensive assessment of 108 marine mammal stocks spanning the western North Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean Sea.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The goal was to gauge their exposure to climate change and their inherent ability to adapt to its consequences.</p>



<p>To do this, the team used 16 climate-related factors that are likely to influence marine mammals directly or indirectly via their prey or habitat.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alarming-results-for-marine-mammals">Alarming results for marine mammals</h2>



<p>The assessment revealed that a startling 44% of marine mammal stocks were found to have a “very high” climate vulnerability score. Baleen whales, medium-sized whales, toothed whales, and dolphins were found to have the greatest risk.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>The primary culprits affecting these species were identified as alterations in ocean temperature, acidity, and dissolved oxygen levels, which have direct repercussions on their prey availability and habitat conditions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-in-sound-transmission-nbsp">Changes in sound transmission&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Moreover, a less explored facet of climate change impacts on marine mammals is the changes in sound absorption and transmission in waters due to fluctuating pH and temperature levels.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This has significant implications for species that rely on echolocation for activities like communication, hunting, and foraging.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecosystem-management-and-conservation">Ecosystem management and conservation</h2>



<p>“These results provide information for researchers, managers, and the public on marine mammal responses to climate change to enhance the development of more effective marine mammal management, restoration, and conservation activities that address current and future environmental variation and biological responses due to climate change," wrote the study authors.</p>



<p>"This vulnerability assessment provides a tool that can complement other marine mammal assessment techniques and support the broader implementation of protected species and ecosystem management and conservation as the climate changes.”</p>



<p>The researchers would like for the marine mammal climate vulnerability assessment to be repeated when enhanced input data is available, such as higher-resolution climate projections and better species-specific biological information.</p>



<p>“Using a systematic approach allowed us to look across all of these stocks and better understand what drives their vulnerability to climate change," said Lettrich.</p>



<p>"We can now go out and look at some of these individual responses to climate change, and explore approaches to reduce the impacts of climate change on these vulnerable populations.”</p>



<p>The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0290643"><em>PLOS ONE</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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Marine mammals in U.S. waters are highly vulnerable to climate change

In a recent study, researchers have discovered that a staggering...

<p>The asteroid impact that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-fossil-suggests-it-was-killed-by-the-asteroid/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wiped out</a> most of the dinosaurs 66 million years ago sparked two years of darkness caused by the soot from raging wildfires that filled the sky and blocked the sun. </p>



<p>This phenomenon further contributed to the wave of extinctions that followed. The findings were presented at the <a href="https://www.agu.org/Fall-Meeting">annual meeting</a> of the <a href="https://www.agu.org/">American Geophysical Union</a> (AGU).</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-impact-from-asteroid-impact">Environmental impact from asteroid impact</h2>



<p>While the cataclysm caused by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-that-killed-the-dinosaurs-ignited-massive-wildfires/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asteroid</a> impact extinguished many life forms almost instantly, the impact also caused environmental changes leading to mass extinctions that played out over a longer period of time.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to research led by the <a href="https://www.calacademy.org/scientists/invertebrate-zoology-geology">Department of Invertebrate Zoology and Geology</a> at the California Academy of Sciences, one such extinction trigger might have been the dense cloud of ash and other particles that spread all over the planet after the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-killing-asteroid-scoured-the-worlds-oceans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asteroid</a> impact, which enveloped many parts of the Earth in darkness for up to two years. </p>



<p>During that time, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/photosynthesis-efficient-enough/">photosynthesis</a> had probably failed, leading to massive environmental collapse, with at least 75 percent of life on Earth completely extinguished.</p>



<p>"The common thinking now is that global wildfires would have been the main source of fine soot that would have been suspended into the upper atmosphere," said study lead author Peter Roopnarine, a curator of Geology at the California Academy of Sciences. </p>



<p>"The concentration of soot within the first several days to weeks of the fires would have been high enough to reduce the amount of incoming sunlight to a level low enough to prevent photosynthesis."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-periods-of-darkness-destroy-ecosystems">Periods of darkness destroy ecosystems</h2>



<p>Roopnarine and his colleagues believe that ecosystems could recover after a period of darkness of up to 150 days. However, after over 200 days, some species will already start going extinct and patterns of dominance will change. During a darkness interval of 650 to 700 days, extinction levels may reach 65 to 81 percent.</p>



<p>Since it is known that around 75 percent of the species went extinct after the asteroid impact 66 million years ago, the scientists believe that the dark period may have lasted approximately two years. </p>



<p>"Conditions varied across the globe because of atmospheric flow and temperature variation, but we estimated that the darkness could have persisted in the Hell Creek area [a representative, fossil-rich region dating to the latter part of the Cretaceous and extending over parts of today’s Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota and Wyoming] for up to two years,” concluded Roopnarine.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-the-asteroid-that-killed-the-dinosaurs">More about the asteroid that killed the dinosaurs</h2>



<p>Around 66 million years ago, an asteroid, with a force unlike any other in Earth's recent history, struck our planet and dramatically altered its trajectory of life. This event, often referred to as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-true-survivors-flowering-plants-lived-through-the-dinosaur-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cretaceous-Paleogene</a> (K-Pg) extinction event, led to the decline and eventual extinction of roughly 75% of Earth's species, most notably the non-avian dinosaurs.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-fateful-asteroid-impact">The fateful asteroid impact</h3>



<p>This colossal asteroid, estimated to be about 10 kilometers (6 miles) in diameter, plummeted towards Earth at a blistering speed. When it collided with what is now the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico, it created the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/the-chicxulub-disaster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chicxulub crater</a>, a massive depression more than 150 kilometers (93 miles) in diameter.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-immediate-aftermath-of-the-asteroid-impact">Immediate aftermath of the asteroid impact</h3>



<p>The impact released an estimated energy equivalent to billions of atomic bombs. This tremendous force ignited wildfires hundreds of miles away and released vast amounts of sulfur into the atmosphere, leading to a significant drop in temperatures. </p>



<p>Earth plunged into a "nuclear winter" scenario: dark, cold, and inhospitable. The plummeting temperatures and widespread darkness, which resulted from the dust and soot released, severely disrupted the food chain. Photosynthesizing plants could not survive in such conditions, leading to a cascade of extinction events up the food chain.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-longer-term-effects">Longer-term effects</h3>



<p>But the asteroid's impact did more than just throw up dust and soot. It also resulted in widespread acid rain, which further disrupted ecosystems. The ash from the impact blocked sunlight for an extended period, cooling the planet and disrupting the climate for several years.</p>



<p>Oceans didn't escape unscathed either. The fallout from the asteroid severely affected marine ecosystems. The change in temperatures led to a decline in marine plankton, the primary food source for many marine species. The collapse of this foundational layer of the marine food chain had catastrophic effects on the marine species that depended on it.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recovery-and-evolution-s-new-course">Recovery and evolution's new course</h3>



<p>Although the aftermath was devastating, life proved resilient. The extinction event paved the way for mammals, which had previously lived in the shadows of the dinosaurs, to rise in prominence and diversify. These mammals would eventually evolve into a vast array of species, including humans.</p>



<p>Over time, the Earth's atmosphere and climate stabilized, and life began to recover and evolve in new directions. The void left by the dinosaurs allowed for the rise of new dominant species, reshaping the evolutionary trajectory of the planet.</p>



<p>The asteroid that struck Earth 66 million years ago dramatically changed the course of life on our planet. While it marked the end for the dinosaurs and many other species, it also opened up evolutionary opportunities for others. The story of this asteroid serves as a stark reminder of the power of extraterrestrial events and their potential to reshape the very fabric of life on Earth.</p>



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Asteroid impact that killed the dinosaurs sparked two years of darkness

The asteroid impact that wiped out most of the dinosaurs...