<div>
<div id="58e3ebce955a315103d39bd1" class="vdb_player vdb_58e3ebce955a315103d39bd158d96b98cd4fed198a0d2a49"><script src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP///yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7" type="text/javascript"></script></div>
What Is Matter? In simple terms, matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Solids, liquids and gases are all made up of matter. Basically, matter is everything around you.
</div>
But how is matter created? Matter is made up of atoms. What is the tiniest thing that you can think of? Chances are whatever you think of will be way bigger than atoms.
An atom is the smallest particle that exists which can’t be seen with the naked eye. It is made up of positively charged protons, negatively charged <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/northern-lights-linked-to-electrons-traveling-at-millions-of-miles-per-hour/">electrons</a>, and neutrally charged neutrons.
The core of an atom is called the nucleus. Atoms are the smallest piece of an element that contain the same properties of that element. For example, if you cut a piece of aluminum into pieces, the smallest piece will be the atom.
What Is Matter? Molecules are formed when two or more atoms join together. This fusion creates a molecule. It does not matter if the atoms are the same or different from each other.
Examples of molecules include H2O (water) or N2 (Nitrogen). It is important to remember that molecules are only formed when two or more atoms are joined. For example, <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=oxygen&amp;cvid=3f5e305e913541728ef383e89cea6d39&amp;aqs=edge.0.0l7.1433j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Oxygen</a> (O) alone is not a molecule – but, when oxygen joins with other elements like Hydrogen (H2), it forms a water molecule H20. 
Compounds are molecules that are made up of more than one element. Compounds and molecules are held together by forces known as chemical bonds. Compounds can only be formed when two or more elements join together. A single element cannot form a compound.
Sodium Chloride (NaCl) is a good example of a compound. It is made up of one molecule of sodium (Na) and one molecule of chlorine (Cl).
Now you know all about the building blocks that make up everything – from air to water to you, yourself!


Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

What Is Matter?

Traditionally, we have always believed that&nbsp;photosynthesis&nbsp;by plants and algae fuel our planet's oxygen supply, even in the deep ocean, providing the essential gas for life on Earth.&nbsp;However, an international team of scientists has made a startling discovery, finding "dark oxygen" in the deep ocean that challenges this long-held premise.



Their critical finding proves that the Earth's oxygen could also be generated by metallic minerals on the deep-ocean floor, some 13,000 feet below the surface, where no sunlight penetrates.&nbsp;



This revelation opens up exciting new possibilities. We can now better understand the origins of oxygen on our planet. It also sheds light on its distribution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oxygen-with-photosynthesis-the-norm">Oxygen with photosynthesis -- the norm</h2>



Have you ever wondered why we call plants the "lungs" of the Earth? It's simple: they breathe out what we breathe in. This happens through a fantastic process called <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-finally-decoded-the-process-of-photosynthesis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a>.



Imagine a world without trees, plants, or algae. It's not just a barren, lifeless landscape. It’s a world without oxygen. 



Thanks to photosynthesis, plants, algae, and some bacteria are like busy little factories, turning sunlight into the very air we breathe. They're the unsung heroes of life on Earth.



Here's an interesting twist. The waste product of our respiration, carbon dioxide, is like gold for plants. They transform it back into oxygen and nutrients in what's known as the Calvin cycle.



The oxygen we enjoy today didn't always exist. Thanks to a unique group of photosynthesizing bacteria, our planet's atmosphere underwent a dramatic makeover 2.4 billion years ago, known as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/it-took-200-million-years-for-earth-to-get-its-oxygen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Great Oxygenation Event</a>. This poured oxygen into our atmosphere, paving the path for more complex forms of life to evolve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oxygen-without-photosynthesis-not-normal">Oxygen withOUT photosynthesis -- not normal</h2>



Discovering that oxygen is produced at the bottom of the deepest parts of Earth's ocean, without sunlight or photosynthesis, is stunning as it singles out an unlikely <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oxygen-may-have-come-from-ancient-rocks-of-early-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">source of oxygen</a> -- the seafloor, an area completely devoid of light. 



Previously, it was unthinkable that oxygen-breathing (aerobic) marine life could exist in such darkness. Yet, this discovery is astonishing. It could reshape our understanding of aerobic life's origin on Earth.



Researcher Andrew Sweetman, who spearheads the Seafloor Ecology and Biogeochemistry research team at the Scottish Association for Marine Science (<a href="https://www.sams.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SAMS</a>), was instrumental in this discovery.&nbsp;



"For aerobic life to begin on the planet, there had to be oxygen, and our understanding has been that&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/it-took-200-million-years-for-earth-to-get-its-oxygen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s oxygen</a>&nbsp;supply began with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/key-to-life-on-earth-photosynthesis-begins-on-the-quantum-level-with-a-single-photon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthetic</a> organisms," Sweetman explains.



"But we now know that there is oxygen produced in the deep sea, where there is no light. I think we, therefore, need to revisit questions like: Where could aerobic life have begun?”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-polymetallic-nodules-in-ocean">Polymetallic nodules in ocean</h2>



Polymetallic nodules - natural mineral accumulations on the ocean floor, possessing a mix of various minerals, are central to this discovery.&nbsp;



These nodules, varying in size, contain critical metals like cobalt, nickel, copper, lithium, and manganese -- elements used in batteries.



“The polymetallic nodules that produce this oxygen contain metals such as cobalt, nickel, copper, lithium, and manganese -- which are all critical elements used in batteries," asserts Franz Geiger, professor of Chemistry at the <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northwestern University</a> and lead experimenter in the electrochemistry tests. 



"Several large-scale mining companies now aim to extract these precious elements from the seafloor at depths of 10,000 to 20,000 feet below the surface. We need to rethink how to mine these materials, so that we do not deplete the oxygen source for deep-sea life.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unearthing-oxygen-in-deep-ocean">Unearthing oxygen in deep ocean</h2>



Sweetman recounts the tale of his initial incredulity upon <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/summer-storms-stir-oxygen-into-the-deep-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">detecting oxygen</a> during his seabed sampling in the Pacific Ocean's Clarion-Clipperton Zone.&nbsp;



He initially suspected faulty equipment, given that conventional wisdom dictates oxygen consumption rather than production in deep-sea environments.



“When we first got this data, we thought the sensors were faulty because every study ever done in the deep sea has only seen oxygen being consumed rather than produced,” Sweetman said. 



“We would come home and recalibrate the sensors, but, over the course of 10 years, these strange oxygen readings kept showing up."



The scientists decided to take a back-up method that worked differently to the optode sensors they were originally using. When both methods came back with the same result, they realized they were onto something big.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geobatteries-from-deep-ocean-oxygen">Geobatteries from deep ocean oxygen</h2>



To better comprehend the oxygen production, the researchers explored a hypothesis that relates to the concept of Geobatteries.&nbsp;



Through a chemical process known as seawater electrolysis, they wondered if the deep-ocean’s polymetallic nodules generated enough electricity to produce oxygen.&nbsp;



The results were conclusive. “It appears that we discovered a natural ‘geobattery.’ These geobatteries are the basis for a possible explanation of the ocean’s dark oxygen production,” stated Geiger.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deep-ocean-oxygen-and-mining-implications">Deep ocean oxygen and mining implications</h2>



This revelation could have significant implications for the mining industry.&nbsp;



The researchers emphasize the importance of considering the potential impact on the ocean's dark oxygen production before planning&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-mining-has-deadly-consequences-for-marine-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep-sea mining</a>&nbsp;activities.&nbsp;



“In 2016 and 2017, marine biologists visited sites that were mined in the 1980s and found not even bacteria had recovered in mined areas. In unmined regions, however, marine life flourished. Why such ‘dead zones’ persist for decades is still unknown," Geiger concludes.



"However, this puts a major asterisk onto strategies for sea-floor mining as ocean-floor faunal diversity in nodule-rich areas is higher than in the most diverse tropical rainforests."



In summary, discovering dark oxygen production in the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-can-deep-ocean-microbes-survive-without-sunlight/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep-ocean</a>&nbsp;sets a new direction for our understanding of Earth's oxygen supply. The implications of this discovery, for both science and industry, are profound.



The full study was published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-024-01480-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Geoscience</a>.



-----



Like what you read?&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newslett</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">er</a>&nbsp;for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a>&nbsp;and Earth.com.



-----

Discovery: "Dark oxygen" is produced on the ocean floor without sunlight

Traditionally, we have always believed that&nbsp;photosynthesis&nbsp;by plants and algae fuel...

Grassland ecosystems, contributing to over a quarter of the world's land surface and containing a third of terrestrial carbon, are a lifeline for food production, wildlife habitat, and overall <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grassland-ecosystem-stability-is-driven-by-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> in the face of climate change.&nbsp;



These vast landscapes provide essential ecosystem services, such as&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grasslands-can-be-managed-to-benefit-biodiversity-and-soil-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil</a>&nbsp;stabilization, water filtration, and carbon sequestration.&nbsp;



The future of these vital ecosystems is uncertain. Two major environmental shifts are contributing to this crisis. First, land use is intensifying. And the second, the impacts of climate change are escalating.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-grassland-use-and-climate-change">Grassland use and climate change</h2>



Grasslands, particularly in Europe, are experiencing intensified use, including higher levels of fertilization, more frequent mowing, and concentrated grazing.&nbsp;



This intensified agricultural activity is driven by the demand for increased productivity and efficiency in&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-production-more-difficult-climate-change-plant-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food production</a>.&nbsp;



Furthermore, farmers often limit their sowing to a few grass varieties that promise high yields. This shift in agricultural practices dramatically alters the species composition and functionality of meadows and pastures, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grassland-ecosystem-stability-is-driven-by-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reducing biodiversity</a> and impacting ecosystem health.



Climate change adds another considerable layer of threat, with precipitation patterns changing and climatic extremities, like heavy rainfall and droughts, predicted to escalate.&nbsp;



These changes in climate not only affect the growth and survival of plant species but also disrupt the delicate balance of grassland ecosystems.&nbsp;



When these two changes intersect, they can intensify each other. This creates a synergistic effect that worsens the challenges faced by grassland ecosystems. As a result, the future of these vital landscapes becomes uncertain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-land-use-and-climate-change-interaction">Land-use and climate change interaction</h2>



A unique large-scale, long-term experiment conducted at the <a href="https://www.ufz.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UFZ</a> in Bad Lauchstädt near Halle, known as the Global Change Experimental Facility (<a href="https://www.ufz.de/index.php?en=42385" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GCEF</a>), has assisted in understanding the combined effects of these changes. 



The experiment manipulated varying degrees of land use intensity, temperatures, and precipitation levels on 50 plots, each sized 16 x 24 m.&nbsp;



Specific plots were given 10% more rainfall during spring and autumn and 20% lesser in summer, mirroring the climatic conditions expected for Central Germany.



This experiment yielded an eight-year data collection, used to conduct an in-depth study between 2015 and 2022, included in the research publication.&nbsp;



The period constituted three of the driest years in recorded regional history. The droughts seemingly had greater impact on the plants than the simulated climate change during the study period.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diverse-grassland-for-intense-climates">Diverse grassland for intense climates</h2>



The study revealed that species-rich grassland, which is less frequently mown or sparsely grazed, coped better with heat and drought than the high-yielding meadows under heavy use.&nbsp;



The difference lies in biodiversity, which varied greatly depending on the land use of the grasslands.



The less intensively used meadows and pastures had a diverse mix of over 50 native grasses and herbs, while the high-intensity grassland had only five types of grass recommended for drier sites.&nbsp;



These high-yield varieties are bred for maximum productivity. They are heavily fertilized and perform exceptionally well under favorable climatic conditions. However, they struggle during drought.



In such situations, the high-intensity meadows saw a marked decrease in these grasses and an increase in short-lived species that survive as seeds.&nbsp;



These new species are usually of lower fodder quality, reducing the productivity of the land.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-migration-in-high-performance-grassland">Migration in high-performance grassland</h2>



Farmers are familiar with this degradation of high-performance grasslands due to migrating species and regularly plough up and re-seed their land.



However, climate change might accelerate this process, adding extra costs and unpredictable conditions. Farmers relying solely on intensive grassland stand to bear higher economic risks.



On the contrary, low-intensity meadows and pastures not only help preserve biodiversity but also stabilise grassland productivity during&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/understanding-the-impact-of-climate-change-at-the-national-level/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>.&nbsp;



Understanding these findings is crucial. Implementing solutions accordingly is essential. This helps preserve our invaluable grassland ecosystems. Responsible management is key.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-native-species-and-genetic-diversity">Native species and genetic diversity</h2>



Planting a variety of native species that are well-adapted to local conditions can improve the resilience of grasslands.&nbsp;



These species are more likely to withstand climatic variations and pest outbreaks, reducing the need for chemical interventions.&nbsp;



Maintaining genetic diversity in livestock herds is crucial. It helps animals cope with environmental stressors. This support leads to a more robust agricultural system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-policy-and-community-engagement">Policy and community engagement</h2>



Effective grassland management requires supportive policies and community involvement.&nbsp;



Governments and organizations need to offer incentives for sustainable practices. They should also educate farmers about the benefits of biodiversity. Additionally, understanding ecosystem services is crucial for long-term success.



Community engagement programs can foster a sense of stewardship and collective action towards preserving these vital landscapes.



By incorporating these sustainable practices, we can ensure that grassland&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grasslands-crucial-role-global-agriculture-environment-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a>&nbsp;remain productive, resilient, and rich in biodiversity, securing their role in food production and environmental health for future generations.



The full study was published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.17418" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Change Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read?&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a>&nbsp;for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a>&nbsp;and Earth.com.



-----

Some grassland ecosystems handle climate change better than others

Grassland ecosystems, contributing to over a quarter of the world's...

For centuries, the seemingly stable world of zooplankton, specifically the water flea, Daphnia pulex, has captivated biologists interested in natural selection. 



These minute yet fascinating crustaceans, often invisible to the naked eye, play a critical and multifaceted role in aquatic ecosystems. 



They are a primary food source for many fish species. They also help regulate the populations of algae and other microorganisms. This regulation maintains the delicate balance of their habitats.



A recent study has reaffirmed the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-deep-sea-crustacean-species-discovered-in-the-bahamas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecological significance</a> of our environment. It offers a unique perspective on the mystery of evolution.



This research provides new insights into the intricate mechanisms behind genetic adaptation and also sheds light on the importance of biodiversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-daphnia-s-genetic-secrets">Daphnia's genetic secrets</h2>



This groundbreaking research, conducted over a decade, involved scientists from&nbsp;<a href="https://www.asu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arizona State University</a>&nbsp;(ASU),&nbsp;<a href="https://english.ccnu.edu.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Central China Normal University</a>, and the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Notre Dame</a>.&nbsp;



The team analyzed DNA samples from nearly 1,000 Daphnia, aiming to understand the dynamics of natural selection in this species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fluctuating-force-of-natural-selection">Fluctuating force of natural selection</h2>



The researchers made a very significant discovery. The strength of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coexisting-lizards-challenge-what-we-know-about-natural-selection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural</a> selection on individual genes fluctuates drastically from year to year, even in seemingly constant environments. 



This surprising and dynamic oscillation could be key for better adaptation to changing environments. It allows populations to stay flexible and responsive. Over time, this helps them cope with varying selective pressures.



Such insights deepen our understanding of evolutionary processes. They highlight the complex interplay between genetics and environmental factors.



"Even in seemingly constant environments, we detected profound fluctuations in the frequency of gene variants at specific chromosomal regions over time," explains Michael Lynch, the lead author of the study and director of the Biodesign Center for Mechanisms of Evolution at ASU.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-natural-selection">Rethinking natural selection</h2>



These findings challenge the conventional belief. Analyzing genetic diversity and divergence does not easily reveal how natural selection operates. The evidence suggests a more complex relationship than previously understood.



Instead, natural selection appears to function with a higher level of subtlety and complexity than previously acknowledged.



The study revealed that most genetic sites experience varying selection, with an average effect close to zero, indicating little consistent selection pressure over different times.&nbsp;



This fluctuation in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-ice-decline-changes-the-behavior-of-zooplankton/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic variation</a> allows populations to remain highly adaptable to environmental changes. 



Gene variants, also known as alleles, are different versions of the same gene that can result in different traits.



Furthermore, the research showed that genes located near each other on chromosomes tend to evolve in a coordinated manner.&nbsp;



This linkage allows for beneficial combinations of gene variants to be inherited together, potentially accelerating the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-songbirds-are-masters-of-memory-and-adaptation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adaptation</a>&nbsp;process.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-water-fleas-to-ecosystem-resilience">From water fleas to ecosystem resilience</h2>



Understanding how Daphnia evolve through natural selection offers valuable insights. It reveals the resilience of entire ecosystems. 



This knowledge could help us predict the impacts of environmental changes. It can also aid in mitigating effects on biodiversity and food webs.



By examining the genetic variations and adaptations of these&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-crustaceans-have-what-it-takes-to-survive-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tiny crustaceans</a>, scientists can better grasp the underlying mechanisms that enable ecosystems to endure and thrive amidst shifting environmental conditions.&nbsp;



"This study has, for the first time, given us a glimpse into the kinds of temporal changes in gene frequencies that occur even in seemingly constant environments, a sort of ongoing churn of genetic variation distributed across the genome," Lynch states.



This research is crucial for predicting how species might adapt to changing environments, including those caused by climate change.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-harnessing-daphnia-insights-for-modern-environmental-challenges">Harnessing Daphnia insights for modern environmental challenges</h2>



This groundbreaking research on Daphnia pulex not only enhances our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ecosystem-behavior-earth-first-sea-creatures-stirring-water-drove-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a> but also has far-reaching potential applications in various fields, ranging from conservation biology to climate change adaptation strategies. 



We are facing unprecedented environmental challenges. Habitat loss, pollution, and global warming are major issues. Understanding nature's remarkable ability to adapt and be resilient is more important than ever.



This study reveals important insights about genetic variability and natural selection. These findings provide a strong foundation for new methods in biodiversity conservation. They also pave the way for improved ecosystem management.



By deepening our understanding of evolutionary dynamics, we can anticipate environmental stressors more effectively. 



This knowledge helps us mitigate their impacts. Ultimately, it contributes to the health and stability of our planet's ecosystems.



The full study was published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2307107121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read?&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a>&nbsp;for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a>&nbsp;and Earth.com.



-----

Life's rules of natural selection change significantly and very often

For centuries, the seemingly stable world of zooplankton, specifically the water...

Thought Mars was just a barren, rusty desert? Well, it may be time to rewrite the science textbooks. NASA's Perseverance rover has thrown us a curveball, a potentially discovering remnants of microbial life in a rock on Mars that may revolutionize our understanding of life beyond Earth.



Enter the 'Cheyava Falls' -- an oddly intriguing rock discovered on Mars, bearing tantalizing hints pointing towards the possibility of ancient microbial life.



“We have designed the route for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-perseverance-rover-now-uses-ai-search-minerals-life-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Perseverance</a> to ensure that it goes to areas with the potential for interesting scientific samples,” explained Nicola Fox, associate administrator, Science Mission Directorate at <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA Headquarters</a> in Washington.



“This trip through the Neretva Vallis riverbed paid off as we found something we’ve never seen before, which will give our scientists so much to study.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-on-mars-in-cheyava-falls-rock">Life on Mars in Cheyava Falls rock?</h2>



Located on the northern edge of the Neretva Vallis, an ancient Martian river valley, the Cheyava Falls rock is unique. Its characteristics have tickled the curiosity of scientists and have led to the detection of organic compounds within it.



The rover's scientific instruments, including <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/jpl/the-detective-aboard-nasas-perseverance-rover/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SHERLOC</a> (Scanning Habitable Environments with Raman &amp; Luminescence for Organics &amp; Chemicals), have detected organic compounds within the rock.



These compounds, considered the building blocks of life, raise the <a href="https://youtu.be/I7v_xuCDwnM?list=PLTiv_XWHnOZqCrMU2ppcLjRn1zlDkNx3q" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tantalizing possibility that Mars may have once harbored life</a>.



“This is the kind of key observation that SHERLOC was built for -- to seek organic matter as it is an essential component of a search for past life,” enthused SHERLOC’s principal investigator Kevin Hand of NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (<a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JPL</a>) in Southern California, which manages the mission.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extraordinary-rock-in-jezero-crater">Extraordinary rock in Jezero Crater</h2>



Cheyava Falls is no ordinary rock, as described by Ken Farley, the Perseverance project scientist from Caltech, "the most puzzling, complex, and potentially important rock yet <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lake-sediments-found-in-jezero-crater-hint-at-past-life-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">investigated by Perseverance</a>."



This unusual rock sports several intriguing features including colorful spots that hint at chemical reactions, evidence of past water flow, and the presence of organic material.



These elements, in combination, suggest that Cheyava Falls may be a link to Mars' ancient past and its mysteries.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/mars-rock_Cheyava-Falls_Jezero-Crater_leopard-spots_ancient-life_Perseverance-rover_NASA_1s.jpg" alt="&quot;Leopard spots&quot; hint at microbial life on Mars in reddish rock named &quot;Cheyava Falls&quot; in Jezero Crater on Mars. Credit: NASA" class="wp-image-1939965"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">"Leopard spots" hint at microbial life on Mars in reddish rock named "Cheyava Falls" in Jezero Crater on Mars. Credit: NASA</figcaption></figure>



“On the one hand, we have our first compelling detection of organic material, distinctive colorful spots indicative of chemical reactions that microbial life could use as an energy source, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/perseverance-rover-samples-bunsen-peak-rock-jezero-crater-martian-lake/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">clear evidence that water</a> -- necessary for life -- once passed through the rock," Farley expounded.



"On the other hand, we have been unable to determine exactly how the rock formed and to what extent nearby rocks may have heated Cheyava Falls and contributed to these features.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-blocks-of-life-in-mars-cheyava-falls-rock">Building blocks of life in Mars' Cheyava Falls rock</h2>



The rock features large white veins of calcium sulfate running along its length. Between these veins are reddish bands, indicating the presence of hematite, a mineral that contributes to Mars' characteristic rusty color.



Upon closer inspection, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-curiosity-rover-makes-surprising-find-under-martian-rock-sulfur-crystals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Perseverance discovered</a> numerous irregularly shaped, millimeter-sized off-white splotches surrounded by black material, resembling leopard spots. 



Using the <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/heres-how-ai-is-changing-nasas-mars-rover-science" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PIXL</a> (Planetary Instrument for X-ray Lithochemistry) instrument, Perseverance found that these black halos contain iron and phosphate.



What adds another layer of complexity to the mystery is the presence of iron, phosphate, and possibly hematite -- minerals often linked to biological processes.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/mars-rock_Cheyava-Falls_Jezero-Crater_leopard-spots_ancient-life_annotated_Perseverance-rover_NASA_1s.jpg" alt="&quot;Leopard spots&quot; hint at microbial life on Mars in reddish rock named &quot;Cheyava Falls&quot; in Jezero Crater on Mars. Credit: NASA" class="wp-image-1939963"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">"Leopard spots" hint at microbial life on Mars in reddish rock named "Cheyava Falls" in Jezero Crater on Mars. Credit: NASA</figcaption></figure>



David Flannery, an astrobiologist from the <a href="https://www.qut.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queensland University of Technology</a>, chimes in, "On Earth, these types of features in rocks are often associated with the fossilized record of microbes living in the subsurface."



This discovery has sparked a flurry of questions and hypotheses.



Was Cheyava Falls the result of mud with organic compounds hardening into rock, with subsequent fluid flows depositing the calcium sulfate veins?



Or could the olivine crystals in the veins actually be magma remnants, suggesting a wholly different formation process?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-returning-rocks-a-giant-leap-in-space-exploration">Returning Rocks: A Giant Leap in Space Exploration</h2>



To crack this Martian mystery, the scientific community needs more than just remote data.



“We have zapped that rock with lasers and X-rays and imaged it literally day and night from just about every angle imaginable,” Farley concluded.



“Scientifically, Perseverance has nothing more to give. To fully understand what really happened in that Martian river valley at Jezero Crater <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-may-have-once-been-a-cradle-for-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">billions of years ago</a>, we’d want to bring the Cheyava Falls sample back to Earth, so it can be studied with the powerful instruments available in laboratories.”



The return of Martian samples marks a significant milestone in planetary science. With these samples on Earth, researchers can use advanced technologies to examine the rock's composition, structure, and potential biological signatures more closely.



This could finally answer questions about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/searching-for-life-on-mars-quest-continues/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">presence of ancient life on Mars</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uncharted-territory-where-do-we-go-from-here">Uncharted territory: Where do we go from here?</h2>



As the Perseverance mission ventures further into the Martian landscape, we wait with bated breath for the next reveal. Its methodical, inch-by-inch exploration adds to our knowledge about Mars' past and its potential to support life.



The Cheyava Falls discovery has brought with it an exhilarating mixture of challenges that scientists are chomping at the bit to solve.



Whether or not life ever existed on Mars, the contributions of the Perseverance and future missions will continue to enrich our understanding of Mars and the wider cosmos.



As we delve deeper into the Martian mysteries and set our sights on other celestial bodies, we can expect to uncover more secrets about our solar system's history and the potential for life beyond Earth.



So, the next time you're stargazing, remember: The universe is full of mysteries, and we've only just started the journey. Imagine what we’ll find next!



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

NASA: Perseverance rover finds best evidence yet for life on Mars

Thought Mars was just a barren, rusty desert? Well, it...

Neutron stars, the remnants of massive stellar bodies that shoot massive jets as they undergo gravitational collapse, are among the most fascinating enigmas in the night sky.



These incredibly dense objects, formed from the cores of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernova explosions</a>, pack a mass greater than that of our Sun into a sphere just a few miles across, often emitting powerful jets.



Recently, astronomers at the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a> captured an extraordinary spectacle for the first time—an S-shaped jet bursting forth from a neutron star, resembling a humble garden sprinkler. 



This intriguing discovery occurred in the Circinus X-1 binary system, nearly 30,000 light-years from Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-circinus-x-1-neutron-star-reveals-s-shaped-jet">Circinus X-1: Neutron star reveals S-shaped jet</h2>



The Circinus X-1 system itself is a marvel, hosting a neutron star that is estimated to be one of the youngest known <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/truth-behind-ultraluminous-x-ray-source-of-cygnus-x3-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">X-ray binaries</a>, at about 4,600 years old.



The discovery of the S-shaped jet is a first for neutron stars. This phenomenon provides astronomers a unique study opportunity. 



They can now explore the extreme physics behind these jets. It also allows them to examine the intense gravitational and magnetic fields at play.



This breakthrough not only enhances our understanding of neutron stars but also opens new avenues for <a href="https://youtu.be/cN-DQe4MGJ0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exploring the dynamic processes of our universe</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmic-ballet-of-dual-star-systems">Cosmic ballet of dual star systems</h2>



For those unfamiliar with astronomical jargon, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supermassive-binary-black-holes-secrets-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">binary systems</a> are essentially a duet of stars that gravitate towards each other. 



In the case of Circinus X-1, one player in this cosmic band is a neutron star. 



Both neutron stars and black holes are born when the universe's most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-clues-about-the-brightest-gamma-ray-burst-of-all-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gargantuan</a> stars meet their end and crumple under their own weight. 



However, black holes are considerably more massive and elusive, only detectable via their gravitational effects. On the other hand, neutron stars, despite their density, can be directly observed.



Using the MeerKAT radio telescope in South Africa, the researchers captured the highest resolution pictures of Circinus X-1 to date.



These photographs, unveiled at a recent National Astronomy Meeting, capture an S-shaped jet emanating from a confirmed neutron star for the first time, a significant step towards deciphering the mind-bending physics behind these cosmic occurrences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neutron-stars-and-extreme-physics">Neutron stars and extreme physics</h2>



According to the lead researcher, Fraser Cowie, this isn't the first instance of S-shaped jets discovery. An object known as SS433 also boasted similar jets, but recent findings suggest it's likely a black hole. 



"This image is the first time we have seen strong evidence for a precessing jet from a confirmed neutron star," Cowie affirmed. 



The piece de resistance of their findings is the high-speed, wide shockwave, indicative of a shift in direction for these jets, which throws light on the complex physics behind their launch.



An intense gravitational force, due to the star's immense density, siphons gas from its partner star, forming a swirling hot disc around it. 



This phenomenon, termed as 'accretion,' generates more energy per second than a million Suns. A portion of this energy results in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-discovery-twin-stars-with-parallel-disks-and-jets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">jets</a>, beams of outflowing matter from the binary system, hurtling close to the speed of light.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-s-shaped-jet-in-circinus-x-1">S-shaped jet in Circinus X-1</h2>



Installing latest upgrades to the <a href="https://www.sarao.ac.za/gallery/meerkat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MeerKAT telescope</a> brought about well-defined images, and clear evidence of an S-shaped jet, akin to water spiraling out from a garden sprinkler, was seen in Circinus X-1's jet.



Moreover, the researchers also discovered moving termination shocks for the first time in an X-ray binary. These shocks appear when the jet collides with its surroundings at a high velocity, creating a shockwave.



According to Cowie's team's measurements, these shock waves are moving at around 10% of the speed of light, solidifying their belief of the shockwaves being a consequence of the high-speed jet. 



The wide span of these shockwaves concurs with their model, providing further proof of the neutron star jet's precession.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-golden-era-for-astronomical-exploration">A golden era for astronomical exploration</h2>



Circinus X-1, despite being one of the brightest objects in the X-ray sky and having been studied for over half a century, remains a mystery. 



"Several aspects of its behavior are not well explained, so it's very rewarding to help shed new light on this system, building on 50 years of work from others," said Cowie.



The journey does not end here, though. The next steps involve monitoring jets over time, leading to a precise measurement of their distinct properties and unveiling more of their enigmatic nature. 



This groundbreaking exploration is part of the X-KAT and ThunderKAT projects on the MeerKAT telescope operated by the South African Radio Astronomy Observatory (<a href="https://www.sarao.ac.za" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SARAO</a>), with observations executed using the recently installed S-band receivers from the Max-Planck Institute (<a href="https://www.mpg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MPG</a>).



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Extraordinary garden-sprinkler-shaped jet found in distant neutron star

Neutron stars, the remnants of massive stellar bodies that shoot...

Earth’s atmosphere contains an immense amount of water, enough to fill Utah’s Great Salt Lake 800 times. This vast resource has the potential to pull clean drinking water out of thin air for billions of people facing global shortages.



Existing atmospheric water harvesting (AWH) technologies are hindered by size, cost, and efficiency issues. 



However, research led by a team of scientists at the <a href="https://www.utah.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Utah</a> has offered promising advancements that could revolutionize this field. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-transforming-dry-air-into-water">Transforming dry air into water</h2>



The study introduces a compact, fuel-fired AWH device that relies on adsorbent materials to draw <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stunning-discovery-earths-building-blocks-contained-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water molecules</a> from the air and release them as liquid through heat application.



This amazing prototype, developed by senior author Sameer Rao and graduate student Nathan Ortiz, uses a specific type of hygroscopic material called a metal-organic framework. 



“Hygroscopic materials intrinsically have affinity to water. They soak up water wherever you go,” Rao explained. This material, similar to the absorbent found in diapers, is designed to selectively adsorb water vapor from the air.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rearranging-molecules">Rearranging molecules</h2>



Rao compares the metal-organic frameworks to Lego blocks, which can be rearranged to create molecules ideal for gas separation. 



“They can make it specific to adsorb water vapor from the air and nothing else. They're really selective,” he said. The prototype employs aluminum fumarate, fashioned into panels that collect water as air is drawn through. 



“The water molecules themselves get trapped on the surfaces of our material, and that's a reversible process. There are so many sites for water molecules to get stuck,” Ortiz added.



Just a gram of this material holds as much surface area as two football fields, enabling it to capture a significant amount of water. “All of this surface area is at the molecular scale,” Rao said. 



“And that's awesome for us because we want to trap water vapor onto that surface area within the pores of this material.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-from-air-for-soldiers-and-civilians">Water from air for soldiers and civilians</h2>



The research received funding from the <a href="https://www.t2.army.mil/T2-Laboratories/Designated-Laboratories/DEVCOM-Soldier-Center/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DEVCOM Soldier Center</a>, a Department of Defense program aimed at technology transfer to support Army modernization. 



The Army’s interest lies in providing soldiers with a compact water generation unit, reducing the need to carry large water canteens. 



“We specifically looked at this for defense applications so that soldiers have a small compact water generation unit and don’t need to lug around a large canteen filled with water,” Rao explained. “This would literally produce water on demand.”



Rao and Ortiz have filed for a preliminary patent on the technology, which also addresses civilian needs. 



“As we were designing the system, I think we also had perspective of the broader water problem. It's not just a defense issue, it's very much a civilian issue,” Rao said. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-global-water-shortages">Addressing global water shortages</h2>



The goal is to provide households with enough drinking water, approximately 15 to 20 liters per day.



The proof-of-concept prototype successfully produced five liters of water per day per kilogram of adsorbent material. 



In field conditions, this device would outperform the practicality of packing water within three days, according to Ortiz.



The device’s second step involves precipitating water into liquid by applying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-system-pulls-clean-water-from-the-air-using-only-heat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heat</a>, using a standard Army camping stove. 



“As it collects water, it's releasing little bits of heat. And then to reverse that, we add heat. We just put a flame right under here, anything to get this temperature up. And then as we increase the temperature, we rapidly release the water molecules,” Ortiz explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sustainable-solution-turns-air-into-water">Sustainable solution turns air into water</h2>



While there are many emerging technologies for atmospheric water harvesting, they are typically effective in humid environments but not practical in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deserts-as-carbon-sinks-study-reveals-potential-for-greening-arid-regions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arid regions</a>. 



Ortiz believes their device can be the first to succeed in arid conditions, primarily because it uses energy-dense fuel like white gasoline. 



The team decided against using solar panels due to limitations related to daytime operation and battery storage. 



“If you're reliant on solar panels, you're limited to daytime operation or you need batteries, which is just more weight. This technology is superior in arid conditions, while refrigeration is best in high humidity,” Ortiz said.



The study, published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell-reports-physical-science/fulltext/S2666-3864(24)00393-X?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS266638642400393X%3Fshowall%3Dtrue" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell Reports Physical Science</a>,  marks a significant step toward practical atmospheric water harvesting, offering a potential solution for areas facing chronic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tackling-the-worlds-climate-driven-water-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water shortages</a>. 



With continued development, this technology could play a crucial role in providing sustainable water sources in both military and civilian contexts.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

New machine harvests water from thin air in dry environments

Earth’s atmosphere contains an immense amount of water, enough to...

Astronomers have uncovered the secrets behind an epic collision of two massive galaxy clusters, showing that dark matter and regular matter can actually separate during these huge events.



Located billions of light-years away, these clusters are home to thousands of galaxies and provide deep insights into the complexities of our universe.



When they collided, the dark matter -- an invisible substance affected by gravity but not light -- moved ahead of the normal matter, which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/twisted-galaxies-millions-of-light-years-away-captured-by-the-vlt-telescope/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">includes gas and stars</a>.



What does this mean for our understanding of cosmic structures? 



As we delve deeper into these phenomena, we uncover not just the mechanics of the universe, but also the broader implications that could reshape our comprehension of cosmic interactions and their relevance to the natural world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dark-matter-and-galaxy-clusters">Dark matter and galaxy clusters</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/1500-billion-orphan-stars-discovered-in-the-perseus-galaxy-cluster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Galaxy clusters</a> are immense cosmic structures held together by gravity. Only 15% of their mass is normal matter, primarily hot gas, stars, and planets, while the remaining 85% is dark matter. 



During the collision of the clusters, known collectively as MACS J0018.5+1626, the galaxies themselves mostly remained undamaged due to the vast spaces between them. 



However, the gas between the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/titanic-galaxy-cluster-collision-defies-all-current-understanding-of-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies collided</a>, becoming turbulent and superheated. While both dark and normal matter are influenced by gravity, the normal matter also interacts via electromagnetism, which slowed it down during the collision. 



Consequently, the dark matter moved ahead, decoupling from the normal matter.



“The dark matter is like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/existence-of-dark-matter-confirmed-by-new-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sand and flies ahead</a>,” said lead author Emily Silich, a graduate student working with Jack Sayers, a research professor of physics at <a href="https://www.caltech.edu/">Caltech</a> and principal investigator of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-macs-j0018-5-is-a-treasure-trove">MACS J0018.5 is a treasure trove</h2>



A similar decoupling of dark and normal matter was previously observed in the Bullet Cluster. However, the orientation of the <a href="https://youtu.be/t7FBmBj7p0U" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MACS J0018.5 collision was different, providing a unique perspective</a>. 



“With the Bullet Cluster, it's like we are sitting in a grandstand watching a car race,” Sayers said. “In our case, it's more like we are on the straightaway with a radar gun, standing in front of a car as it comes at us and are able to obtain its speed.”



To measure the speed of the gas in the cluster, researchers employed the kinetic Sunyaev-Zel'dovich (SZ) effect. 



This effect occurs when photons from the cosmic microwave background scatter off electrons in hot gas, causing a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astronomers-discover-planetary-system-that-resembles-tatooine-from-star-wars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Doppler shift</a>. By measuring this shift, scientists can determine the speed of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sign-of-life-found-in-the-clouds-surrounding-venus/">gas clouds</a> within galaxy clusters.



“The Sunyaev-Zeldovich effects were still a very new observational tool when Jack and I first turned a new camera at the CSO on galaxy clusters in 2006,” said Sunil Golwala, a professor of physics and Silich's faculty PhD advisor. 



“We look forward to a slew of new surprises when we put next-generation instruments on the telescope at its new home in Chile.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-normal-and-dark-matter-separate-in-clusters">Normal and dark matter separate in clusters</h2>



By 2019, researchers had used the kinetic SZ effect to measure the gas speed in several galaxy clusters and Keck Observatory data to determine the speed of the galaxies, which also indicates the dark matter's speed. 



However, they noticed an anomaly in MACS J0018.5: the hot gas was moving in the opposite direction to the dark matter. Initially, they thought it might be a data error. 



“We had this complete oddball with velocities in opposite directions,” Sayers explained. "And then Emily got involved and untangled everything.”



Silich used data from the <a href="https://chandra.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chandra X-ray Observatory</a> to analyze the temperature and location of the gas and its shock levels. “These cluster collisions are the most energetic phenomena since the Big Bang," she said. 



The team also collaborated with Adi Zitrin from <a href="https://www.bgu.ac.il/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ben-Gurion University of the Negev</a> in Israel to map the dark matter using gravitational lensing and with John ZuHone from the <a href="https://www.cfa.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for Astrophysics at Harvard Smithsonian</a> to simulate the cluster collision.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cluster-collisions-and-dark-matter-discoveries">Cluster collisions and dark matter discoveries</h2>



The researchers discovered that the clusters, before colliding, were moving toward each other at about 3000 kilometers per second. 



The collision's orientation and the separation of dark and normal matter explained the odd velocity measurements. 



This research provides a new method to directly probe the behavior of dark matter, offering insights into its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-matter-might-be-driving-force-behind-black-hole-mergers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mysterious nature</a>.



“This study is a starting point to more detailed studies into the nature of dark matter,” Silich said. “We have a new type of direct probe that shows how dark matter behaves differently from normal matter.”



In the future, more studies like this one could reveal additional clues about dark matter, helping scientists understand how such a mysterious substance interacts with the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-map-all-of-the-matter-in-the-universe/">universe</a>.



The discovery utilized data from multiple observatories, including the Caltech Submillimeter Observatory, the W.M. Keck Observatory, NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory, the Hubble Space Telescope, the European Space Agency's Herschel Space Observatory, and the Atacama Submillimeter Telescope Experiment in Chile. Some of the data was collected decades ago, with full analysis occurring over the past few years.



The research is published in the <a href="https://authors.library.caltech.edu/records/7zhx0-mvp60" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astrophysical Journal</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Dark matter seen separating from normal matter after galaxy cluster collision

Astronomers have uncovered the secrets behind an epic collision of...

New research led by the <a href="https://www.uea.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of East Anglia</a> (UEA) and the <a href="https://www.pml.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plymouth Marine Laboratory</a> (PML) has revealed that the Southern Ocean absorbs significantly more carbon dioxide (CO2) than previously estimated. 



The study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adn5781" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>, used direct measurements of CO2 exchange between the air and sea, uncovering that the ocean around Antarctica takes in 25% more CO2 than earlier indirect estimates suggested.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-southern-ocean-co2-absorption-nbsp">Southern Ocean CO2 absorption&nbsp;</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-southern-ocean-has-the-cleanest-air-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Southern Ocean</a> plays a critical role in absorbing CO2 produced by human activities, a vital process for regulating Earth's climate. However, previous estimates of this CO2 absorption have been plagued by uncertainty, largely because they relied on indirect measurements from research ships, sail drones, profiling floats, and global ocean biogeochemistry models. These methods produced widely varying results.



To address this issue, the new study employed a technique called eddy covariance, which involves mounting flux systems on ships’ foremasts to directly measure air-sea CO2 fluxes. This method was applied during seven research cruises in the region, providing more accurate data.&nbsp;



The results indicate that the Southern Ocean is likely a stronger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/good-news-plants-are-absorbing-more-human-produced-co2-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CO2</a> sink than previously thought, especially during the summer.



“This is the first time a large number of direct air-sea CO2 flux observations have been used to assess existing flux products in the Southern Ocean. Our findings provide direct observational evidence that this ocean may take up more CO2 than previously recognized,” explained lead author Yuanxu Dong, a scientist at the <a href="https://www.geomar.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GEOMAR Helmholtz Center for Ocean Research Kiel</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-underestimated-co2-uptake-in-southern-ocean-nbsp">Underestimated CO2 uptake in Southern Ocean&nbsp;</h2>



Accurate measurement of the Southern Ocean’s CO2 absorption is crucial for assessing Earth's climate. The study suggests that previous models underestimated the CO2 uptake due to factors like temperature variations in the upper ocean and insufficient resolution in data sampling.&nbsp;



Dong emphasizes the need for future estimates to include temperature adjustments and higher resolution reconstruction and modeling.



The research team, which included scientists from the <a href="https://www.awi.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alfred Wegener</a> and <a href="https://www.mpg.de/institutes?category=environment-and-climate&amp;tab=institutes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institutes</a> in Germany, the <a href="https://www.vliz.be/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Flanders Marine Institute</a> in Belgium, and the <a href="https://manoa.hawaii.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Hawai'i</a> in the US, tackled inconsistencies in existing CO2 flux estimates. 



The experts utilized the eddy covariance technique to assess these datasets, covering approximately 3300 hours of measurements during the Antarctic summer of 2019 and 2020. These measurements, taken hourly, provided a much clearer picture compared to the less frequent data from floats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



Dr. Mingxi Yang, a co-author and Chemical Oceanographer at PML, highlighted the significance of these findings. “The Southern Ocean is a key sink of CO2, but the magnitudes and the locations of this ocean uptake are uncertain. PML's autonomous and high-frequency eddy covariance system has significantly increased the number of direct air-sea CO2 flux measurements in this region.”



The study’s comparison between direct CO2 flux measurements and estimates from coarse data products and global models is a first on such a large spatial and temporal scale. It has helped validate these estimates and highlighted ways to improve them.



However, the study also points out a significant gap in winter data, which is challenging to collect due to the harsh conditions in the region. The authors suggest that expanding measurements to more ships and deploying additional buoys and sail drones, particularly during winter, could help fill this gap.&nbsp;



Professor Tom Bell, a co-author and PML Ocean-Atmosphere Biogeochemist, noted the importance of continued high-quality observations.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forecasting-future-climate-changes-nbsp">Forecasting future climate changes&nbsp;</h2>



“We have recently moved our flux system onto the new ice breaker, the RRS Sir David Attenborough, and collected the first set of flux measurements during a research cruise in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-is-sea-ice-loss-affecting-biodiversity-in-the-weddell-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Weddell Sea</a> earlier this year. We aim to continue this valuable work over the coming years, which is essential for monitoring the current climate and forecasting future changes.”



The researchers also raised concerns about the decline in shipboard surface ocean CO2 measurements in recent years, partly due to the COVID-19 pandemic and reduced funding.&nbsp;



Dr. Dorothee Bakker, of UEA’s COAS and chair of SOCAT, stressed the need for sustained and expanded funding for these measurements to better understand and constrain Southern Ocean CO2 uptake and support global climate monitoring initiatives.



This groundbreaking research underscores the importance of the Southern Ocean in absorbing CO2 and the need for improved and continuous measurements to refine our understanding of its role in the global carbon cycle and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-surprising-role-of-low-relief-mountain-ranges-in-climate-regulation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate regulation</a>.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-">-----</h3>



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h--0">-----</h3>

Southern Ocean absorbs more CO2 than previously thought

New research led by the University of East Anglia (UEA)...

There's a new neighbor in our cosmic backyard. In what is nothing short of a cosmic revelation, the Webb telescope (JWST) has captured the image of a gargantuan super-Jupiter, Eps Ind Ab, lurking in the vicinity of our solar system.



"We were excited when we realize we had imaged this new planet," said the seasoned researcher Elisabeth Matthews from the <a href="https://www.mpia.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Astronomy</a> in Heidelberg, Germany.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovery-of-super-jupiter-eps-ind-ab">Discovery of super-Jupiter 'Eps Ind Ab'</h2>



The thrill of discovery was, however, coupled with surprise as the bright spot in the Webb Telescope images did not match the expected position of the planet.&nbsp;



This discrepancy led Elisabeth Matthews and her team to dig deeper, resulting in the revelation that previous studies had underestimated the planet's weight and orbit. But thanks to <a href="https://webb.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JWST</a>, the record was set straight.



The planet, now identified as Eps Ind Ab, revolves around the prime star of the triple star system Epsilon Indi.&nbsp;



Eps Ind Ab is a super-Jupiter, having a mass six times that of our solar system's Jupiter. Its eccentric, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exoplanet-discovered-with-bizarre-cucumber-shaped-orbit/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elliptical orbit</a> takes it on a journey between 20 and 40 astronomical units away from its sun, Eps Ind A.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-super-jupiter-discovery">Significance of super-Jupiter discovery</h2>



Understanding this exotic planet's existence and location brings a new dimension to our understanding of planetary evolution. 



Until now, only a few <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exoplanet-discovery-nasa-identifies-over-5500-distant-worlds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cold gas-giant planets</a> have been identified around stars of solar age, and these were inferred indirectly from radial velocity measurements.



The colder the planet, the more challenging it is to find with classical detection methods. And large, wide orbits are seldom aligned with our line of sight to provide a transit signal. Hence, the discovery and imaging of super-Jupiter is indeed a rare feat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-astronomers-found-eps-ind-ab">How astronomers found 'Eps Ind Ab'</h2>



How did the team manage to circumvent these challenges and image Eps Ind Ab? They employed innovative technology - JWST's MIRI (Mid-Infrared Instrument) camera equipped with a coronagraph.&nbsp;



The coronagraph acts as a light-blocking mask, allowing distant, faint celestial bodies to be observed without the blinding starlight interference. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/super-jupiter_Eps-Ind-Ab_Webb-telescope_NASA_1s.jpg" alt="Super-Jupiter exoplanet Epsilon Indi Ab (Eps Ind Ab) directly imaged by Webb telescope. Credit: NASA" class="wp-image-1939945"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Super-Jupiter exoplanet Epsilon Indi Ab (Eps Ind Ab) directly imaged by Webb telescope. Credit: NASA</figcaption></figure>



Couple this with the fact that Eps Ind is only 12 light-years away from Earth, and you have a perfect setup to observe and image an exoplanet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysteries-of-super-jupiter">Mysteries of super-Jupiter</h2>



Upon closer analysis of the data, Elisabeth Matthews and her team observed that the point of light in the image was not in the predicted location for the exoplanet. 



After careful scrutiny and comparison with previous data, the team concluded that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-identified-85-new-exoplanets-that-could-harbor-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet</a> was indeed a super-Jupiter.



As we delve deeper, we find that it’s not just the size and location of Eps Ind Ab that is intriguing. Its atmosphere is also a matter of interest to the astronomers.&nbsp;



The data suggests that the exoplanet may have significant amounts of heavy elements, including carbon. This translates to the likely presence of molecules such as methane, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide, typically seen in gas-giant planets.&nbsp;



Alternatively, the super-Jupiter could have a cloudy atmosphere. Researchers are eager to explore the atmospheric composition further through ongoing studies. This could reveal more about its characteristics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eps-ind-ab-and-the-next-frontier">'Eps Ind Ab' and the next frontier</h2>



While this revelation is a giant leap in exoplanet research, the road ahead is long.



“Our next goal is to obtain spectra which provide us a detailed fingerprint of the planet’s climatology and chemical composition,” says Thomas Henning, Emeritus Director at MPIA, co-PI of the MIRI instrument, and a co-author of the underlying article.



“In the long run, we hope to also observe other nearby planetary systems to hunt for cold gas giants that may have escaped detection,” says Matthews. 



“Such a survey would serve as the basis for a better understanding of how gas planets form and evolve.”



So, as we gaze up into the night sky, let's take a moment to marvel at the exciting mysteries it holds and the scientific pursuits aiming to unravel them.&nbsp;



After all, the universe is not just about stars and galaxies; it's also about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nearby-exoplanet-lhs-1140-b-best-chance-yet-finding-alien-ocean-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cold gas giants</a> like Eps Ind Ab that offer a new perspective on our understanding of the cosmos.



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07837-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



-----



Like what you read?&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a>&nbsp;for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a>&nbsp;and Earth.com.



-----

Super-Jupiter exoplanet 'Eps Ind Ab' directly imaged by Webb telescope

There's a new neighbor in our cosmic backyard. In what...

Woman,And,Ai,Robot,Working,Together,In,The,Office,,Automation

Large language models (LLMs) have impressive, yet sometimes confusing capability. These tools have the power to help graduate students draft emails, or guide a clinician in diagnosing cancer. 



Their applications are endless, but so are the questions on how best to evaluate these models.



The research is coming to us from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (<a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a>), a group of researchers has taken a different approach to understand LLM’s better. 



Let's learn about their new perspective, which places <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-ai-systems-learn-like-the-human-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human beliefs</a> and expectations center stage in the evaluation process.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-machine-learning-and-language-models">Machine learning and language models</h2>



The research team hailing from MIT involved a trio of specialists from diverse fields. 



The study’s co-author Ashesh Rambachan, an assistant professor of economics, and a principal investigator in the Laboratory for Information and Decision Systems (LIDS), was a driving force behind this research. 



He was joined by lead author Keyon Vafa, a postdoc at <a href="https://www.harvard.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard University</a>, and Sendhil Mullainathan, an MIT professor. 



This unique perspective of their research will be presented at the International Conference on Machine Learning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-belief-and-generalization">Human belief and generalization</h2>



The research pivoted around the concept of human generalization - how we form and update our beliefs about an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-outperforms-humans-in-creativity-tests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LLM’s capabilities</a>.



You've probably done it yourself; you see someone ace grammar correction and generalize that they would also be great at sentence construction.



That's precisely what we do with language models. However, Rambachan points out that these LLMs aren’t, in fact, human, which is why our generalizations can lead to unexpected model failures. 



Gearing their research around this, the team introduced a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-perform-better-when-they-think-ai-is-helping-them/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human generalization</a> function to evaluate the alignment between humans' beliefs and LLM performance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-survey-says">The survey says. . .</h2>



So, how did the team approach this exciting endeavor? The researchers designed a survey to measure how people generalize when they interact with LLMs. 



Participants were shown questions that a person or LLM got right or wrong and were asked to predict the performance on a related question. 



As a result, a dataset of nearly 19,000 examples was generated to provide an insight into how humans form beliefs about LLM performance across 79 diverse tasks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measure-misalignment-in-language-models">Measure misalignment in language models</h2>



The survey results unfolded a fascinating pattern. Participants did pretty well at predicting a human's performance but fumbled when it came to foreseeing the LLM’s performance. 



"Human generalization gets applied to language models, but that breaks down because these language models don’t show patterns of expertise like people would," Rambachan rightly pointed out.



Another interesting finding was that humans were more likely to update their beliefs about an LLM's performance when it got a question wrong. 



Simpler models seemed to outperform very large models, like GPT-4, in such scenarios. The researchers speculate that this could be because we are not as accustomed to interacting with LLMs as we are with humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-model-development">Implications for model development</h2>



The findings from this research hold significant implications for the future development of language models. 



As the researchers highlight, understanding how human beliefs shape our expectations of LLMs can inform model design and training methodologies. 



By incorporating insights into human generalization patterns, developers can create models that are not only more robust but also align more closely with user expectations. 



This could lead to enhanced transparency in model capabilities, facilitating better integration of LLMs into real-world applications.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-language-models">Future research on language models</h2>



As this investigation underscores the complex relationship between human belief systems and LLM performance, a wealth of opportunities for future research emerges. 



Questions surrounding how different demographics interact with LLMs, or how context affects human generalization, remain largely unexplored. 



Additional studies could focus on refining the human generalization function to improve alignment measures or delving deeper into the psychological aspects of belief formation and adjustment in response to LLM capabilities. 



Exploring these avenues could ultimately lead to more effective and user-friendly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-intelligence-boosts-creativity-but-reduces-variety/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">artificial intelligence technologies</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-road-ahead">The road ahead</h2>



Armed with these insights, the researchers are excited to conduct further studies on how people's beliefs about LLMs evolve over time as they interact with a model more frequently. 



They also aim to understand how human generalization could be incorporated into the development of LLMs right from the start.



In the meantime, they hope that their dataset could be used as a benchmark to measure the LLM's performance related to the human generalization function. This could indeed revolutionize the performance of models deployed in real-world situations.



"When we are training these algorithms in the first place, or trying to update them with human feedback, we need to account for the human generalization function in how we think about measuring performance," the researchers remind us.



This research was funded, in part, by the Harvard Data Science Initiative and the Center for Applied AI at the <a href="https://www.chicagobooth.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Chicago Booth School of Business</a>.



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2406.01382" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arXiv</a>.



-----



Like what you read?&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a>&nbsp;for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a>&nbsp;and Earth.com.



-----

Humans often misjudge and place too much trust in AI performance

Large language models (LLMs) have impressive, yet sometimes confusing capability....

Climate change brings numerous challenges, with 'managed retreat' emerging as a crucial strategy for adaptation. 



As communities worldwide face escalating&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seeking-ways-to-prevent-flooding-caused-by-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flooding</a>&nbsp;risks, many are considering or being advised to relocate to safer, more resilient areas.&nbsp;



This proactive approach to managing risk is already in action. Flood-prone regions like Louisiana and Alaska are leading the way. Communities are taking decisive steps to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-outrun-the-flood-risks-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">protect their futures</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strategic-retreat-from-risk">Strategic retreat from risk</h2>



The concept of managed retreat focuses on strategically retreating from areas at high risk of&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aral-sea-dust-emissions-have-doubled-with-major-climate-impacts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate impacts</a>.



“It's retreating from risk, and we hope to provide decision support for the equitable implementation of retreat to build climate resilience,” said Elaina Sutley, associate professor of civil, environmental &amp; architectural engineering at the&nbsp;<a href="https://ku.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Kansas</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-partnership">Global partnership</h2>



Sutley is leading a comprehensive three-year study on managed retreat, valued at approximately $650,000.&nbsp;



This research is titled “Retreating from Risk (RFR): Decision-supports for the equitable implementation of retreat to build <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/green-yards-promote-climate-resilience-in-urban-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate resilience</a>.” 



It is part of a collaboration funded by the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Science Foundation</a> and Canada’s New Frontiers in Research Fund.



This initiative is through the 2023 International Joint Initiative for Research on Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation Competition. Each agency supports scientists at institutions in their respective countries.



“This is multidisciplinary collaboration between partners in the United States, Canada, and Indonesia, who are all faced with flood disasters, whether that's coastal flooding associated with a hurricane or not,” Sutley said.



“Inland flooding, seasonal flooding, and repeated nuisance flooding -- all three of these countries are facing it. Managed retreat has become a somewhat common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-climate-adaptation-lacks-coordination/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adaptation strategy</a>, particularly for flooding. The U.S. team will also consider retreating from wildfire disasters.”



The KU-headed partnership extends beyond the <a href="https://ku.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Kansas</a>, involving <a href="https://www.stonybrook.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stony Brook</a> and <a href="https://www.ttu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Texas Tech</a> universities, as well as researchers abroad. 



This collaborative effort aims to develop effective and fair retreat strategies to address various types of flooding and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-want-to-fight-climate-change-more-than-you-think/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate-related risks</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-managed-retreat">Understanding managed retreat</h2>



The focus of this research extends beyond communities grappling with floods and wildfires; it also aims to inform decision-making for those facing a range of recurrent natural disasters.&nbsp;



The researchers are committed to understanding managed-retreat approaches. They are exploring how these methods are considered and implemented in various geographies, cultures, and nations. 



By examining global practices, they aim to identify common strategies. They also want to highlight necessary adaptations tailored to specific regional challenges.



This comprehensive analysis will help in developing effective, context-sensitive approaches for communities around the world, enhancing their resilience to various climate-related risks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-respecting-indigenous-knowledge">Respecting indigenous knowledge</h2>



In this extensive effort, the team is deeply committed to seeking and incorporating Indigenous knowledge and practices wherever applicable.&nbsp;



They aim to work closely with Indigenous communities, building trust and fostering meaningful partnerships.&nbsp;



By integrating Indigenous perspectives and traditional ecological knowledge, the researchers hope to ensure that their strategies are not only effective but also culturally respectful and inclusive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-barriers-to-managed-retreat">Identifying barriers to managed retreat</h2>



The researchers will also document a range of barriers to adopting managed retreat, including political, financial, cultural, and policy-related challenges.&nbsp;



To gain a comprehensive understanding, data will be collected through a variety of methods, such as surveys, interviews, focus groups, and roundtable discussions. 



This approach ensures that the research captures diverse perspectives from all levels of decision-making.



The ultimate goal is to provide actionable guidance for communities considering managed retreat as a strategic option.&nbsp;



By examining the nuances and varying viewpoints from different communities and stakeholders, the researchers aim to offer tailored recommendations that address specific needs and concerns, facilitating a more informed and equitable decision-making process.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practical-tools-and-immediate-relevance">Practical tools and immediate relevance</h2>



The findings will be instrumental in guiding policymakers, community leaders, and future research efforts.



The ultimate aim is to develop "contextually relevant decision-support tools" that empower community leaders to effectively engage their constituents on managed retreat strategies.



Given the pressing nature of the managed retreat issue, the research is designed to offer practical and timely guidance.&nbsp;



By studying communities at various stages of addressing this challenge, the researchers seek to understand how managed retreat processes unfold in different contexts.&nbsp;



The results are intended to provide both immediate and long-term relevance, ensuring that the recommendations are adaptable to the evolving needs of diverse communities.



-----



Like what you read?&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a>&nbsp;for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a>&nbsp;and Earth.com.



-----

Effective 'managed retreat' strategies for climate-threatened areas

Climate change brings numerous challenges, with 'managed retreat' emerging as a...

When you think about butterflies and moths, what comes to mind? A peaceful scene of these creatures fluttering around flowers, their delicate bodies brushing against petals while they seek nectar. Well, it's time to add another scene to that mental canvas -- one with static electricity.



New research reveals that these insects amass so much static electricity while in flight that they pull pollen towards them from several millimeters or even centimeters away.



Dr. Sam England from <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/biology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bristol's School of Biological Sciences</a> leads a team of researchers that has made this striking discovery. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-butterflies-moths-and-static-electricity">Butterflies, moths, and static electricity</h2>



This fascinating finding holds implications for these insects' effectiveness as high-efficiency pollinators.



Dr. England's team also discovered that the extent of static electricity varies amongst different species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-love-pretty-butterflies-and-that-complicates-data-for-scientists/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterflies and moths</a>. 



These differences align with aspects of their ecology, such as whether they visit flowers, hail from a tropical environment, or are day or night flyers.



This evidence suggests that the quantity of static electricity an animal accumulates is an adaptive trait, making it a candidate for natural selection's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-twist-in-the-evolution-of-plant-pollinator-relationships/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary process</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-accumulation-in-butterflies">Accumulation in butterflies</h2>



“We knew many species accumulate static electricity as they fly, likely through friction with the air. It had been suggested that this static electricity might enhance the pollination capabilities of flower-visiting animals, like bees and hummingbirds, by using electrostatic attraction for pollen," Dr. England elaborates.



So, the intriguing question was whether this principle extends to an array of crucial pollinators such as butterflies and moths. If they, too, accumulate significant charge, could that charge attract pollen onto them?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-factors-behind-static-electricity-in-butterflies">Factors behind static electricity in butterflies</h2>



The team studied 269 butterflies and moths across 11 different species, native to five continents and found in various ecological niches. 



Scientists then compared these species to determine whether ecological factors correlated with their charge. This investigation helps establish static charging as a trait upon which evolution can act.



"A clearer picture is developing of how static electricity's influence in pollination might be powerful and widespread," Dr. England shared. 



"By establishing electrostatic charging as a trait upon which evolution can act, it opens up numerous questions about how and why natural selection might lead to animals benefiting or suffering from the quantity of static electricity they accumulate."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invisible-power-of-pollinators">Invisible power of pollinators</h2>



"We've discovered that butterflies and moths accumulate so much static electricity when flying, that pollen is literally pulled through the air towards them as they approach a flower," Dr. England concluded. 



These creatures can pollinate without even touching flowers, making them incredibly effective at their job and highlighting their crucial contribution to our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-butterfly-migration-sparked-by-a-surge-in-vegetation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-innovation-triggered-by-nature">Innovation triggered by nature</h2>



This study's practical implications are far-reaching. Technology might harness this knowledge to artificially increase pollinators or pollen's electrostatic charges, thereby enhancing pollination rates in natural and agricultural settings.



The insights gained from Dr. England's study could pave the way for innovative strategies in agriculture, particularly in the context of increasing crop yields. 



By manipulating the electrostatic properties of pollen or enhancing the natural static electricity in pollinators like butterflies and moths, farmers could potentially improve the efficiency of pollination processes.



This approach may lead to a reduced need for chemical pollinators and support more sustainable farming practices. 



Moreover, understanding how static electricity influences interactions between flowering plants and their pollinators can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-face-extinction-risk-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">inform conservation efforts</a> aimed at preserving diverse ecosystems that rely on these critical relationships.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-butterflies-and-electricity">Future research on butterflies and electricity</h2>



As the study opens new avenues of inquiry, future research may delve deeper into the genetic and ecological factors that influence the accumulation of static electricity among pollinators. 



Investigating the molecular mechanisms behind this phenomenon could shed light on the evolutionary history of these species and their interactions with various plants. 



Additionally, examining the effects of environmental changes -- such as climate change and habitat loss -- on the electrostatic charging capabilities of butterflies and moths will be crucial in assessing the resilience of pollination systems.



This line of research may also contribute to our understanding of how biodiversity loss impacts ecosystem functionality, emphasizing the need for comprehensive conservation strategies.



“For me personally, I would love to do a wider survey of as many different species of animal as possible, see how much static electricity they accumulate, and then look for any correlations with their ecology and lifestyle. Then we can really begin to understand how evolution and static electricity interact!” Dr England concluded.



So, the next time you see a butterfly or a moth flutter by, remember, there's a whole lot of science in that seemingly simple flight!



The study is published in the <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsif.2024.0156" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of The Royal Society Interface</a>. 



-----



Like what you read?&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a>&nbsp;for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a>&nbsp;and Earth.com.



-----

Butterflies use static electricity to catch pollen without touching it

When you think about butterflies and moths, what comes to...