Acipenser transmontanus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of<a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=d55013d210f7439f8ca981b3b73576f2&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i60j69i57j69i60l2j69i59.492j0j4&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS"> North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.White sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus) is a species of sturgeon in the family Acipenseridae of the order Acipenseriformes. They are an anadromous fish species ranging in the Eastern Pacific; from the Gulf of Alaska to Monterey, California. However, some are landlocked in the Columbia River Drainage, Montana, and Lake Shasta in California, with reported sightings in northern Baja California, Mexico.Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes) &gt; Acipenseriformes (Sturgeons and paddlefishes) &gt; Acipenseridae (Sturgeons) &gt; Acipenserinae Etymology: : Latin, = sturgeon, 1853 (Ref. 45335); transmontanus: The specific name is derived from the Latin acipenser (sturgeon), trans (beyond), and montanus (mountain) (Ref. 27436).More on author: Richardson.

Acipenser transmontanus

Acipenser transmontanus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation...

Caiman crocodilus crocodilus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/lake-st-clair-of-the-u-s-and-canada/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=ea95add9042842ff81e58101c387ff83&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i57j69i60l3j0.460j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. The spectacled caiman (Caiman crocodilus), also known as the white caiman, common caiman, and speckled caiman, is a crocodilian in the family Alligatoridae. It is brownish-, greenish-, or yellowish-gray colored and has a spectacle-like ridge between its eyes, which is where its common name come from. It grows to a length of 1.4–2.5 metres (4.6–8.2 ft) and a weight of 7–40 kilograms (15–88 lb), with males being both longer and heavier than females. Its diet varies seasonally, commonly consisting of crabs, fish, mammals, and snails. Breeding occurs from May to August and 14–40 eggs are laid in July and August. This crocodilian has a large range and population; it is native to much of Latin America, and has been introduced to the United States, Cuba, and Puerto Rico.

Caiman crocodilus crocodilus

Caiman crocodilus crocodilus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer...

Caiman crocodilus fuscus (includes Caiman crocodilus chiapasius) NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/lake-st-clair-of-the-u-s-and-canada/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Caiman crocodilus fuscus (includes Caiman crocodilus chiapasius) ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=a1c9edbbc8274321a85050bd58708538&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i60j69i57j69i60l2j0l2.1358j0j4&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.The spectacled caiman, also known as the white caiman, common caiman, and speckled caiman, is a crocodilian in the family Alligatoridae. I

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. The spectacled caiman, also known as the white caiman, common caiman, and speckled caiman, is a crocodilian in the family Alligatoridae. It is brownish-, greenish-, or yellowish-gray colored and has a spectacle-like ridge between its eyes, which is where its common name come from. It grows to a length of 1.4–2.5 metres and a weight of 7–40 kilograms, with males being both longer and heavier than females. Its diet varies seasonally, commonly consisting of crabs, fish, mammals, and snails. Breeding occurs from May to August and 14–40 eggs are laid in July and August. This crocodilian has a large range and population; it is native to much of Latin America, and has been introduced to the United States, Cuba, and Puerto Rico.

Caiman crocodilus fuscus (includes Caiman crocodilus chiapasius)

Caiman crocodilus fuscus (includes Caiman crocodilus chiapasius) NatureServe Explorer Species...

Caiman latirostris NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Caiman latirostris ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=a1c9edbbc8274321a85050bd58708538&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i60j69i57j69i60l2j0l2.1358j0j4&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. In the wild, adults normally grow to 2 to 2.5 m (6.6 to 8.2 ft) in length, but a few old males have been recorded to reach up to 3.5 m (11 ft). Captive adults were found to have weighed 29.2 to 62 kg (64 to 137 lb).Most tend to be of a light olive-green color. A few individuals have spots on their faces.The most notable physical characteristic is the broad snout from which its name is derived. The snout is well adapted to rip through the dense vegetation of the marshes. Due to this, they swallow some of the dense vegetation while foraging for food

Caiman latirostris

Caiman latirostris NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Caiman latirostris NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Caiman latirostris ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=a1c9edbbc8274321a85050bd58708538&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i60j69i57j69i60l2j0l2.1358j0j4&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. The broad-snouted caiman is a crocodilian reptile found in eastern and central South America, including southeastern Brazil, northern Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, and Bolivia. It is found mostly in freshwater marshes, swamps, and mangroves, usually in still or very slow-moving waters. It will often use man-made cow ponds. In the wild, adults normally grow to 2 to 2.5 m (6.6 to 8.2 ft) in length, but a few old males have been recorded to reach up to 3.5 m (11 ft). Captive adults were found to have weighed 29.2 to 62 kg (64 to 137 lb). Most tend to be of a light olive-green color. A few individuals have spots on their faces. The most notable physical characteristic is the broad snout from which its name is derived

Caiman yacare NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/lake-st-clair-of-the-u-s-and-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. The yacare caiman (Caiman yacare), also known commonly as the jacare caiman, Spanish yacaré, Paraguayan caiman, piranha caiman, red caiman, southern spectacled caiman, jacaré in Portuguese, and îakaré in Old Tupi, is a species of caiman, a crocodilian in the family Alligatoridae. The species is endemic to Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay. Brown in color and covered with dark blotches, males grow to a total length (including tail) of 2–3 m (6.6–9.8 ft) and females to 1.4 m (4.6 ft). Typical habitats of this caiman include lakes, rivers, and wetlands. Its diet primarily consists of aquatic animals, such as snails, and occasionally land vertebrates. Mating occurs in the rainy season and eggs hatch in March, with young fending for themselves as soon as they hatch. The yacare caiman was hunted heavily for its skin to use for leather in the 1980s, which caused its population to decrease significantly

Caiman yacare

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Cairina scutulata NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/lake-st-clair-of-the-u-s-and-canada/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Cairina scutulata ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=f9204481b33d487d9bc8c7231a1c964c&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j69i60l3j0l2.794j0j4&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.This is one of the largest living species of duck next only to the <a title="Steamer duck" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steamer_duck">steamer ducks</a> which are heavier. The Muscovy duck also attains sizes that nearly rival the white-winged duck, but may average a bit smaller in a wild state. Length is 66–81 cm (26–32 in) and wingspan is 116–153 cm (46–60 in).Males weigh 2.94–3.9 kg (6.5–8.6 lb), while females weigh 1.95–3.05 kg (4.3–6.7 lb). The most noticeable feature on adult birds, is the dark body contrasting with a whitish head and neck. Males have mostly dull yellowish bill, blackish mottling on the head and upper neck, white lesser median coverts and inner edges of tertials and bluish-grey secondaries. In flight, white wing-coverts contrast with the rest of the wings. Females are smaller and usually have more densely mottled head and upper neck. The juvenile is duller and browner

Cairina scutulata

Cairina scutulata NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Calidris canutus rufa NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/lake-st-clair-of-the-u-s-and-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network. The red knot was added to the list of Federal candidate species in 2006. A final rule to list the rufa subspecies as threatened under the Endangered Species Act was published on December 11, 2014, with an effective date of January 12, 2015. Red knots are federally protected under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act, and are State-listed as endangered.At 9 to 10 inches long, the red knot is a large, bulky sandpiper with a short, straight, black bill. During the breeding seaso

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=a1c9edbbc8274321a85050bd58708538&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i60j69i57j69i60l2j0l2.1358j0j4&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Rufa Red Knot (Calidris canutus rufa), a Wisconsin Special Concern species, is an Arctic breeder that occurs uncommonly during migration along coastal sandy beaches in Wisconsin from mid-May to early June in spring and from mid-July to early November in fall. Since this subspecies does not breed in Wisconsin, avoidance dates do not apply.

Calidris canutus rufa

Calidris canutus rufa NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer...

Callaeas cinerea NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/lake-st-clair-of-the-u-s-and-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Callaeas cinerea ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=ea95add9042842ff81e58101c387ff83&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i57j69i60l3j0.460j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. The kōkako make up two species of endangered forest birds which are endemic to New Zealand, the North Island kōkako and the presumably extinct South Island kōkako. They are both slate-grey with wattles and have black masks. They belong to a genus containing five known species of New Zealand wattlebird, the other three being two species of tieke and the extinct huia. Previously widespread, kōkako populations throughout New Zealand have been decimated by the predations of mammalian invasive species such as possums, stoats, cats and rats, and their range has contracted significantly. In the past this bird was called the New Zealand crow; however, it is not a crow at all, but it looks like one from a distance.

Callaeas cinerea

Callaeas cinerea NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Callimico goeldii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/lake-st-clair-of-the-u-s-and-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=ea95add9042842ff81e58101c387ff83&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i57j69i60l3j0.460j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. The Goeldi's marmoset or Goeldi's monkey is a small, South American New World monkey that lives in the upper Amazon basin region of Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. It is the only species classified in the genus Callimico, and the monkeys are sometimes referred to as "callimicos".Callimico goeldii, Goeldi’s monkey, is a South American or New World monkey. South American monkeys or platyrrhines comprise one of the two infraorders (Platyrrhini and Catarrhini) of anthropoid primates. They live exclusively in South and Central America, but their fossil distribution includes the Greater Antilles

Callimico goeldii

Callimico goeldii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Callithrix aurita (=jacchus a.)

NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source...

Callithrix flaviceps NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/canada-wildfire-smoke-nuclear-war/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=a1c9edbbc8274321a85050bd58708538&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i60j69i57j69i60l2j0l2.1358j0j4&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. Due to their small size, buffy-headed marmosets are susceptible to a wide range of predators. Common threats include ocelots, anacondas, and hawks, but many other animals such as toucans prey on them. The buffy-headed marmoset has four distinct patterns of predator avoidance. Primarily, buffy-headed marmosets avoid aerial predators through low-intensity alarm signals, emitting soft, closed-mouth whistles to warn other group members. A secondary behavior in dealing with aerial threats is a high-intensity alarm. These marmosets will send out a half-mouthed, open whistle to alert other members to take cover under branches or trees, sometimes immediately ceasing movement for the purpose of avoiding exposure. This pattern of avoidance is instinctive, and at times can result in these primates leaping downward from canopy to canopy in 10m jumps.

Callithrix flaviceps

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Callophrys mossii bayensis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and<a href="https://www.earth.com/image/lake-st-clair-of-the-u-s-and-canada/"> Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=a1c9edbbc8274321a85050bd58708538&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i60j69i57j69i60l2j0l2.1358j0j4&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Callophrys mossii bayensis R.Brown, 1969 Common names San Bruno elfin Butterfly in English Bibliographic References. Pelham, Jonathan P., 2008: A catalogue of the butterflies of the United States and Canada with a complete bibliography of the descriptive and systematic literature. Journal

Adults of this <a title="Butterfly" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterfly">butterfly</a> emerge in February and March, when <a title="Nectar" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nectar">nectar</a> providing flowers open. After mating, the female locates host plants on which to deposit her eggs, which hatch within a week. The tiny <a title="Larva" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larva">larvae</a> first feed on the plant's vegetative structures; however, when the <a class="mw-redirect" title="Stonecrop" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonecrop">stonecrop</a>'s flowers begin to open, the larvae migrate upward and feed on the flowers themselves. By June most have completed their larval development at which time they evacuate from the host plant to <a class="mw-redirect" title="Pupate" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pupate">pupate</a> in ground litter. They lie dormant as pupae until the following spring, when the <a title="Biological life cycle" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_life_cycle">life cycle</a> begins anew.

The San Bruno elfin's life cycle holds an interesting aspect, common to many other <a class="mw-redirect" title="Lycaenid" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lycaenid">lycaenids</a> regarding a <a class="mw-redirect" title="Symbiotic" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbiotic">symbiotic</a> interaction with <a title="Ant" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ant">ants</a>. Elfin larvae excrete a sweet liquid known as <a title="Honeydew (secretion)" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honeydew_(secretion)">honeydew</a> which attracts ants. In exchange for honeydew, the ants often provide protection from harm by <a class="mw-redirect" title="Predator" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predator">predators</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" title="Parasite" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasite">parasites</a>, which are principal killers of foliage feeding insects.

Callophrys mossii bayensis

Callophrys mossii bayensis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer...

Caloprymnus campestris

Camarhynchus pauper Ridgway, 1890 ()

Camarhynchus pauper NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.The medium tree finch (Camarhynchus pauper) is a <a class="mw-redirect" title="Critically endangered" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critically_endangered">critically endangered</a> species of <a title="Bird" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird">bird</a> in the <a title="Darwin's finches" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin%27s_finches">Darwin's finch</a> group of the <a title="" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanager">tanager</a> <a title="Family (biology)" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_(biology)">family</a> <a title="Tanager" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanager">Thraupidae</a>. It is <a title="Endemism" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemism">endemic</a> to the <a title="Galápagos Islands" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gal%C3%A1pagos_Islands">Galápagos Islands</a> where it is only found on <a title="Floreana Island" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floreana_Island">Floreana Island</a>. Its name is derived from the fact that the bird's beak is intermediate in size between that of the <a title="Small tree finch" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_tree_finch">small tree finch</a> and the <a title="Large tree finch" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_tree_finch">large tree finch</a>. Because it has a very small range on a single island, and because of the introduction of a parasitic fly which kills the nestlings, the <a title="International Union for Conservation of Nature" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Union_for_Conservation_of_Nature">International Union for Conservation of Nature</a> has rated the medium tree finch as "<a class="mw-redirect" title="Critically endangered" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critically_endangered">critically endangered</a>".

Camarhynchus pauper

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Cambarus aculabrum NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Cambarus aculabrum ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Cambarus aculabrum is a rare species of <a title="Crayfish" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crayfish">crayfish</a> known by the common name Benton cave crayfish. It is native to <a title="Arkansas" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkansas">Arkansas</a> in the United States, where it is known from only four locations. It is a federally listed <a title="Endangered species" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangered_species">endangered species</a> of the United States.

This crayfish was first described to science as a new species in 1987. It is about 48 millimeters (1.8 inches) long. A <a class="mw-redirect" title="Troglobite" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troglobite">troglobite</a>, it lacks pigment, making it white in color, it and has only rudimentary eyes. It is genetically distinct from other species of cave crayfish.

The crayfish lives at four <a title="Cave" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cave">caves</a> in northern Arkansas, three in <a title="Benton County, Arkansas" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benton_County,_Arkansas">Benton County</a> and one in <a title="Washington County, Arkansas" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_County,_Arkansas">Washington County</a>. It is not considered an Arkansas <a title="Endemism" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemism">endemic</a> species because 58% of one of the Benton County cave zones is actually within the neighboring state of <a title="Missouri" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missouri">Missouri</a> although it has not yet been found in Missouri.

This crayfish feeds on organic matter washed into the cave from the surface, and on <a title="Guano" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guano">bat guano</a>. It is sometimes eaten by the <a class="mw-redirect" title="Cottus carolinae" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cottus_carolinae">banded sculpin</a> (Cottus carolinae). Little else is known about its <a title="Ecology" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology">ecology</a>. 

Threats to this species include direct mortality when they are trampled by cave explorers and trespassers. Gates have been put in place at the caves to protect them but vandalism is still a threat. <a title="Pollution" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollution">Pollution</a> of the <a title="Groundwater" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groundwater">groundwater</a> in the caves was the main reason the animal was federally listed. Individuals are sometimes washed out of caves during floods, leading to mortality.

Cambarus aculabrum

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Cambarus callainus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

The genus Cambarus is the second largest freshwater crayfish genus inhabiting the Northern Hemisphere, with only sixty fewer species than the genus Procambarus. Though Cambarus are varied across species, the two terminal elements that make up the male form I <a title="Gonopod" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonopod">gonopod</a> form ninety degree angles with the central appendage, allowing for their identification. Unlike the genus <a title="Procambarus" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procambarus">Procambarus</a> whose first <a class="mw-redirect" title="Pleopod" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleopod">pleopod</a> tends to have three processes at the tip, Cambarus has only one or two. Cambarus reach 17–26 mm <a title="Carapace" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carapace">carapace</a> lengths in their first year, while average adult carapace length ranges from 55–62 mm.

As a genus containing nearly 100 species, Cambarus's coloration is variable.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambarus#cite_note-:0-2">[2]</a> <a title="Cambarus bartonii" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambarus_bartonii">Cambarus bartonii</a> is dark brown, while species like <a class="new" title="Cambarus pauleyi (page does not exist)" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cambarus_pauleyi&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1">Cambarus pauleyi</a> range from subtle to vibrant blues and reds.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambarus#cite_note-:0-2">[2]</a> Other species are light green or grayish in color.

Cambarus callainus

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Cambarus veteranus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.Habitat degradation due to mining, logging, and habitat alteration have reduced the available habitat for C. veteranus. High velocity water flow from flooding in 2001 also altered the habitat. Invasive species that can thrive in the altered habitat also put pressure on it. Some of the crayfish species that have been found in former C. veteranus habitats include C. sciotensis and <a title="Cambarus robustus" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambarus_robustus">C. robustus</a>.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. C. veteranus is found on the <a title="Allegheny Plateau" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allegheny_Plateau">Allegheny Plateau</a> at an elevation greater that 457 metres (1,499 ft) in fast flowing pools of streams with a width between 10–20 metres (33–66 ft). It is found in three river drainages of the region: the <a title="Bluestone River" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluestone_River">Bluestone</a> and <a title="Guyandotte River" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guyandotte_River">Guyandotte</a> in West Virginia; the <a title="Big Sandy River (Ohio River tributary)" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Sandy_River_(Ohio_River_tributary)">Big Sandy</a> in Kentucky and Virginia; and the <a title="Russell Fork" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russell_Fork">Russell Fork</a> in Virginia. It prefers large flat rocks on gravel and sand to allow for refuge and burrowing

Cambarus veteranus

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Cambarus zophonastes NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Cambarus zophonastes ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=e3f8a51192a847bebf502b9fedc6ec3e&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i60j69i57j69i60l2j0l2.444j0j4&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.Cambarus zophonastes is a true Arkansas endemic that was later discovered in a second Stone County locality, Nesbitt Spring Cave. Within the cave environment, it has been observed on the sides of steep rocks and on the mud bottom of the cave stream.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Cambarus zophonastes is a species of crayfish in the family Cambaridae. It is endemic to the state of Arkansas, and is listed as critically endangered on the IUCN Red List. The crayfish is nicknamed the Hell Creek crayfish. The cave crayfish Cambarus zophonastes is a cave-adapted species that lacks pigment in the body and eyes. This crayfish is known from two caves, Hell Creek Cave and Nesbitt Spring Cave.

Cambarus zophonastes

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Mother,And,Her,Daughter,Planting,Tree,Together,In,Garden

We already know that living near trees, parks, and green spaces is good for pregnant mothers and babies - and now, new trees might matter just as much. Recent research adds another layer to our understanding about the health benefits of nearby greenery. 



Scientists have found that even newly planted trees - not just mature ones - may improve birth outcomes. The study was led by researchers at <a href="https://drexel.edu/academics/grad-professional-programs/pubhealth?q&amp;sortBy=relevance&amp;page=1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Drexel University's Dornsife School of Public Health</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trees-and-birth-outcomes">Trees and birth outcomes</h2>



The researchers used a special dataset from Portland, Oregon. Between 1990 and 2020, the nonprofit group "Friends of Trees" planted more than 36,000 trees across the city. The team linked this information with birth data from the Oregon Health Authority, covering births from January 1, 2015, to December 31, 2020.



They recorded the number of new trees that had been planted within 100 meters (330 feet) of a mother's home during the last 10 years. They also looked at existing tree cover and road density in those areas.



By controlling for other important factors like a mother's race, body mass index (BMI), education level, and whether it was her first pregnancy, the researchers were able to focus on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-planting-campaigns-fall-short-of-successful-reforestation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">impact</a> of tree planting itself. Their findings showed a strong connection between increased number of trees and healthier babies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-trees-help-babies-grow-stronger">New trees help babies grow stronger</h2>



Each tree planted within 100 meters of a mother's home within the last 10 years was associated with a 2.3-gram (0.08-ounce) increase in birthweight. While this might sound small, the researchers stress that the impact adds up.



“Although there is benefit from well-established trees, we’re finding that newly planted trees are also associated with healthy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fathers-have-a-surprising-influence-on-their-babys-birth-weight/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birth weight</a>,” said senior author Yvonne Michael, a professor and interim chair in the Dornsife School of Public Health. 



“This is another data point showing that planting trees is a relatively easy and low-cost way to improve public health from the earliest stages of a life.”



Living near at least 10 trees was tied to about a 50-gram (1.8-ounce) increase in birthweight. However, the researchers noted that the benefit seemed to level off after reaching 10 nearby trees.



“Fifty grams may not seem like a lot, but if every baby in our sample gained 50 grams at birth, that means 642 fewer babies considered small for gestational age, and at higher risk for worse development later in life,” said Professor Michael. She explained that 2,879 babies in the study were diagnosed as small for gestational age.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-hidden-power-of-older-trees">The hidden power of older trees</h2>



While newly planted trees showed benefits, older trees might offer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/old-growth-trees-more-tolerant-to-drought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">even more</a>. The researchers suggest that mature trees may provide psychological comfort that newly planted ones cannot yet match.



Stress is a well-known risk factor for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-increased-premature-birth-risk-by-60/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">premature birth</a> and other poor health outcomes. Older trees can create an environment of “soft fascination,” a calming effect described in previous studies. This kind of natural calm can counter the mentally draining features of urban buildings and infrastructure.



“It’s rare to have detailed information on large-scale tree plantings for research,” said Professor Michael. “Existing tree cover is often closely tied to factors like income, education, and race, making it difficult to fully account for other possible explanations when studying birth outcomes."



"By focusing on newly planted trees, we were able to reduce the bias - essentially treating it as a natural experiment. Plus, we observed the improvements in birth outcomes after trees were planted, establishing temporal order.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trees-and-traffic-pollution">Trees and traffic pollution </h2>



The study also found that existing trees - but not new ones - helped reduce some of the negative effects of living near dense road networks. Older trees with developed canopies may do a better job blocking road noise and filtering out <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/specific-air-pollutants-linked-to-asthma-attacks-in-urban-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">air pollutants</a>, both of which can harm newborn health.



Interestingly, the researchers noticed that birthweights in the area generally decreased over the study period. However, they believe this decline was likely tied to external factors like rising temperatures and wildfire smoke, not to a lack of trees.



Their data also showed that race, education level, and the existing tree canopy were not linked to the locations where new trees were planted. This helps strengthen the study’s findings by ruling out some potential biases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-trees-healthier-babies">More trees, healthier babies?</h2>



While the study presents strong evidence linking tree planting to better birth outcomes, it is not absolute proof. The researchers point out that a randomized controlled trial would be needed to confirm cause and effect.



Still, the results offer some of the best real-world data we have so far. The new findings build on earlier studies by the same researchers, including a 2013 study that found the loss of millions of trees to an invasive pest was tied to more deaths from heart disease and respiratory illness.



This growing body of evidence suggests that planting trees isn’t just good for the environment - it could be one of the simplest ways to boost public health, starting before a baby is even born.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969725008642?via%3Dihub">Science of the Total Environment</a>.



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Planting new trees brings hope for healthier babies

We already know that living near trees, parks, and green...

Rising temperatures may influence a hidden battle happening in the muddy soils of wetlands. This quiet struggle pits microbes that produce methane against those that consume it. 



With climate change intensifying, the natural balance that keeps methane levels in check could start to unravel. In a recent study, researchers at the <a href="https://g.co/kgs/AvuZsZx" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Smithsonian Environmental Research Center</a> have explored this phenomenon.



While wetlands are known for removing carbon dioxide (CO₂), they’re also the world’s largest natural source of methane - a gas that packs far more heat-trapping power. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conflict-beneath-the-wetlands">Conflict beneath the wetlands</h2>



The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration estimates that 19% of global warming can be attributed to methane. This highlights the significance of understanding how wetlands behave under a changing climate.



“If there is a large amount of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/top-10-global-methane-emissions-hotspots-spotted-by-satellites/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">methane emissions</a> from wetlands, and if we don’t know anything about that, then our carbon reduction target for mitigating climate change is going to be off track in the future,” said study lead author Jaehyun Lee.



Wetland soils host two kinds of microbes. One group produces <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-methane-emissions-threaten-earths-habitability/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">methane</a>, a greenhouse gas up to 45 times more potent than carbon dioxide. 



The other group consumes it, converting methane into CO₂ using oxygen. This process is one of nature’s most important ways of slowing climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbes-in-flooded-wetlands">Microbes in flooded wetlands</h2>



The study focused on a special kind of microbe that lives in oxygen-free, or anaerobic, environments. These microbes are common in flooded wetlands. 



For a long time, scientists believed they couldn’t remove methane because of the lack of oxygen. Even after discovering that anaerobic microbes could use sulfate molecules to consume methane, their role was considered minor.



“They thought that the anaerobic methane [consumption] process is going to be too slow to remove a significant amount of methane,” Lee said.



But that assumption didn’t hold up. Most methane is produced in low-oxygen zones - exactly where these anaerobic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-have-emerged-as-major-source-of-methane-emissions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbes</a> live.



In the studied wetland, these microbes removed about 12% of the methane. In saltier environments, with more sulfate, that number jumped to 70 percent. Then the team turned up the heat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rising-carbon-dioxide-and-temperatures">Rising carbon dioxide and temperatures </h2>



The researchers ran an experiment at the Smithsonian Environmental Research Center in Maryland called SMARTX - Salt Marsh Accretion Response to Temperature eXperiment.



Using infrared lamps and underground cables, they warmed certain parts of the wetland by 5.1°C. In some plots, they also increased <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-carbon-dioxide-travels-in-the-atmosphere/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon dioxide</a> to mimic a more realistic future.



“You’re never going to get a warmer world without also having higher CO₂ in the atmosphere. What SMARTX is doing is trying to mimic that warmer world, with the aboveground and belowground heating,” said Genevieve Noyce, senior scientist at SERC. 



“But because that’s not going to happen independent of CO₂, we also cross it with CO₂, so we have a real future that has both.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-methane-production-in-warmer-wetlands">Methane production in warmer wetlands </h2>



As temperatures rose, methane emissions spiked. But not because the methane-consuming microbes weakened. In fact, they worked harder and removed more methane. 



The problem? The methane producers became even more active. The methane consumers simply couldn’t keep up.



The kind of plant growing in the soil made a big difference. In plots dominated by thick sedges, methane emissions rose nearly fourfold. In areas with smaller grasses, the increase was only about 1.5 times.



Higher carbon dioxide levels eased the increase, but didn’t erase it. In sedge-heavy plots, emissions doubled instead of quadrupling when both CO₂ and heat were added. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-with-bigger-roots">Plants with bigger roots</h2>



The researchers think this happens because CO₂ helps <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/autophagy-what-makes-plant-roots-grow-faster-stronger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants grow bigger roots</a>. More roots lead to more oxygen entering the soil, which supports the methane-consuming microbes.



“Warming is going to have a really big effect on increasing methane emissions,” Noyce said. “But when you add elevated CO₂, it kind of brings it back down a little bit.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-methane-production-across-wetlands">Methane production across wetlands</h2>



This isn't just a one-time event. In 2021, the same team found a similar pattern in oxygen-rich soils. Warmer conditions made methane-producing microbes outpace those that remove it. It’s a trend that could affect wetlands all over the world.



Still, the researchers emphasized that wetlands are worth protecting. They provide vital <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coastal-wetlands-are-a-powerful-weapon-against-flooding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">defense against storms and flooding</a>. They also lock away carbon in soil and plants. One acre of coastal wetland can store more carbon than an acre of tropical rainforest.



“There is great value in protecting and restoring coastal wetlands to benefit climate, especially when we consider the many ecosystem services they provide to people,” said Pat Megonigal, senior author and associate director of research at SERC.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-for-the-future">Preparing for the future</h2>



Looking ahead, policymakers need better data to prepare for the future. Knowing how much methane wetlands will emit in coming decades is key to hitting climate targets. 



The scientists stress that climate change isn’t just about warmer air - it’s also about tiny microbial processes that could quietly shift the balance of greenhouse gases.



“We also have to consider, how is climate change going to affect these delicate microbial processes, such as methane oxidation and methane production?” Lee said.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.ads6093" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Wetlands are a hidden source of rising methane emissions

Rising temperatures may influence a hidden battle happening in the...

Forests are one of Earth’s greatest natural defenses against climate change. They absorb carbon dioxide, regulate rainfall, and shelter a huge portion of the planet’s biodiversity. 



Yet for all their importance, large parts of the world’s forests remain poorly understood and hard to monitor - even with the help of space technology - and they remain vulnerable to both natural and human-driven change.



Until recently, forest monitoring relied heavily on ground teams manually measuring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-forests-are-struggling-to-keep-pace-with-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trees</a>, mapping biodiversity, and estimating carbon stored in different ecosystems. These efforts, though essential, are slow, labor-intensive, and often constrained by difficult terrain or limited funding.



Now, a breakthrough is underway. The tools of modern space science are being directed toward Earth’s forests like never before. This marks the beginning of what scientists call the "forest space age" - a bold, global effort to transform our understanding of forests from above.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-forest-carbon-from-space">Tracking forest carbon from space</h2>



On April 29, the European Space Agency (<a href="https://www.esa.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>) will launch the Biomass mission. It will carry the first P-band radar into space, capable of seeing through dense forest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-our-power-our-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">canopies</a>. This satellite is expected to revolutionize how we estimate forest structure and carbon storage.



P-band radar technology stands out because it can detect elements of forests that other sensors miss. It reaches past the leafy treetops and captures detailed information about trunks, stems, and branches — the key areas where trees hold carbon.



Biomass won’t be alone for long. Soon, the US–India <a href="https://nisar.jpl.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NISAR mission</a> will join it. This satellite carries an L-band synthetic aperture radar that complements Biomass’s P-band data. 



Together, these missions will offer a multi-layered picture of forests. Add to that NASA’s GEDI lidar aboard the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/international-space-station/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Space Station</a>, the Copernicus Sentinel-1’s C-band radar, and more missions in the pipeline, and the result is a powerful suite of tools monitoring forests from orbit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-forests-with-satellites">Monitoring forests with satellites </h2>



Never before have so many instruments been trained on Earth’s forests at once. These satellites are not just capturing snapshots. They provide consistent, global-scale monitoring over time, allowing scientists to detect patterns and trends in forest health, loss, and growth.



ESA’s Climate Change Initiative’s Biomass Project is already using this wealth of data to analyze long-term forest changes. 



By integrating historical and current satellite data, the project delivers a clear view of how biomass has changed year after year. This time-series approach reveals shifts in forest dynamics and provides essential input for climate models.



When satellite data is used together with global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-undisturbed-forests-support-greater-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a> projections, it enables better predictions of how forests will react to temperature shifts, droughts, or human pressures. The scale and depth of data now available were once unthinkable. Yet space technology alone cannot give us the full picture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-groundwork-still-matters">Why groundwork still matters</h2>



Despite their reach and resolution, satellites can’t do everything. They can't directly measure biomass or recognize plant species from above. Tropical forests, for instance, are home to staggering biodiversity. This complexity makes it hard for remote sensors to categorize forest types or species without help.



“Even the most advanced satellite can’t tell a mahogany from a Brazil nut tree without help from the ground, and there are more than ten thousand tree species in the Amazon alone,” said Professor Oliver Phillips from the <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leeds</a>.



Ground-based science is still vital. Forest ecologists and botanists work in jungles, swamps, and mountain forests to collect the details satellites miss. They measure tree height, diameter, species type, and carbon density, all while navigating unpredictable and sometimes dangerous conditions. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-rely-on-space-technology">Forests rely on space technology</h2>



To make sure that space-based data reflects reality, scientists compare it with direct measurements from the ground. This process, called ground validation, is particularly important in tropical forests where tree diversity is high and canopy structure varies widely.



For this reason, long-term on-the-ground studies continue to play a critical role. They ensure accuracy, identify regional patterns, and help calibrate satellite instruments. Forests change slowly and subtly over time. 



Only with repeat measurements at tree level can we detect those shifts and check if the satellite data aligns with what is actually happening on the ground.



Ground validation is not just a technical necessity. It is also a scientific collaboration that stretches across borders and disciplines, bringing together ecologists, geographers, botanists, and remote sensing experts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-introducing-geo-trees">Introducing GEO-TREES</h2>



To improve this collaboration and support local expertise, scientists launched a global project called <a href="https://geo-trees.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GEO-TREES</a>. It is an initiative designed to connect remote sensing specialists with field researchers and promote balanced partnerships around the world.



“The aim of GEO-TREES is to establish a sustainable funding mechanism to support ecologists and experts working in the forest to take the tree-by-tree measurements that are needed to validate satellite data products," noted ESA’s <a href="https://www.esa.int/Applications/Observing_the_Earth/FutureEO/Biomass" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biomass</a> Mission manager, Klaus Scipal.



“GEO-TREES will implement rigorous ground-validation protocols and push for major investments in the people behind the data – particularly in the Global South, where much of the world’s biodiversity resides.”



Through GEO-TREES, there is now an effort to formalize funding pathways for fieldwork. This helps ensure that forest scientists on the front lines have the resources, training, and recognition they need to carry out accurate and consistent data collection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-space-missions-and-ground-observations">Space missions and ground observations </h2>



Measuring trees, hiking through flooded forests, climbing into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-forests-rose-again-after-the-planets-most-extreme-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">canopies</a> - this is not easy work. Yet without these efforts, satellite missions would lack reliable reference points. The success of Earth observation depends on the dedication of those who live and work close to the forests.



“Satellites, such as our Biomass, offer a wealth of information to understand our changing world, but we must not forget those working tirelessly on the ground taking in situ measurements, often in difficult conditions, who allow us to have confidence in the data returned from space,” said Scipal.



That trust between space-based observation and field data is what gives global forest monitoring its strength. Both are needed, and both are now being more closely linked than ever before.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-phase-of-planetary-care">A new phase of planetary care</h2>



“The dedicated teams working in the field to collect vital ground-truth data are important to the success of our missions," added ESA’s Director of Earth Observation Programmes, Simonetta Cheli.



“Their contributions help ensure that our Earth Explorer missions deliver outstanding science - science that lies at the core of our <a href="https://www.esa.int/Applications/Observing_the_Earth/FutureEO" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FutureEO programme</a>.”



As Earth faces increasing environmental pressures, forests will continue to play a critical role in regulating our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-are-still-fighting-climate-change-against-all-odds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a> and sustaining life. By combining the power of satellite technology with the knowledge and hard work of people on the ground, we are entering a new phase of planetary care.



The "forest space age" is more than a technological achievement. It is a worldwide collaboration between the skies and the soil, with the goal of understanding and protecting the forests we all depend on.



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Forest space age: Satellites can track canopies and carbon storage

Forests are one of Earth’s greatest natural defenses against climate...

Wine is more than a beverage in Italy. It’s a cultural emblem, a historical constant, and an agricultural marvel. From rustic vineyard rows in the hills of Tuscany to sophisticated wine cellars beneath Rome, the Italian wine and grapes story is celebrated.



But few realize that this tale took shape over millennia. The wine we sip today results from thousands of years of patient transformation.



A new study published in the journal PLOS One uncovers this complex history. Led by Mariano Ucchesu from the <a href="https://www.google.com/search?client=safari&amp;rls=en&amp;q=University+of+Montpellier&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;oe=UTF-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Montpellier</a>, the research team analyzed 1,768 grape seeds from 25 archaeological sites across Italy and San Marino.



These seeds spanned from the Early Neolithic to the Medieval period, covering around 7,000 years. 



Using geometric morphometrics, the team compared ancient seeds to modern wild and cultivated grapes to track their evolution. What emerged was a slow, regionally varied shift from wild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-grapes-every-day-can-transform-your-muscles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">grape</a> gathering to systematic cultivation and winemaking.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-italians-used-wild-grapes-for-wine">Early Italians used wild grapes for wine</h2>



The oldest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/resveratrol-may-boost-female-fertility-naturally/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">grape</a> seeds, from the Early Neolithic and Early Bronze Age, show no signs of domestication. Most seeds resembled those of modern wild grapevines, suggesting early communities did not yet cultivate vines. 



Instead, people gathered berries from naturally growing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/death-of-the-dinosaurs-helped-grapes-conquer-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a>. These seeds, preserved in waterlogged conditions, remained intact and highly informative.



In these early phases, no domestic-type seed was identified. The study used advanced linear discriminant analysis, trained on a balanced modern reference set, to classify seeds with over 95% accuracy. 



Most pips from La Marmotta (Lazio) and Canàr di San Pietro in Polesine (Veneto) were wild. Even in the Middle Bronze Age, sites across Toscana, Marche, and Emilia Romagna showed only four domestic pips out of 142 examined - a number too small to indicate established cultivation.



This supports a picture of grape use as primarily foraged rather than grown. The absence of consistent domestic traits in northern and central Italy during this period points to a society still reliant on nature’s offerings rather than intentional farming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turning-point-in-grape-cultivation">Turning point in grape cultivation </h2>



One site, however, told a different story. Sa Osa in Sardinia revealed a turning point. 



By the end of the Late Bronze Age (ca. 1300–1100 BC), nearly half the seeds from this site were domestic in shape and size. This marks the first significant appearance of cultivated grapes in the western Mediterranean.



The domestic seeds from Sa Osa showed a distinct morphology. They were longer and more elongated, with features typical of modern cultivated grapes. 



Paleogenetic analysis revealed that some seeds shared chlorotypes with modern Armenian varieties. This suggests eastern Mediterranean grapevines reached Sardinia through trade or migration.



Several hypotheses exist to explain this. Local communities may have begun their own domestication process. Alternatively, they may have imported fully domesticated plants. 



Or perhaps there was a blend - cultivated grapes from the east mixed with Sardinian wild varieties, creating new hybrids. Evidence of wine residue in Bronze Age Sardinian pottery supports the idea that these grapes were used not just for eating, but for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wine-production-in-a-warming-world-the-winners-and-losers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fermentation</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-exchange-and-early-viticulture">Cultural exchange and early viticulture</h2>



Sardinia’s role in early viticulture may have depended on its strategic location. The island maintained trade connections with the Mycenaeans and Minoans during the Bronze Age. 



These interactions likely carried not only goods but also agricultural knowledge. Techniques for pruning, vine training, and fermentation could have spread westward with sailors and merchants.



“The appearance of the first domesticated grapes during the Bronze Age, in Italian archaeological contexts, points to a long-standing tradition of Italian wine heritage within the broader landscape of Western Europe,” noted the researchers.



At Terramara Santa Rosa di Poviglio in Emilia Romagna, researchers found pollen matching female wild grapevines. This pollen came from flowers with inaperturate grains, a trait of uncultivated plants. 



Its presence suggests people may have been managing or cultivating wild grapevines nearby - an early, experimental form of agriculture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expansion-of-grape-farming">Expansion of grape farming</h2>



By the 4th century BC, Italy’s grape story had evolved. At Etruscan sites in Emilia Romagna, most seeds were domestic. This shows that true viticulture had taken root. Grape cultivation wasn’t just experimental - it was widespread and sophisticated.



Evidence from Cetamura in Tuscany backs this up. Genetic testing showed links between Etruscan grape seeds and both wild and domestic varieties. Morphometric analysis also aligned these seeds with modern cultivated grapes. 



The Etruscans not only grew grapes but made and traded wine extensively. Their amphorae have been found across France, Spain, and North Africa.



This period marks a major shift in both grape farming and wine culture. Grapes were chosen for specific traits, possibly including flavor, productivity, and resistance. These communities were no longer passive gatherers of fruit. They were actively shaping grape biology and wine traditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-romans-blended-wild-and-domestic-vines">Romans blended wild and domestic vines</h2>



Viticulture flourished under Roman rule. Between the 1st and 6th centuries AD, archaeological sites show a clear dominance of domestic grape seeds. However, wild seeds did not disappear. In places like Domagnano and Cervia, a significant number of wild or intermediate seeds were found alongside cultivated ones.



This mix points to a deliberate practice. Roman farmers may have cultivated wild vines to create new varieties through introgression. This genetic blending could result in grapes with novel traits—perhaps better suited to different soils or climates.



Interestingly, during Roman times, the difference in shape and size between wild and domestic seeds narrowed. This supports the idea that even wild-looking seeds were cultivated, though not fully transformed. 



Wine was a booming industry, and farmers likely tried every possible way to enhance their yields and flavors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-grapes-and-wine-became-fully-domesticated">Grapes and wine became fully domesticated</h2>



The Medieval period (8th–14th centuries AD) marked a high point in grape domestication. 



Seeds from this era were almost entirely domestic in both shape and size. Sites in Trentino-Alto Adige, Emilia Romagna, and Sardinia all showed this trend.



These seeds closely resembled modern cultivated grapes, suggesting that experimental phases had ended. Farmers had identified and preserved varieties that worked well. Wild vines were no longer widely used. Grape cultivation had become standardized and entrenched in Italian agriculture.



Seed morphology over time supports this. Domestic seeds grew longer and more elongated. Wild seeds, when cultivated, also grew larger than their wild-growing counterparts. But by the Medieval period, the distinction between wild and domestic seeds was wide again, showing that viticulture had settled into a clear direction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legacy-of-patience-and-innovation">A legacy of patience and innovation</h2>



“This research has made it possible, for the first time, to trace the history of the origins of viticulture in Italy,” the authors write. 



“The appearance of the first domesticated grapes during the Bronze Age, in Italian archaeological contexts, points to a long-standing tradition of Italian wine heritage within the broader landscape of Western Europe.”



Supported by the European Union’s Horizon 2020 program and the ANR MICA project, the study shows how cultural exchange, experimentation, and adaptation shaped Italy’s wine landscape. It emphasizes that domestication is not a moment, but a slow evolution.



“This research was made possible thanks to funding received through the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under the Marie Curie Fellowship (2021–2023 n. Agreement-101019563-VITALY) and supported by the ANR MICA project (grant agreement ANR-22-CE27-0026),” noted the study authors. 



”The successful outcome of the research is also due to the valuable collaboration of the archaeobotanical colleagues from CNRS-ISEM in Montpellier and all the Italian colleagues who generously provided the archaeobotanical materials, valuable advice and suggestions for this research.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-italian-grapes-evolved-to-wine">Italian grapes evolved to wine</h2>



The domestication of grapes in Italy was not a single event. It unfolded over thousands of years, shaped by geography, trade, and curiosity. From wild vines gathered by Neolithic foragers to the disciplined vineyards of Medieval monks, the grape’s journey mirrors Italy’s own transformation.



Today, each glass of Italian wine carries that deep past. With every sip, you taste the result of ancient selections, cross-regional exchanges, and countless seasons of change. The story of the Italian grape is, in essence, the story of civilization itself - patient, rooted, and ever evolving.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0321653" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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How grapes became wine in Italy over 7,000 years

Wine is more than a beverage in Italy. It’s a...

Over the past few years, more people across the United States have been experimenting with psilocybin, a hallucinogen found in “magic mushrooms.” 



This increase in psilocybin use has drawn attention from health experts, who note that many users face challenges such as mental illness or chronic pain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharp-rise-in-psilocybin-use">Sharp rise in psilocybin use </h2>



Some U.S. states have started softening their policies around the use of psilocybin, which appears to match the timing of its recent surge in popularity. This increase also coincides with a jump in poison center calls, suggesting that not everyone understands the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/magic-mushrooms-are-the-most-popular-psychedelic-drug/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">substance</a> or its risks.



“We found that, since 2019, the number of people using psilocybin has gone up sharply,” said Dr. Karilynn Rockhill, a researcher at the <a href="https://coloradosph.cuanschutz.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Colorado School of Public Health</a>. 



Dr. Rockhill led a project that tracked psilocybin use patterns across several age groups and geographic areas.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psilocybin-use-across-all-ages">Psilocybin use across all ages</h2>



Young adults show the largest expansion in psilocybin experimentation. Older adults are not too far behind. 



Looser restrictions and rising social acceptance might encourage some to view psilocybin as a quick fix for depression or anxiety. 



Experts note that certain individuals appear to be self-treating serious conditions. They worry that casual use without medical guidance can create <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-psilocybin-mushrooms-got-their-magic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complications</a>. 



These worries become more pressing when poison center data reveal an uptick in calls from across the age spectrum.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mental-health-and-psilocybin-use">Mental health and psilocybin use</h2>



Psilocybin has drawn attention for potential <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27909165/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">benefits</a> in addressing PTSD, substance use disorders, and other challenges. Medical providers, however, warn that its use in these circumstances remains investigational.



People experiencing depression or anxiety sometimes turn to magic mushrooms if they lack immediate professional support.



“Public views on psilocybin are shifting. However, that means we also need to make sure people understand the risks, know how to use it safely if they choose to, and that health care systems are prepared,” said Dr. Joshua Black, a senior scientist at Rocky Mountain Poison and Drug Safety, which is a division of Denver Health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-people-are-calling-poison-centers">More people are calling poison centers</h2>



The steep increase in poison center calls, signals that many users do not fully grasp the substance’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/confirmed-magic-mushrooms-can-effectively-treat-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">effects</a>. Some calls involve disorientation or panic, which can be risky in certain settings.



Others reflect confusion about dosage or harmful interactions with existing prescriptions. Researchers suggest that hospitals and emergency departments might be under-reporting these cases. 



A gap in hospital coding means psilocybin-related visits can slip by unnoticed. That hampers public health agencies that are trying to gauge what’s really happening.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-poor-tracking-hides-health-impacts">Poor tracking hides health impacts</h2>



Officials have discovered that current systems for recording hallucinogen-related issues are not keeping up with the changing landscape. Inaccurate data collection may keep local clinics in the dark about how often patients arrive in crisis. 



Health systems need reliable metrics for policy decisions. Some <a href="https://psychedelicalpha.com/data/psychedelic-laws" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">states</a> have already drafted policies allowing controlled use of psilocybin for medical study.



Others weigh more permissive models. Researchers stress that consistent tracking and standard coding practices can help officials measure any shifts in harm or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-magic-mushrooms-evolve-to-contain-psilocybin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">misuse</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-education-for-better-outcomes">Education for better outcomes</h2>



Experts call for straightforward educational materials about psilocybin. Too many new users jump in without guidance, and that raises the risk of harmful experiences. 



Medical offices, online platforms, and community centers could play a role in distributing simple facts. A deeper conversation among doctors, public health leaders, and policymakers might also help. 



If people choose to explore psilocybin, they should know its possible <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mushroom-magic-new-species-discovered-in-africa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">effects</a>. Broad awareness can reduce unintentional injuries and keep poison centers from bearing the brunt of emergencies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-responsible-research">Importance of responsible research</h2>



Scientific studies on psilocybin are expanding, driven by interest in its potential therapeutic use. A handful of <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27909164/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">clinical trials</a> suggest it can relieve specific mental health symptoms under controlled conditions.



Still, experts advise caution until results are replicated and reviewed. Researchers hope to see more large-scale trials in the near future.



Trials help to confirm safety profiles, determine effective doses, and better understand who could benefit most. Once there is enough valid evidence, health authorities can make informed decisions about approving psilocybin-related therapies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-hope-and-risks">Balancing hope and risks</h2>



Fans of magic mushrooms highlight experiences of spiritual or introspective growth. Others cite anecdotal relief from depression or chronic pain. 



Medical professionals respond that each user brings a unique history, including mental health factors, that might heighten risks. Some also worry that blanket decriminalization could send the wrong message.



Substance misuse can surface if people jump into using potent compounds without a plan or supervision. Encouraging responsible decisions goes hand in hand with exploring psilocybin’s possible upsides.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-psilocybin-safety">The future of psilocybin safety</h2>



A lack of comprehensive tracking tools prevents health facilities from planning for potential surges in psilocybin-related visits. Researchers urge policy revisions that integrate consistent psilocybin coding. Clear codes would allow doctors to pinpoint frequent complications and stock resources accordingly.



Hospitals operating in regions where psilocybin use is on the rise might train staff to handle its distinct side effects. This includes mental health professionals equipped with therapy insights, and emergency teams ready for psychedelic crises.



Supporters of psilocybin believe momentum will continue as studies gain traction and more states debate legalization. Experts will watch these policy shifts in real time.



Community programs or peer education campaigns may help encourage careful exploration of psilocybin rather than spur-of-the-moment decisions.



The study was published in the <a href="https://www.acpjournals.org/doi/10.7326/ANNALS-24-03145" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Annals of Internal Medicine</a>.



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Increased use of psilocybin in U.S. raises health concerns

Over the past few years, more people across the United...

The bounty of apple varieties - from Honeycrisp to Granny Smith - obscures a deeper truth: nearly all of them share a lineage that stretches back tens of millions of years. Until recently, however, scientists had only a sketchy understanding of how those ancestral species diversified, swapped genes, or survived ice ages and shifting continents.



A sweeping new study changes that, unveiling a detailed genetic atlas for 30 species in the genus Malus - and providing breeders with a treasure map for tastier, tougher fruit.



“There are roughly 35 species in the genus Malus, but despite the importance of apple as a fruit crop, there hasn’t been extensive study of how this group’s genomes have evolved,” said Hong Ma, an expert in plant development and evolution at the <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pennsylvania State University</a> and one of the paper’s senior authors.



“In this study, we were able to do a deep dive into the genomes of Malus, establish an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/apple-orchards-face-compounding-threats-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">apple</a> family tree, document events like whole-genome duplications and hybridizations between species, and find regions of the genome associated with specific traits, like resistance to apple scab disease.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-evolution-of-apples">Complex evolution of apples</h2>



To reconstruct the family tree, Ma and an international consortium of researchers sequenced and assembled high-quality genomes from 30 Malus species, including the iconic "Golden Delicious." 



Twenty of those species are diploid - possessing two copies of every chromosome, as humans do - while the remaining ten are polyploid, carrying three or four copies thanks to relatively recent hybridization events.



By comparing nearly 1,000 genes shared across the roster, the team traced the genus’s roots to Asia approximately 56 million years ago. From that ancestral stock, lineages radiated outward, sometimes merging back together in hybrid bursts that left behind telltale patterns of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-use-dna-duplication-to-increase-their-resilience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">duplicated DNA</a>. 



Those duplications, known as whole-genome duplication events, complicate efforts to align chromosomes species by species - much like comparing two scrapbooks whose photographs have been rearranged multiple times.



“The evolutionary history of the genus is quite complex, with numerous examples of hybridization between species and a shared whole-genome duplication event that make comparisons difficult,” Ma explained. 



“Having high-quality genomes for such a large number of the species in the genus and understanding the relationships among them allowed us to dig deeper into how the genus has evolved.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-the-genes-of-apples">Exploring the genes of apples</h2>



Standard genome comparisons can miss critical differences when researchers look at only a few individuals. To widen the lens, the team built what geneticists call a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meet-the-pangenome-the-clearest-snapshot-ever-taken-of-human-genomic-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pan-genome</a> - a composite reference that catalogs which genes are shared across all 30 species and which appear in only a subset. 



They also logged transposons, the so-called “jumping genes” that can copy or paste themselves into new chromosomal locations, reshuffling genetic instructions along the way.



“The use of the pan-genome of 30 species was powerful for detecting structural variation, as well as gene duplications and rearrangements, among the species that might be missed by comparisons of only a few genomes,” Ma said. 



“In this case, one of the uncovered structural variants allowed us to pinpoint the genome segment associated with resistance to apple scab, a fungal disease that impacts apples worldwide.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-selective-genes-in-wild-apples">Selective genes in wild apples</h2>



Beyond structural quirks, the researchers were keen to identify regions of DNA that have raced through populations because they confer a survival edge - so-called selective sweeps. To do that, they built a computational tool tailored to pan-genomes. 



One of their discoveries: a sweep encompassing genes tied to cold tolerance and pathogen resistance that is widespread in hardy wild apples but usually missing from juicier commercial cultivars. 



“It’s possible that in the efforts to produce the best tasting fruit, there was an inadvertent reduction of the hardiness of domesticated apples,” Ma noted. 



The sweep appears to carry genetic baggage that affects fruit chemistry - and, by extension, flavor. That raises a tantalizing breeding challenge: can scientists break the genetic link so future cultivars keep robust disease resistance without compromising sweetness or aroma?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-bigger-apple-family-tree-matters">A bigger apple family tree matters</h2>



Modern apple breeding is a decades-long endeavor. Finding candidate parents with the right blend of sweetness, crunch, shelf life, and disease resistance normally involves screening thousands of seedlings in orchards before a single promising cross emerges. 



A detailed genetic map could change that paradigm, enabling breeders to predict desirable traits inside a lab years before trees bear fruit. Knowing the full evolutionary backdrop also helps safeguard the wild relatives that could rescue the crop from tomorrow’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-extremes-could-lead-to-critical-blood-supply-shortages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate extremes</a>. 



Traits such as drought tolerance, pest resistance, or cold hardiness often linger in remote species not yet tapped by commercial breeding - but if habitat loss or disease erases those wild gene banks, rescuing the domesticated apple becomes harder.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-apple-genes-next-generation-orchards">Apple genes: Next-generation orchards</h2>



For now, Ma and colleagues plan to refine their pan-genome, adding the handful of Malus species not yet sequenced and teasing apart how each duplication or rearrangement has influenced everything from tree architecture to sugar content. 



They also hope to share their analytic pipeline so other crop researchers - from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-bread-wheat-gave-rise-to-civilization/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wheat</a> to citrus - can identify hidden genetic assets in their own plant families.



“Understanding the structural variations in the Malus genomes, the relationships among the species and their history of hybridization using pan-genome analysis could help guide future breeding efforts so that the beneficial traits for good taste and disease resistance can both be retained in apples,” Ma said.



The humble apple has traveled a winding genetic road over 56 million years. With this new map in hand, breeders - and perhaps consumers - stand to reap a richer, more resilient harvest from that ancient journey.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41588-025-02166-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Genetics</a>.



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Clues from apple genes could sweeten the future of fruit

The bounty of apple varieties - from Honeycrisp to Granny...

Chimpanzees,Couple,Sharing,Fruit

In the forested cliffs of Guinea-Bissau’s Cantanhez National Park, a new discovery may be rewriting what we know about the social lives of our primate cousins. A team of researchers, led by scientists from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Exeter</a>, has documented a rare behavior: wild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-select-the-best-materials-for-termite-fishing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimpanzees</a> eating and sharing fermented fruit that contains alcohol.



The finding, captured using motion-activated cameras, offers intriguing evidence that chimpanzees may not only consume ethanol naturally found in fruits but do so in a way that strengthens their social bonds. This echoes human traditions of sharing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drunk-animals-may-explain-humans-love-of-alcohol/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alcohol</a> during communal feasts.



“For humans, we know that drinking alcohol leads to a release of dopamine and endorphins, and resulting feelings of happiness and relaxation,” said lead author Anna Bowland, from the Center for Ecology and Conservation at Exeter’s Penryn Campus in Cornwall.



“We also know that sharing alcohol - including through traditions such as feasting - helps to form and strengthen social bonds. So - now we know that wild chimpanzees are eating and sharing ethanolic fruits - the question is: could they be getting similar benefits?”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzee-behavior-caught-in-the-act">Chimpanzee behavior: Caught in the act</h2>



The footage showed chimpanzees engaging with large, fibrous African breadfruit that had begun to ferment, naturally developing ethanol levels. Across ten recorded instances, chimps of various ages and sexes were seen actively sharing the fruit, sometimes ignoring larger, unfermented pieces in favor of smaller, fermented ones.



Two adult females, Chip and Até, opted for a ripe, alcoholic piece over a more substantial one. In another case, adult males Mandjambé and Gary approached a breadfruit with aggressive posturing, before Mandjambé laid claim to a piece. Though the initial interactions were tense, others nearby, including Bobby, also joined in and sampled the fruit.



The alcohol content of the fruit, measured at up to 0.61% alcohol by volume (ABV), is relatively low - roughly comparable to a light <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-humans-were-drinking-beer-in-china-over-10000-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beer</a>. But as chimpanzees consume large amounts of fruit daily, the cumulative intake could be significant.



“They can feed on kilograms of the stuff every day. It’s probably analogous to us sipping on a light beer,” said senior author Kimberley Hockings, a lecturer at the University of Exeter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzees-sharing-alcoholic-fruit">Chimpanzees sharing alcoholic fruit</h2>



This isn’t the first time scientists have observed chimpanzees consuming alcohol. In 2015, Hockings and her colleagues published research showing that chimps in West Africa had learned to steal palm sap from human containers - sap that had undergone natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brewing-beer-in-space-the-future-of-fermentation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fermentation</a>. 



Some chimps even appeared tipsy afterward, delaying nest-building and displaying mischievous behavior. However, in the latest observations, there’s no evidence that the chimps reached a level of inebriation. 



The researchers note that becoming visibly drunk would likely impair a wild chimpanzee’s ability to survive, making such behavior evolutionarily disadvantageous. Still, the attraction to fermented fruits raises fascinating questions about cognition, behavior, and the potential benefits of mild alcohol consumption.



“Chimps don’t share food all the time, so this behavior with fermented fruit might be important,” said Hockings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fruit-feasting-traditions">Fruit feasting traditions</h2>



The study explores the idea that our own traditions of communal eating and drinking may have ancient evolutionary roots. The researchers propose that the behavior seen in chimpanzees today could represent an early form of “feasting.”



“We need to find out more about whether they deliberately seek out ethanolic fruits and how they metabolise it, but this behavior could be the early evolutionary stages of feasting,” Hockings said. “If so, it suggests the human tradition of feasting may have its origins deep in our evolutionary history.”



The notion that humans aren’t alone in their penchant for alcohol isn’t entirely new. Biologists have speculated that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-had-surprising-diets-3-5-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early humans</a> may have been drawn to fermented fruits both for their energy content and their intoxicating effects.



Recent genetic evidence supports this, revealing a molecular adaptation in the common ancestor of African apes that improved ethanol metabolism. Such adaptations may have allowed ancient species, including humans and chimpanzees, to safely consume small amounts of alcohol as part of their diet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-do-chimpanzees-seek-out-alcoholic-fruit">Do chimpanzees seek out alcoholic fruit?</h2>



Though the dataset is small - just 10 filmed instances - the findings open the door to a new area of primate research. 



Future studies may explore whether chimpanzees intentionally seek out fermented fruits, how their digestive systems process ethanol, and whether such behavior is widespread or localized to specific populations.



Hockings believes that more discoveries may be just around the corner. The number of observations was small but they could lead to an explosion of research into the topic, she argued.



At the very least, the study offers a glimpse into the social dynamics of chimpanzees and the complex behaviors they exhibit - ones that may not be so different from our own. 



Thus, perhaps chimpanzees feasting on alcoholic fruit provide a mirror to the earliest roots of human sociability - bonding over a shared snack and, possibly, a mild buzz.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00281-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Chimpanzees share alcoholic fruit to increase social bonding

In the forested cliffs of Guinea-Bissau’s Cantanhez National Park, a...

The world’s ability to feed itself depends heavily on farms. Nitrogen fertilizers are used on farms to grow more crops, ensuring food for people and feed for livestock. But while fertilizers power growth, they also carry an environmental cost that often goes unseen.



When plants can’t absorb all the nitrogen, part of it escapes into the atmosphere as nitrous oxide (N₂O) - a greenhouse gas with staggering potency. It traps nearly 300 times more heat than carbon dioxide (CO₂), warming the Earth far more efficiently.



Despite its low profile, nitrous oxide is a major player in the climate crisis. About 70% of all human-caused nitrous oxide emissions come from agricultural soils.



Yet unlike carbon dioxide, which follows predictable patterns, nitrous oxide behaves more like a phantom - appearing without warning and vanishing just as fast. Understanding when and where these gases emerge is crucial, not only for scientific models but also for practical solutions that reduce <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-accelerating-beyond-control-as-co2-levels-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emissions</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-precision-matters-in-soil-science">Precision matters in soil science</h2>



Until now, most studies on soil greenhouse gases have relied on small sample sizes, limited sampling dates, or simplified assumptions. This makes it difficult to fully understand how much gas escapes from a given field over time.



Conventional methods are often too narrow in scope to capture short-lived or scattered emission events, especially those from nitrous oxide.



A research team from the <a href="https://illinois.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign</a> set out to overcome these limitations. Their goal was ambitious: to capture the full spatial and temporal complexity of CO₂ and nitrous oxide emissions across real farms, over multiple years, and under typical farming conditions.



The study focused on commercial corn and soybean fields using three tillage practices: conventional, conservation, and no-till.



“Mitigating agricultural soil greenhouse gas emissions can help us meet global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-waste-has-a-surprising-impact-on-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a> goals,” said study co-author Chunhwa Jang. The team noted that only a large-scale, high-frequency dataset could paint a reliable picture of what’s happening beneath our feet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nitrous-oxide-emissions-from-farms">Nitrous oxide emissions from farms</h2>



To monitor soil emissions, the researchers deployed a network of gas sampling points across three large farms in central Illinois. 



Picture these points as tiny smokestacks embedded in the earth. Machines were brought in every week or two to measure gas levels, capturing both CO₂ and N₂O over the full growing seasons of 2021 and 2022.



The experts found that CO₂ <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/many-people-are-willing-to-switch-to-plant-based-food-to-save-the-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emissions</a> were consistent across fields, crops, and years - a reassuring result. It meant scientists could confidently monitor carbon dioxide using lower sampling densities without losing accuracy.



“We found carbon dioxide flux was similar across individual fields, sites, and years, or even between corn and soybean systems,” Jang noted.



Nitrous oxide, however, defied predictability. Its emissions fluctuated wildly, creating what researchers called “hot moments” and “hot spots.” 



One day, a particular point might spike in emissions; the next day, it might go quiet while another area lit up. These chaotic shifts meant that even dense sampling grids sometimes missed key events.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nitrous-oxide-spikes-unpredictability">Nitrous oxide spikes unpredictability </h2>



Unlike CO₂, which was evenly distributed, N₂O hotspots packed a disproportionate punch. Though they occupied just 12–13% of a field, they could account for up to 54% of total <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2023-climate-change-report-record-high-temperatures-greenhouse-gases-sea-level-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emissions</a>. 



At the Villa Grove site - managed with conventional tillage and planted with continuous corn - the numbers were most extreme.



Data showed that emissions from this site were more than four times higher than those from conservation-managed fields. The combination of heavy nitrogen use and deep tillage likely triggered this spike. 



These methods disturb the soil, release trapped gases, and increase microbial activity - all of which drive nitrous oxide production.



“We may not be able to predict where and when nitrous oxide will spike, but we do know management makes a difference,” said Jang. Fields with continuous corn and traditional tillage saw much higher emissions than those under rotation or conservation practices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nitrous-oxide-hotspots-on-farms">Nitrous oxide hotspots on farms</h2>



The researchers observed that the timing and method of fertilizer application had major <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-co2-emissions-rise-as-nations-tackle-fossil-fuel-dependence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">impacts</a>. For example, fields receiving side-dressed nitrogen along crop rows were more predictable than those with broadcast applications.



Yet even then, randomness crept in. Sometimes, emissions seemed tied to where the fertilizer landed in relation to the gas sampling collar, adding uncertainty to the readings.



To make matters more complex, nitrous oxide hotspots rarely stayed in the same place from one year to the next. In most cases, the spatial patterns changed so much that it was hard to determine whether observed hotspots were real or artifacts of shifting management practices.



The team conducted a detailed analysis of flux consistency across years. They found that only a few sampling points behaved reliably. At many locations, N₂O emissions fluctuated by tenfold or more between years. 



“Spatially and temporally, nitrous oxide was very variable,” Jang reiterated. This variability challenges the way scientists currently model soil gas emissions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smarter-monitoring-for-n₂o-emissions">Smarter monitoring for N₂O emissions</h2>



The unpredictability of nitrous oxide means traditional monitoring methods fall short. 



Static chambers and small sample sizes are likely to miss the true scale of emissions. If models are based on these limited datasets, they may under- or overestimate field-scale emissions, distorting climate forecasts.



“This project enabled us to capture spatio-temporal and management variation to provide gold-standard data and a platform for validating field-level greenhouse gas emissions,” said co-author DoKyoung Lee.



The team's findings suggest that higher sampling density is essential - especially for nitrous oxide.



Through simulation, the researchers found that to estimate N₂O emissions with less than 25% error, fields need at least 5.6 sampling points per hectare. For CO₂, only 1.6 points are needed. This shows how much more sensitive nitrous oxide emissions are to spatial resolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farming-practices-shape-nitrous-oxide-emissions">Farming practices shape nitrous oxide emissions </h2>



One of the study’s key takeaways is the role of management in emission control. Fields under conservation and no-till practices showed both lower emissions and less variability. 



In contrast, conventional systems that disrupt soil and apply nitrogen heavily had not only higher emissions but also larger uncertainties.



In particular, the Villa Grove site stood out. Managed with deep chisel tillage and continuous corn, it produced up to 785 mg/m² of nitrous oxide - nearly nine times the levels observed in rotated soybean systems. This finding aligns with earlier studies and confirms that farming practices strongly shape emission profiles.



Though it’s hard to predict where hotspots will form, choosing crop rotations and reduced tillage can help shrink the overall size of the problem. That gives farmers a way to contribute to climate solutions without sacrificing yields.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-models-need-better-data">Climate models need better data</h2>



Accurate field data is the foundation of every global climate model. If the field data is wrong or incomplete, then the predictions those models generate may misguide policies. 



The University of Illinois study provides one of the most robust datasets yet for calibrating climate models with real-world agricultural emissions.



It also points to a broader issue: the tradeoff between scale and control. Gathering high-resolution, multi-year data across large farms is incredibly labor-intensive. 



The researchers suggest that small, well-managed field experiments may be a better way to understand the biological mechanisms behind N₂O emissions. For large-scale estimates, however, grid-based sampling with enough points per hectare seems to be the best path forward.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-each-gas-needs-a-unique-strategy">Each gas needs a unique strategy</h2>



This research reveals how differently CO₂ and N₂O behave in agricultural soils. While CO₂ flows steadily, nitrous oxide erupts in bursts, influenced by everything from rainfall to fertilizer timing. That difference demands tailored strategies for each gas.



Reducing agricultural emissions isn’t just about cutting fertilizer or changing crops. It’s about understanding the invisible patterns in the soil and designing systems that can track and respond to them. 



With the right data, tools, and practices, farmers can keep growing food while also shrinking their carbon - and nitrogen - footprint.



This work serves as a reminder that not all gases are created equal, and neither are the ways they move through the soil. Precision, patience, and smarter farming can help us stay grounded - even as we try to cool the skies.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167880925001689?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Agriculture Ecosystems &amp; Environment</a>.



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Nitrous oxide emissions erupt from farms in unpredictable bursts

The world’s ability to feed itself depends heavily on farms....

Greenland’s ice-covered landscape looks like an immovable block on satellite maps. Yet the story locked beneath its center suggests a very different past, one that places future coastal cities in a tight spot. 



During the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-were-likely-the-leading-cause-of-megafauna-extinctions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pleistocene</a> - the geologic chapter that began about 2.7 million years ago and ran through innumerable swings between cold and mild - the island’s ice waxed and waned in tune with global climate. 



New evidence hints that those swings were more dramatic than scientists once believed.



In 1993, drillers hauled a two‑mile‑deep ice core up from the island’s highest point and stowed the entire column in a Colorado freezer. 



The surprise awaited in the bottom three inches of sediment: perfectly preserved traces of a tundra ecosystem. 



That sliver of soil, shielded for ages by roughly 1.9 miles (3 km) of ice, now refocuses the conversation about future sea level and the stability of polar ice in a warming world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tundra-hidden-beneath-greenland-s-ice">Tundra hidden beneath Greenland's ice</h2>



Once the drill broke through that 1.9‑mile roof of ice, the researchers retrieved those three inches of till. 



“These fossils are beautiful,” says Paul Bierman, a scientist at the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a> who co‑led the new study with UVM graduate student Halley Mastro and nine other researchers.



“But, yes, we go from bad to worse,” Bierman added, referring to what this finding implies about the impact of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/indisputable-evidence-of-human-caused-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human‑caused climate change</a> on melting of the Greenland ice sheet.



The till holds poppy, spike‑moss, woody willow tissue, fungal sclerotia, insect parts, and a band of soil capped by about 16 inches of erratic boulders. 



This is clear evidence that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drones-reveal-hidden-details-about-greenlands-melting-ice/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">central Greenland</a> once lay ice‑free under a cold, dry sky where late‑lying snow lingered through early summer.



Because the material sits undisturbed, the team is confident it was not swept in from elsewhere as ice advanced.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inside-a-deep-greenland-ice-core">Inside a deep Greenland ice core</h2>



“Once we made the discovery at Camp Century, we thought, ‘Hey, what's at the bottom of GISP2?’” Bierman recalled.



High‑energy isotope ratios show that the summit last saw open air within the past 1.1 million years, while argon trapped in overlying clear ice indicates at least 250,000 years of continuous cover since then. Basal ice at another drilling site about 19 miles away is roughly 1 million years old. 



A separate core from Camp Century <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/city-under-the-ice-secret-base-camp-found-in-greenland/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">near the coast</a> yielded plant remains no older than 416,000 years, underscoring the ice sheet’s flickering presence across the Pleistocene. 



These findings draw on material that had been stored at the National Science Foundation <a href="https://icecores.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ice Core Facility</a> in Lakewood, Colorado, for three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-divulge-a-warmer-greenland">Fossils divulge a warmer Greenland</h2>



Under the microscope, what had looked like no more than specks floating on the surface of the melted core sample was, in fact, a window into a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-transformation-ice-melt-plant-growth-vegetation-cascading-effects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tundra landscape</a>. 



“It was amazing,” Mastro exclaimed. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/greenland_soil-sample_fossils_recently-melted-ice_credit-UVermont_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/greenland_soil-sample_fossils_recently-melted-ice_credit-UVermont_1s.webp" alt="Willow bud scale, arctic poppy seed, fungal bodies, and rock spikemoss megaspores found in the GISP2 soil sample viewed under a microscope at the University of Vermont. Credit: Halley Mastro/University of Vermont" class="wp-image-1966471"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Willow bud scale, arctic poppy seed, fungal bodies, and rock spikemoss megaspores found in the GISP2 soil sample viewed under a microscope at the University of Vermont. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Halley Mastro/University of Vermont</figcaption></figure>



Mastro and colleagues picked out spores of spike‑moss, the bud scale of a young willow, and the compound eye of an insect - life‑forms adapted to chilly air and long summer daylight.



“And then we found Arctic poppy - just one seed of it. That is a tiny flower that's really good at adapting to the cold. It lets us know that Greenland's ice melted and there was soil, because poppies don't grow on top of miles of ice,” Mastro continued.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sea-level-risks-for-global-coasts">Sea‑level risks for global coasts</h2>



Sea level today is rising more than an inch each decade. “And it's getting faster and faster,” said&nbsp;Bierman. The extra water comes from a warming ocean that expands as well as from melting glaciers worldwide.



Near‑complete melting of Greenland’s ice over the next centuries to a few millennia would lead to some 23 feet of sea‑level rise. 



“Look at Boston, New York, Miami, Mumbai, or any other coastal city around the world, and add 20‑plus feet of sea level. It goes underwater. Don't buy a beach house," Bierman advised.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-much-did-sea-levels-rise-after-the-last-ice-age-alarming-new-clues-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sea level</a> is likely to be several feet higher by the end of this century, when today’s children are grandparents.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greenland-s-fragile-ice-fortress">Greenland's fragile ice fortress</h2>



Richard Alley, a leading climate scientist at Penn State, reviewed the new research.



“This new study confirms, and expands upon earlier evidence, that significant sea‑level rise occurred at a time when the causes of warming were not especially extreme, providing a warning of the damage we might cause if we continue to warm the climate," Alley noted.



“We now have direct evidence that not only was the ice gone, but that plants and insects were living there,” Bierman concluded. “And that's unassailable. You don't have to rely on calculations or models.” 



The fossil soil at Greenland’s summit, locked beneath nearly two miles of ice, speaks plainly: polar ice sheets can retreat far and fast when the climate tips, and the coastlines of the future will trace that story in real time. 



Whether that warning is heeded remains a decision for policy makers and citizens alike.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2407465121#supplementary-materials" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Greenland fossil discovery stuns and worries scientists: "Don't buy a beach house"

Greenland’s ice-covered landscape looks like an immovable block on satellite...

Every plant leaf, eagle feather, and speck of pond scum spell out existence with the same four DNA letters. Ribosomes read that code, snap together twenty familiar amino acids, and pay each cellular bill with the energy token ATP.



That sameness keeps biologists chasing one big puzzle: if the instructions are nearly identical everywhere, who wrote the first edition? 



The answer points to LUCA - the Last Universal Common Ancestor - an organism that sat at the split between Bacteria and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-the-pressure-builds-archaea-go-multicellular/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Archaea</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-genetic-code-one-single-ancestor">One genetic code, one single ancestor</h2>



Living systems are not fond of coincidence. A single genetic alphabet, the same protein‑making machinery, and a universal energy currency add up to more than luck. 



“The evolutionary history of genes is complicated by their exchange between lineages," explained Dr. Edmund Moody, lead author from the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>. His team sifted thousands of genomes to see how far back the shared toolkit stretches.



"We have to use complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-model-esm3-creates-new-protein-that-simulates-500-million-years-of-biological-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary models</a> to reconcile the evolutionary history of genes with the genealogy of species.” 



By letting the data, rather than strict cutoffs, decide which features belonged to LUCA, the researchers landed on roughly 2,600 genes - about as many as a run‑of‑the‑mill modern bacterium carries. 



Co-author Dr. Tom Williams noted, “One of the real advantages here is applying the gene‑tree species‑tree reconciliation approach to such a diverse dataset representing the primary domains of life, Archaea and Bacteria. This allows us to say with some confidence - and assess that level of confidence - in how LUCA lived.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-luca-s-developmental-toolkit">LUCA's developmental toolkit</h2>



Previous estimates swung from a lean 80‑gene outline to libraries topping 1,500 families. The updated theory paints LUCA as anything but a genetic ghost. 



Inside those 2,600 blueprints are membrane pumps, DNA‑repair crews, and all the ingredients for simple lipids. Better still, the cache includes the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood%E2%80%93Ljungdahl_pathway" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wood–Ljungdahl pathway</a>, a tidy chemical loop that welds carbon dioxide to hydrogen, spits out acetate, and releases usable energy in the process.



Such provisions point to a self‑reliant cell thriving without outside help. That picture challenges older ideas that early life was a stripped‑down passenger riding geology’s coattails toward complexity. 



Instead, LUCA seems to have been capable, adaptable, and ready to try new tricks the moment the planet cooled enough to keep liquid water in place.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemistry-of-hydrothermal-vents">Chemistry of hydrothermal vents</h2>



Tracking gene changes throughout Earth's history, the study dates LUCA to about 4.2 billion years ago, only a few hundred million years after Earth itself pulled together. 



“We did not expect LUCA to be so old, within just hundreds of millions of years of Earth formation. However, our results fit with modern views on the habitability of early Earth,” said <a href="https://research-information.bris.ac.uk/en/persons/sandra-alvarez-carretero?_gl=1*1vhoh1m*_ga*NzU0MjM5MjI2LjE3NDQ5Mjc5MDk.*_ga_6R8SPL3HLT*MTc0NDkzMTg1Ni4yLjEuMTc0NDkzMTk2Mi42MC4wLjA." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Sandra Álvarez‑Carretero</a>.



Back then, asteroid impacts and belching volcanoes regularly upended the crust. Yet seafloor hydrothermal vents likely offered warm, metal‑rich oases. 



Iron, nickel, and sulfur minerals could have driven the very reactions scripted in LUCA’s genome. 



The Wood–Ljungdahl pathway, still used by some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-type-of-microbes-found-earths-deep-soil-critical-zone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">present‑day microbes</a>, fits neatly into that setting, turning vent chemistry into food and fuel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-luca-s-peace-was-short-lived">LUCA's peace was short-lived</h2>



“Our study showed that LUCA was a complex organism, not too different from modern prokaryotes. What is really interesting is that it clearly possessed an early immune system, showing that even by 4.2 billion years ago, our ancestor was already engaged in an arms race with viruses,” said <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/people/person/Davide-Pisani-27ef6f2a-19b3-4474-b71c-e61f2c8585a4/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Davide Pisani</a>. 



Genes resembling today’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crispr-gene-editing-gets-a-revolutionary-upgrade-with-new-tool/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CRISPR</a> defenses suggest viral predators appeared almost as soon as cells did.



This constant sparring matters. Viral raids can shuffle genes between hosts faster than random mutation alone. 



The pressure to dodge infection forces microbes to innovate, potentially speeding up the invention of new enzymes, pathways, and even entire metabolic lifestyles that later lineages would inherit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbes-sharing-space-with-luca">Microbes sharing space with LUCA</h2>



It’s clear that LUCA was exploiting and changing its environment, but it is unlikely to have lived alone. 



"Its waste would have been food for other microbes, like methanogens, that would have helped to create a recycling ecosystem,” observed Tim Lenton from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Exeter</a>. 



In modern hydrothermal vents, acetate‑producers and methane‑makers trade leftovers, smoothing local chemistry and stabilizing energy flows.



Similar give‑and‑take could explain how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/was-early-earth-a-purple-planet-scientists-say-its-possible/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early Earth</a> cycled carbon and hydrogen long before <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sounding-the-alarm-microplastics-are-disrupting-photosynthesis-around-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a> took the stage. 



By knitting together waste and resource, hydrothermal vent communities may have tempered extreme swings in temperature and acidity, opening fresh niches for the next wave of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-first-bacteria-used-oxygen-about-one-billion-years-earlier-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary experiments</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-luca-matter">Why does LUCA matter?</h2>



“The findings and methods employed in this work will also inform future studies that look in more detail into the subsequent evolution of prokaryotes in light of Earth history, including the lesser‑studied Archaea with their methanogenic representatives,” said Professor Anja Spang, co-author from the Royal Netherlands <a href="https://www.nioz.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute for Sea Research</a>.



<a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/people/person/Philip-Donoghue-4fd2d6ef-3986-4566-97e4-7ae7db296525/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Philip Donoghue</a> highlighted the interdisciplinary nature of the work, saying it brought together data and techniques from across multiple fields. 



This collaborative approach, he explained, made it possible to uncover insights into early Earth and the origins of life that no single discipline could have revealed on its own. 



He also pointed out how swiftly ecosystems seem to have taken root on the early planet - an observation that opens the door to the possibility that life might be thriving on other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exoplanet-k2-18b-strongest-evidence-yet-of-extraterrestrial-life-discovered-webb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth-like worlds</a> in the universe.



"This suggests that life may be flourishing on Earth‑like biospheres elsewhere in the universe," Donoghue concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



To sum it all up, each genome pulled from ocean mud or desert crust adds a puzzle piece to LUCA’s portrait. 



As sequencing tech grows faster and cheaper, scientists will keep hunting for ancient gene families, refining the ancestral blueprint, and scoping out early viral fossils hidden in microbial DNA. 



New drilling missions aimed at untouched seafloor vents could reveal communities whose lifestyles echo those first biochemical gambles, tightening links between geology and genetics.



The storyline is still unfolding, but one takeaway already stands firm: life did not tiptoe onto the stage. It sprinted, armed with a full toolkit, ready to spar with viruses, and eager to reshape its surroundings - leaving every organism alive today carrying a hint of that four‑billion‑year‑old spark.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-024-02461-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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All life on Earth comes from one single ancestor, now we know what it was

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<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-celebrate-earth-month-with-earthsnap">Celebrate Earth Month with EarthSnap</h2>



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<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full is-resized"><a href="https://www.earthsnap.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/EarthSnap_feature-graphic_press-release_V3s.webp" alt="EarthSnap is FREE, download today. Click here." class="wp-image-1966695" style="width:300px;height:auto"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">EarthSnap is FREE, download today. Click here.</figcaption></figure>



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Nature enthusiasts are flocking to EarthSnap for plant and animal ID

Nature lovers worldwide are turning to EarthSnap, the AI-powered identification...

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