Acipenser transmontanus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of<a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=d55013d210f7439f8ca981b3b73576f2&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i60j69i57j69i60l2j69i59.492j0j4&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS"> North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.White sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus) is a species of sturgeon in the family Acipenseridae of the order Acipenseriformes. They are an anadromous fish species ranging in the Eastern Pacific; from the Gulf of Alaska to Monterey, California. However, some are landlocked in the Columbia River Drainage, Montana, and Lake Shasta in California, with reported sightings in northern Baja California, Mexico.Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes) &gt; Acipenseriformes (Sturgeons and paddlefishes) &gt; Acipenseridae (Sturgeons) &gt; Acipenserinae Etymology: : Latin, = sturgeon, 1853 (Ref. 45335); transmontanus: The specific name is derived from the Latin acipenser (sturgeon), trans (beyond), and montanus (mountain) (Ref. 27436).More on author: Richardson.

Acipenser transmontanus

Acipenser transmontanus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation...

When you look at a forest, the variety of trees you see above ground is only part of the story. Beneath the soil, vast networks of fungi influence which trees thrive, which coexist, and how forests respond to the challenges of climate and geography.



A new study led by researchers from <a href="https://www.purdue.edu/">Purdue University</a> and <a href="https://english.pku.edu.cn/">Peking University</a> has revealed how these underground fungal allies shape tree diversity across the globe. Their influence varies depending on latitude, moisture, and environmental stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungi-hidden-beneath-forests">Fungi hidden beneath forests</h2>



Jingjing Liang, an associate professor of quantitative forest ecology at Purdue, co-led the study with Zhiheng Wang from Peking University.



“What we can see above ground is governed to a large extent by what is happening belowground,” said Liang.



The experts analyzed data from over 442,000 forest plots worldwide and focused on two main groups of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-distribute-enormous-amounts-of-co2-to-mycorrhizal-fungi/">mycorrhizal fungi</a>: ectomycorrhizal and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. 



Both form partnerships with tree roots, trading nutrients for carbohydrates, but they do so in different ways that profoundly influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-rich-tree-diversity-adapt-better-changing-climate/">forest diversity</a>.



“The loss in tree species diversity may damage the ecosystem services provided by forests," Wang said. "Understanding the mechanisms driving the maintenance of tree species forest diversity is fundamental for the conservation of tree species diversity.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solving-a-forest-diversity-puzzle">Solving a forest diversity puzzle</h2>



For years, scientists have debated how fungal partnerships impact tree species diversity, proposing three competing hypotheses. This comprehensive global study found that all three are valid, depending on environmental context.



“Our findings reconcile inconsistencies regarding how mycorrhizal symbiosis influences tree species diversity,” Wang said.



Using precise forest inventory data collected worldwide, the team applied advanced statistical methods to filter noise from complex ecological data, revealing hidden patterns.



“With this data, we were able to very accurately capture this relationship between different types of mycorrhizal fungi and forest tree species diversity,” Liang explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungal-effects-shift-with-climate">Fungal effects shift with climate</h2>



<a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a> ecologist Peter Reich, a senior co-author, highlighted the value of the study’s comprehensive approach. 



“This insight would have been impossible to detect without the comprehensiveness of this dataset, which allows us to test across large gradients of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-altering-the-temperature-in-66-of-tropical-forests/">temperature</a>, moisture, and latitude,” he said.



Reich explained that ectomycorrhizal fungi often dominate in cold, nutrient-poor regions that naturally have fewer tree species. Without a broad dataset, this dominance could obscure the fungi’s more nuanced effects.



“But by being able to tease apart temperature and moisture, we can see that when conditions are generally good," he said. "The more abundant the ectomycorrhizal are, the more they do to reduce tree richness.”



The process is complex. While dominant tree species naturally suppress less competitive species, root <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-pandemic-looms-as-pathogens-move-from-wild-plants-to-crops/">pathogens</a> usually check the dominance, allowing diversity. 



Ectomycorrhizal fungi suppress these pathogens, enabling dominant trees to thrive unchecked, which can reduce species diversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-harder-climates-stronger-alliances">Harder climates, stronger alliances</h2>



The study also found that under stressful conditions - such as low moisture or cold climates - the combination of both fungal types fosters greater diversity.



In these environments, resource-sharing partnerships help more tree species survive, while pathogen suppression plays a smaller role.



“Both ways of influencing tree diversity are real, but their relative balance and magnitude of impacts vary with environmental context,” Reich said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-healing-forests-from-below">Healing forests from below</h2>



Liang emphasized that understanding the hidden fungal networks in forests is akin to treating a patient holistically. 



“We should not just look at the surface symptoms. We should look deep down, literally to the roots of the problems, and that is belowground mutualism,” he said.



This work, supported by the <a href="https://www.gfbinitiative.org/">Global Forest Biodiversity Initiative</a> and its Science-i platform, demonstrates how global collaborations can untangle complex ecological questions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forest-conservation-and-fungal-networks">Forest conservation and fungal networks</h2>



The findings open pathways for further research: How do these underground alliances affect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-forests-with-many-tree-species-are-more-effective-at-carbon-storage/">carbon storage</a> in forests? Can fostering specific fungal partnerships enhance forest resilience in a changing climate?



&nbsp;“And what can we do to enhance the health of our forest ecosystem by not just seeing what is on the surface, but what is belowground?” Liang asked.



By revealing the profound influence of underground fungal networks on forest diversity, this research underscores that the key to healthier forests - and perhaps a healthier planet - may lie hidden beneath our feet.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt5743">Science Advances</a>.



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How an invisible fungal alliance helps forests thrive

When you look at a forest, the variety of trees...

The world’s appetite for avocados rests almost entirely on a single variety: the creamy Hass. That genetic sameness has streamlined production into a multibillion-dollar industry. 



But it also invites disaster, as uniform orchards can collapse quickly when faced with a new pest, pathogen, or heat wave.



To find a different path, experts from <a href="https://www.tamu.edu/">Texas A&amp;M University</a> have traveled far back in time - 11,000 years - to a Honduran rockshelter whose charred ancient avocado pits chronicle the birth of the crop and offer clues to a more resilient future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-avocado-fossils-in-a-cave">Avocado fossils in a cave</h2>



El Gigante, perched high in the western Honduran highlands, is a natural vault. Its dry interior has preserved plant remains that would normally rot in the humid tropics.



“It’s a truly incredible preservation of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-reveals-how-plants-use-winged-seeds-to-expand-their-habitats/">plant fossils</a> and an abundance of avocado remains in a tropical region where plants generally do not preserve well,” said co-author Heather B. Thakar, an assistant professor in the Department of Anthropology at Texas A&amp;M.



Layer upon layer of seeds, rinds, and other botanical scraps lie undisturbed, creating a sequential record of human meals - and human influence on local plants - stretching back to the end of the last ice age.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-avocados-outlived-their-giants">Avocados outlived their giants</h2>



According to the scientists, avocados first evolved to entice gigantic browsers such as gomphotheres and mammoths.



“Avocados are an amazing food source for humans, rich in healthy fats and nutrients that are essential to us,” Thakar said.



“But they originally evolved as a food source for ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tracing-the-disappearance-of-north-americas-megafauna/">megafauna</a> like giant sloths (gomphotheres) and mammoths that lived in the Americas during the last ice age.”



When those animals disappeared, humans stepped in to fill the ecological vacancy. Evidence at El Gigante shows early foragers selectively tending wild trees, nurturing seedlings with bigger seeds and fleshier fruit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farming-over-thousands-of-years">Farming over thousands of years</h2>



The team radiocarbon-dated hundreds of pits and rinds to build an exceptionally fine-grained timeline. Measurements revealed a steady upsizing: seeds grew larger and rinds thicker as the centuries passed.



“Through traditional forest management practices, people were selecting bigger and thicker-skinned avocados,” Thakar noted.



By 7,500 years ago, fruit size and durability hint that growers could harvest and transport avocados across larger distances. Full domestication appears roughly 2,000 years ago. 



That makes avocado cultivation in Honduras older than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/maize-plant-genetics-shape-root-health-and-growth/">maize</a>, beans, or squash - crops that would later dominate Mesoamerican farming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-past-lessons-for-future-crops">Past lessons for future crops</h2>



“Our work with El Gigante's avocado remains offers valuable information about resilience and adaptation in the face of climate change,” Thakar said.



Unlike modern orchardists who propagate identical Hass cuttings through grafting, ancient farmers planted seeds, preserving genetic variety.



“Much of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-trees-protect-their-genetic-diversity-for-millions-of-years/">genetic diversity</a> of ancient avocados still exists in wild populations in Mexico and Central America,” Thakar added.



“By developing new avocado varieties through seed selection from both modern domesticated plants and wild populations, we may have a better chance of adapting to these changing conditions than relying on cloning alone.”



Broadening commercial stock with traits such as drought tolerance or disease resistance could buffer future harvests against environmental shocks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-avocado-cave-earns-global-notice">Ancient avocado cave earns global notice</h2>



Scientists and local communities alike recognize El Gigante not just for its cultural importance, but for its scientific value as well. 



Honduras has proposed the shelter for <a href="https://www.wmf.org/videos/content-world-monuments-fund-and-unesco-world-heritage-sites?gad_source=1&amp;gad_campaignid=22461168217&amp;gbraid=0AAAAAD4zJBFj8U_yyOJyxKFquaCnnbg_W&amp;gclid=Cj0KCQjw64jDBhDXARIsABkk8J4mTznkcgn5ncX37Yk-yEugipmynhK175QfaNBsiUamSXP-bxWKUXQaAi-cEALw_wcB">UNESCO World Heritage</a> status, and Thakar’s team supplies documentation to bolster the case.



“All of the research that we have undertaken is used in support of El Gigante's recent nomination as a UNESCO World Heritage site,” she said.



Although the site’s awkward three-meter climb has deterred looters, occasional campers and hunters do stray inside - making formal protection urgent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-cave-full-of-agriculture">A cave full of agriculture</h2>



El Gigante also stores early evidence for squash and maize domestication. Thakar is actively working on a publication that details the arrival of maize and the 4,500 years of diversification and improvement of this globally important crop.



Thakar's methods - radiocarbon dating, stable-isotope chemistry, and 3-D morphometrics - merge hard science with cultural anthropology. 



She applies this toolkit across Mexico, Belize, and Nicaragua to map humanity’s long partnership with plants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-farming-modern-lessons">Ancient farming, modern lessons</h2>



“The vast majority of food consumed today is a product of domestication,” Thakar said.



Understanding that protracted process can guide modern breeders. Ancient cultivators operated without greenhouses or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gene-modification-can-create-better-tomatoes-eggplants-but-should-we-do-it/">genetic engineering</a>, yet they produced crops - like avocadoes - exquisitely tuned to local soils and climates.



Unearthing those forgotten lineages may reveal alleles lost in today’s streamlined varieties. 



“By studying domestication, we can recover ancient varieties and cultural knowledge that has helped humans become the incredibly successful species that we are," said Thakar.



"It's information that can be used to improve our crops today and ensure our continued survival into the future."



From a Honduran cliffside to global orchards, the avocado’s story shows that agricultural resilience springs from diversity - and that sometimes the best way forward is to look back.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2417072122">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Cave discovery of ancient avocados could rescue a global crop

The world’s appetite for avocados rests almost entirely on a...

The move from hunting and gathering to farming changed human life forever. It shaped how we live, eat, work, and organize our communities. 



But how exactly this shift happened across regions like Anatolia and the Aegean has long been debated. Did early farmers move in and bring agriculture with them? Or did local hunter-gatherers adopt new ways on their own?



A recent study sheds light on this complex transition. Scientists from Middle East Technical University (METU) and Hacettepe University in Turkey, working with the <a href="https://www.unil.ch/unil/en/home.html">University of Lausanne</a> (UNIL) in Switzerland, used both archaeology and genetics to piece together the story. 



The research shows that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-neolithic-mountain-settlers-used-complex-farming-methods/">Neolithic</a> shift wasn’t a one-size-fits-all process. In some places, people moved in with new ideas. In others, the ideas moved faster than the people.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farming-spread-without-people-moving">Farming spread without people moving</h2>



By analyzing DNA and artifacts together, the team uncovered a more nuanced picture of how early farming spread. 



“In some regions of West Anatolia, we see the first transitions to village life nearly 10,000 years ago. However, we also observe thousands of years of genetic continuity, which means that populations did not migrate or mix massively, even though <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/preserving-your-cultural-traditions-drastically-improves-mental-health/">cultural transition</a> was definitely happening,” explained Dilek Koptekin, the study’s first author.



This means that, in parts of Anatolia, people were changing how they lived without being replaced by outsiders. The local communities stayed genetically stable for thousands of years - even as their tools, homes, and rituals evolved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-exchange-of-farming-ideas">Cultural exchange of farming ideas</h2>



We already knew that by around 6,000 BCE, farmers from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-sheds-new-light-on-the-origins-of-the-first-farmers/">Anatolia</a> were moving into Europe, replacing hunting and gathering with agriculture. But what happened before that moment wasn’t clear. 



“Our study allows us to go back in time - to events that were mainly a matter of speculation up to now,” said Koptekin.



One of the key breakthroughs came from sequencing the genome of a 9,000-year-old individual from West Anatolia - the oldest such genome recovered from the region. 



Alongside this, the researchers looked at 29 new paleogenomes and combined that with existing data. The results pointed to something unexpected: very little change in the population’s genetic makeup for over 7,000 years.



“Genetically speaking, these people were mainly locals, meaning that their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-anadoluvius-turkae-suggests-humans-originated-in-europe-not-africa/">ancestors</a> had not recently arrived from elsewhere. Yet their material culture evolved rapidly: they moved from caves to houses, and adopted new tools and rituals from afar," said Anna-Sapfo Malaspinas from UNIL.



"This suggests that these communities adopted Neolithic practices by cultural exchange rather than population replacement.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-culture-on-the-move">Culture on the move</h2>



So how did new ideas reach these communities without large migrations? The answer might be in what the researchers call "background mobility." 



“This means a low but steady movement of individuals around different regions, perhaps linked to exchange, finding partners, or other motivations. These encounters then led to the sharing of material and ideas.” explained Mehmet Somel from METU.



Evidence of this kind of subtle movement shows up in trade goods like obsidian - volcanic glass used to make tools - found in West Anatolia but sourced from volcanoes in Central Anatolia, hundreds of kilometers away. 



It’s a clear sign that people were connected, even if they weren’t relocating in large numbers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-matching-genes-and-artifacts">Matching genes and artifacts</h2>



To get a deeper understanding of how movement and exchange worked, the team used a new approach. They matched ancient DNA data with archaeological findings by reviewing hundreds of studies and quantifying things like pottery styles, tools, and architectural remains. 



“By giving quantitative values to the archaeological data, we were able to directly compare large amounts of data across different sites for the first time,” said Çiğdem Atakuman from METU.



This allowed the researchers to see where people might have moved, and where ideas and practices like farming spread independently of population shifts.



The findings also support a long-standing saying among archaeologists: “Pots don’t equal people.” 



Just because a new style of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baltic-pottery-reveals-ancient-culinary-traditions/">pottery</a> appears in the archaeological record doesn’t mean a new group of people moved in. “Our study confirms this notion,” said Koptekin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-neolithic-was-a-mix-of-changes">The Neolithic was a mix of changes</h2>



Migration wasn’t completely off the table. In some parts of Anatolia, genetic data shows that around 7,000 BCE, new groups did arrive and mix with local populations. In the Aegean, too, another wave of movement brought new cultural elements that would later spread into Europe.



“These types of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/timeline-early-humans-great-migration-reached-america-challenged-again/">migration</a> events, which leave genetically visible shifts, probably comprised a small fraction of movement happening compared to background mobility,” said Füsun Özer from Hacettepe University. 



“The Neolithic, in this view, was not a single process, but a patchwork of transformations, combining cultural adoption, mobility, and at times, migration.”



Koptekin noted that humans have always been adaptive and inclined to change their way of living. "We don’t need crises or big migration events to bring about change."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-more-balanced-way-to-do-science">A more balanced way to do science</h2>



The study was primarily led by researchers based in Turkey, a point the team sees as crucial. For Malaspinas, this kind of collaboration helps science grow in a more balanced way. 



“Our collaboration shows how we, as a scientific community, should move forward to create a more inclusive and globally balanced research landscape,” she said.



By linking large-scale archaeological and genetic data, the researchers were able to move past overly simple models of how farming spread. The story is richer, more complex, and more human.



And that’s the real takeaway: change didn’t always come from conquest or collapse. Sometimes, people just tried something new - and stuck with it.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adr3326">Science</a>.



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Ideas traveled farther than people in the early days of farming

The move from hunting and gathering to farming changed human...

Flour,Chickpeas,In,Spoonful,,Chick-peas,In,A,Sack,And,Fresh

For decades, studies on mice, monkeys, and even roundworms have pointed to calorie restriction as a ticket to longevity. Trouble is, perpetual hunger does not rank high on most bucket lists, and adherence to such strict diets tends to plummet once real life barges in with birthdays and barbecues.



By the time researchers at the <a href="https://www.wisc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Wisconsin</a> put calorie-cutting under the microscope, they noticed a pattern: eating less helped animals live longer, but the menu’s makeup mattered just as much. 



That discovery widened the spotlight to proteins, the nutrients stitched together from 20 common <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/amino-acids" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amino acids</a>. Nine of those are “essential,” meaning the body cannot manufacture them.



Early work hinted that dialing down total protein might mirror the benefits of calorie restriction without the gnawing hunger. 



Mice fed modest protein saw improved <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-this-amount-of-water-per-day-helps-control-blood-sugar-levels-in-people-with-diabetes/">blood sugar</a> control and trimmer waistlines, yet blanket reductions risked muscle loss, especially in older animals. Something more surgical was needed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protein-quality-over-quantity">Protein quality over quantity</h2>



Metabolism researcher <a href="https://www.medicine.wisc.edu/directory/lamming_dudley" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dudley Lamming</a> stepped into that gap with a question few had asked: what if the magic hides in specific amino acids rather than protein as a whole? 



“We like to say a calorie is not just a calorie,” he says. “Different components of your diet have value and impact beyond their function as a calorie, and we’ve been digging in on one component that many people may be eating too much of.”



His team homed in on the branched-chain amino acids - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-too-much-protein-greatly-increases-heart-disease-risk/">leucine</a>, isoleucine, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-use-dna-duplication-to-increase-their-resilience/">valine</a> - popular in sports supplements for their muscle-building buzz. Instead of treating them as a block, the researchers isolated each one. Isoleucine quickly took center stage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cutting-back-on-isoleucine">Cutting back on isoleucine</h2>



When mice at the equivalent of 30 human years were fed chow that cut isoleucine by about two-thirds, their bodies shed fat quickly. 



“Very quickly, we saw the mice on the reduced-isoleucine diet lose adiposity - their bodies got leaner, they lost fat,” says Lamming. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spicy-foods-can-slow-down-eating-and-cut-calorie-intake/">Calorie intake</a> actually climbed; the animals nibbled more in an apparent effort to find the missing amino acid, yet their metabolisms revved high enough to keep weight off.



Over time, male mice lived about 33 percent longer, and females about 7 percent. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/isoleucine_amino-acid_diet-restriction_lifespan-increase_credit-Cell-Metabolism_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/isoleucine_amino-acid_diet-restriction_lifespan-increase_credit-Cell-Metabolism_1s.webp" alt="This graphic illustration shows the impact that reduced isoleucine diet had on mice longevity. Credit: Cell Metabolism" class="wp-image-1975852"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This graphic illustration shows the impact that reduced isoleucine diet had on mice longevity. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Cell Metabolism</figcaption></figure>



That extra runway arrived with smoother blood sugar curves, sturdier muscles, and fewer signs of frailty across 26 health checks - from grip strength to coat condition. 



Cancer, the usual culprit in an aging mouse colony, struck less often in males on the low-isoleucine diet, and prostate enlargement eased.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-isoleucine-shapes-lifespan">How isoleucine shapes lifespan</h2>



Most roads in the aging field eventually intersect with <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41392-023-01608-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mTOR</a>, a cellular sensor finely tuned to amino acid levels. 



Drop isoleucine, and mTOR quiets down, dialing back growth signals that drive both tumor formation and the wear-and-tear of aging. 



The diet also boosts a hormone that helps the body cope with cold and is being studied as a potential diabetes therapy. 



The interplay of these pathways - not yet fully mapped - likely explains why trimming one nutrient outperforms broader protein cuts in middle-aged mice.



“Previous research has shown lifespan increase with low-calorie and low-protein or low-amino-acid diets starting in very young mice,” Lamming explains.



“We started with mice that were already getting older. It’s interesting and encouraging to think a dietary change could still make such a big difference in lifespan and what we call ‘healthspan,’ even when it started closer to mid-life.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-isoleucine-and-human-health">Isoleucine and human health</h2>



Humans need isoleucine for everything from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tibetan-women-have-quickly-evolved-to-thrive-in-low-oxygen-and-high-altitudes/">hemoglobin production</a> to immune defense, so eliminating it is off the table. 



The wrinkle is that many Western diets supply far more than the daily requirement, thanks to eggs, cheese, soy isolates, chicken, and beef featuring heavily on menus. 



Surveys from Wisconsin echo national data: people with higher body-mass indexes often report higher isoleucine intake.



“We can’t just switch everyone to a low-isoleucine diet,” Lamming continued. “But narrowing these benefits down to a single amino acid gets us closer to understanding the biological processes and maybe potential interventions for humans, like an isoleucine-blocking drug.”



The team’s nutritional modeling suggests that choosing more fruits, vegetables, and modest portions of animal protein can shave isoleucine totals without complicated meal plans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-trials-come-next">Human trials come next</h2>



Because the study relied on a genetically diverse strain of mice - much closer to human variety than lab inbreds - confidence is higher that the findings translate. 



Yet controlled human trials are still required. Researchers are now exploring whether temporary isoleucine dips, similar to the popular five-day <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alternate-day-fasting-might-be-worth-trying-for-weight-loss/">fasting-mimicking diet</a>, can trigger the same metabolic perks without long-term restriction.



“It could be that by choosing healthier foods and healthier eating in general, we might be able to lower isoleucine enough to make a difference,” Lamming surmised.



While clinicians wait for definitive guidance, nutritionists already recommend leaning on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-cover-crops-may-be-the-future-of-sustainable-farming/">legumes, whole grains, and vegetables</a>, which naturally carry less isoleucine than dairy or red meat. That shift dovetails with broader public-health advice to curb chronic disease risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eat-right-feel-good-live-longer">Eat right, feel good, live longer</h2>



To sum it all up, living longer has always hinged on a balance between what bodies need and what wears them out. 



The latest evidence suggests that tipping the scales away from a single amino acid might buy extra years without sacrificing satisfaction at the table. 



Turning lab findings into dinner-plate habits won’t happen overnight, but the path is far clearer now than when the conversation started with simply “eat less.”



These full studies were published in the journals <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell-metabolism/fulltext/S1550-4131(23)00374-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell Metabolism</a> and <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43587-024-00744-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Aging</a>.



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Removing this one thing from your diet could dramatically increase lifespan

For decades, studies on mice, monkeys, and even roundworms have...

The skin is our first protective barrier. With time, the outer layer, the epidermis, thins out. It loses its ability to block external harm. Keratinocytes form most of this layer, moving upward to create the skin’s shield. 



Vitamin C (VC), widely known for its antioxidant power, has also been studied many times in the past for its ability to repair skin. New research adds a deeper genetic angle to its importance.



A Japanese study, published in the&nbsp;Journal of Investigative Dermatology, shows how vitamin C thickens the skin by reactivating specific genes. It strengthens the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-skins-bacteria-could-be-a-natural-sunscreen/">skin</a> by encouraging cell renewal through epigenetic changes.



“VC seems to influence the structure and function of epidermis, especially by controlling the growth of epidermal cells," explains Dr. Akihito Ishigami, Vice President at Tokyo Metropolitan Institute for Geriatrics and Gerontology (<a href="https://www.tmghig.jp/research/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">TMGHIG</a>), who led the research.



"In this study, we investigated whether it promotes cell proliferation and differentiation via epigenetic changes."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-vitamin-c-the-basics">Understanding vitamin C - the basics</h2>



Also known as ascorbic acid, vitamin C plays a critical role in human biology as a powerful antioxidant and essential cofactor in various enzymatic reactions. 



The body uses it to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-protein-that-reverses-cellular-aging/">synthesize collagen</a>, a key structural protein found in skin, blood vessels, and connective tissues. 



It also assists in the production of neurotransmitters such as norepinephrine and aids in metabolizing certain amino acids. 



Unlike most animals, humans cannot synthesize vitamin C internally and must obtain it through diet - primarily from fruits and vegetables like oranges, kiwis, strawberries, bell peppers, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/broccoli-sprouts-have-more-nutritional-value-than-mature-broccoli/">broccoli</a>.



Beyond its structural and metabolic roles, vitamin C strengthens the immune system by supporting the function of white blood cells and enhancing skin’s barrier defenses. 



Its antioxidant properties help neutralize free radicals, potentially lowering the risk of chronic diseases like cardiovascular disease and cancer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-vitamin-c-thickens-skin">How vitamin C thickens skin</h2>



Researchers wanted to see how vitamin C affects <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-electronic-skin-gives-robots-the-human-touch/">skin</a> growth. But instead of testing on real human skin, they created lab-grown skin called&nbsp;human epidermal equivalents. These are 3D skin models that behave like real skin. 



In these models, the&nbsp;top layer is exposed to air, like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hormones-may-slow-skin-aging-and-reduce-wrinkles/">human skin</a> facing the environment, while the&nbsp;bottom layer gets nutrients, just like how blood vessels nourish real skin from underneath.



They applied&nbsp;vitamin C in two doses: 0.1 and 1.0 millimolar. After 7 days, they noticed that the&nbsp;living part of the skin became thicker, meaning more skin cells had grown. 



The outermost dead <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/future-tech-will-track-emotions-through-changes-in-our-skin/">skin</a> layer didn’t change at this point. But by&nbsp;day 14, the&nbsp;living layer had thickened even more, and the&nbsp;outer dead layer had become thinner.



This suggested that vitamin C was&nbsp;making the skin produce more keratinocytes, which are the main cells that build the protective barrier.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vitamin-c-speeds-up-cell-division">Vitamin C speeds up cell division</h2>



Samples treated with vitamin C had more Ki-67-positive cells, markers of active division and showed faster skin regeneration. The study then looked into how vitamin C enabled this increase.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/vitamin-c_skin-regeneration_epigenetic_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/vitamin-c_skin-regeneration_epigenetic_1s.webp" alt="Vitamin C promotes epidermal regeneration by activating enzymes that help in activating genes and driving DNA demethylation—a process that reactivates genes involved in cell proliferation, ultimately enhancing keratinocyte growth and leading to thicker, healthier skin. Credit: TMIG" class="wp-image-1975765"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Vitamin C promotes epidermal regeneration by activating enzymes that help in activating genes and driving DNA demethylation - a process that reactivates genes involved in cell proliferation, ultimately enhancing keratinocyte growth and leading to thicker, healthier skin. Click image to enlarge. Credit: TMIG</figcaption></figure>



They discovered that vitamin C reactivates key genes by removing methyl groups from DNA. These methyl groups silence genes. Their removal allows the genes to turn on, promoting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/teen-skin-bacteria-could-hold-the-secret-to-acne-prevention/">skin</a> cell growth and repair.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unlocking-silenced-genes">Unlocking silenced genes</h2>



TET enzymes carry out DNA demethylation. They transform 5-methylcytosine into 5-hydroxymethylcytosine. 



This step requires iron in its Fe2+ form. When iron becomes Fe3+, the process stops. Vitamin C donates electrons to turn Fe3+ back into Fe2+, keeping the process active.



The study identified more than 10,000 areas of DNA that became hypomethylated with vitamin C. Expression of 12 key genes rose between 1.6 to 75.2 times. 



When TET enzymes were blocked, the effects reversed. This confirmed the role of TET-mediated demethylation in skin thickening.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-dna-structure-and-activity">Changing DNA structure and activity</h2>



The paper supports these results with additional experiments. It describes how vitamin C promotes transcriptional activation by increasing chromatin accessibility. 



Vitamin C-treated skin showed elevated <a href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Chromatin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chromatin</a> openness around growth-promoting genes.



The study shows enrichment of open chromatin regions near gene bodies related to cell proliferation. These genes are essential in epidermal development.



It further proves vitamin C’s action by displaying upregulation of genes such as&nbsp;DLX5,&nbsp;CXCL14, and&nbsp;EFNA1. These genes promote <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/keratinocyte" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">keratinocyte</a> growth and skin structure organization.



Moreover, the paper presents long-read sequencing data. This technique confirmed that vitamin C increases the expression of full-length, functional gene transcripts. 



This strengthens the idea that vitamin C not only activates genes but does so in a way that results in usable proteins.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vitamin-c-and-skin-health">Vitamin C and skin health</h2>



To sum it all up, these findings suggest vitamin C can strengthen thin or aging skin. It works by restarting growth pathways that decline with age. It reactivates genes and supports cellular rebuilding at a molecular level.



Scientists added vitamin C directly to the skin cells, similar to how a cream or serum would deliver nutrients through the surface of the skin. When vitamin C was present, the skin cells grew more actively, leading to thicker, healthier skin layers.



“We found that VC helps thicken the skin by encouraging keratinocyte proliferation through DNA demethylation, making it a promising treatment for thinning skin, especially in older adults,” concludes Dr. Ishigami.



These changes boosted the activity of genes related to cell growth without interfering with normal skin development.



Although the researchers mentioned that vitamin C levels in the body can increase with supplements, they didn't actually study vitamin C taken by mouth. 



Instead, all the benefits observed - like stronger cell growth and healthier skin structure - came from applying vitamin C directly to the skin model in the lab. 



So, while eating fruits rich in vitamin C is still important for overall health, this study highlights how using it on the skin could help fight signs of aging and keep the skin functioning well.



Thanks to this new study and all of the research that preceded it, vitamin C may soon play a bigger role in daily skincare routines, not just as an antioxidant, but as a genetic rejuvenator.



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The study is published in the <a href="https://www.jidonline.org/article/S0022-202X(25)00416-6/fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Investigative Dermatology</a>. 



Dr. Ishigami worked with <a href="https://iec.hokuriku-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hokuriku University</a> and <a href="https://www.rohto.co.jp/global/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ROHTO Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd</a>. Key contributors included Professors Ayami Sato, Yasunori Sato, and Toshiyuki Kimura.



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Scientists prove this common vitamin acts at the cellular level to reverse signs of facial skin aging

The skin is our first protective barrier. With time, the...

As the world grapples with climate change and resource depletion, our dinner plates are slowly evolving. A quiet revolution in meat alternatives is taking place in food science labs, kitchens, and even grocery stores. The quest for sustainable, plant-based <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meat-consumption-drove-an-evolutionary-leap-in-early-humans/">proteins</a> has never felt more urgent. 



While soy and pea proteins dominate shelves, scientists are exploring new, lesser-known crops. One such candidate for plant-based meat, sunflower seeds, is now under the spotlight thanks to a recent breakthrough from Brazil and Germany.



In a collaborative project between the Institute of Food Technology (<a href="https://www.abc.gov.br/training/informacoes/InstituicaoITAL_en.aspx" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ITAL</a>), the University of Campinas (<a href="https://unicamp.br" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNICAMP</a>), and the Fraunhofer IVV Institute in Germany, researchers have created a new plant-based food. 



The researchers are transforming sunflower flour into a promising meat substitute. This development not only expands choices for vegetarians and vegans but also offers an environmentally sound option for meat lovers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-sunflower-turns-into-meat">How sunflower turns into meat</h2>



Sunflower flour is made by first extracting oil from the plant’s seeds. Once the oil is removed, the leftover material is processed into flour. 



However, this byproduct contains husks and phenolic compounds. These give the flour a dark color and make it harder to digest. So, the research team began by removing these unwanted parts. This step proved essential for making the flour fit for human consumption.



Once refined, the flour became a viable base for two kinds of meat <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lab-grown-chicken-just-got-a-flavor-and-texture-boost/">alternatives</a>. The first version used flour made from roasted grains. The second version used textured sunflower protein. 



Both recipes were boosted with tomato powder and spices. Oils such as sunflower, olive, and linseed were blended in to improve nutrition and taste. 



After shaping the mixture into mini-burgers, the patties were baked and examined through both sensory and lab-based tests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-baking-testing-and-analyzing">Baking, testing, and analyzing</h2>



The results of these tests showed something promising. The textured sunflower protein burgers stood out. They had better consistency, richer protein content, and a good dose of healthy fats. 



These included monounsaturated fatty acids, which are known for their heart health <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meat-protein-boosts-survival-but-plants-boost-longevity/">benefits</a>. Additionally, this version of the product was packed with key minerals.



The textured option delivered remarkable levels of nutrients. It offered 49% of the recommended daily intake (RDI) for iron, 68% for zinc, 95% for magnesium, and 89% for manganese. These figures suggest that sunflower protein can contribute meaningfully to daily nutritional needs. 



As the demand for plant-based proteins grows, this research points to a new option that supports both health and sustainability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sunflower-as-a-clean-meat-alternative">Sunflower as a clean meat alternative</h2>



The researchers chose sunflower seeds due to their rising popularity in both Brazil and Europe. Sunflower oil already holds a strong presence in European kitchens, and sunflower farming is expanding across Brazilian fields. 



Unlike many other plant protein sources, sunflowers are not genetically modified. This can be an important factor for consumers seeking clean-label foods.



Another driving factor is the increasing call for eco-friendly eating habits. Sunflower flour aligns with this trend by making use of existing agricultural outputs in new ways. 



What was once considered a byproduct is transformed into a protein-rich food <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-first-used-fire-to-preserve-meat-instead-of-cooking/">source</a>. That’s why this study could have a significant impact on both farming and food manufacturing industries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-taste-and-texture-of-sunflower-meat">Taste and texture of sunflower meat</h2>



For plant-based meat to succeed, taste and texture matter just as much as nutrition. Many plant proteins suffer from strong, sometimes bitter, flavors. Sunflower flour seems to avoid that issue. 



“It should also be noted that, after removing the husks and phenolic compounds, the flour has a very neutral taste and aroma, especially compared to the various vegetable proteins on the market,” said Maria Teresa Bertoldo Pacheco, lead researcher at ITAL’s Center for Food Science and Quality.



Thanks to its neutral flavor, sunflower flour adapts easily to a wide range of recipes. It lets seasonings and textures take center stage without competing background notes, making it a versatile base for creative cooking. This subtle taste profile also makes it more appealing to selective eaters. 



For those cutting back on meat but not willing to compromise on flavor, sunflower-based alternatives could provide a smoother, more satisfying transition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-essential-acids-and-technological-needs">Essential acids and technological needs</h2>



Beyond taste, sunflower flour holds another secret weapon - essential amino acids. These are the building blocks of protein that the body cannot produce on its own. 



“Pacheco also points out that the product has a favorable composition of essential amino acids. This is another factor that could lead to its incorporation into the food industry as a meat product substitute from a nutritional point of view,” noted the researchers.



However, achieving the ideal meat-like texture remains a challenge. For this, specific production methods are required. 



“From a functional-technological standpoint, processes that build fibrous proteins, such as extrusion, are needed to deliver a product with a more meat-like appearance and texture,” said Pacheco. 



Extrusion technology helps create a chewy, meat-like structure that consumers expect from traditional meat products.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-benefits-of-global-teamwork">Benefits of global teamwork </h2>



The study not only showcases scientific ingenuity but also reflects the benefits of international collaboration. 



The joint research between Brazilian and German teams marks a milestone in food innovation. Their combined expertise made it possible to refine techniques, share methods, and expand knowledge across borders.



“I think the study provided a lot of positive references, both for making full use of the cultivar and for encouraging the consumption and appreciation of the flour," said Pacheco. 



"The partnership with German researchers was also very important, thanks to the sharing of working techniques, the exchange of knowledge, and the exchange of students and researchers."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-forward-to-a-greener-plate">Looking forward to a greener plate</h2>



As plant-based eating becomes more than a passing trend, innovations like sunflower flour can change the game. By using a byproduct of oil extraction, this project turns waste into value. 



With its neutral taste, rich nutrition, and non-GMO status, sunflower flour is ready for more than just research labs. It could soon appear in supermarket aisles and home kitchens, shaped into familiar forms like burgers and sausages. 



Sunflower protein may also inspire other countries to explore local crops with untapped potential. In a world searching for healthy and planet-friendly solutions, this humble seed has much more to offer.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0963996925004958?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Food Research International</a>.



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Sunflower protein could change the future of sustainable meat

As the world grapples with climate change and resource depletion,...

Evolution is taking an unexpected turn on the volcanic islands of the western Galápagos. Wild tomato plants are producing a toxic blend of chemicals that hasn't existed in their species for millions of years. 



Somehow, these plants have started making molecules more like eggplants than the modern tomato. This bizarre twist in evolution is being studied by scientists at the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/">University of California, Riverside</a>. 



The research team describes this phenomenon as a rare case of “reverse evolution.” That term raises eyebrows in the world of biology, where evolution is typically seen as a one-way street - not a boomerang.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tomato-evolution-in-reverse">Tomato evolution in reverse</h2>



Normally, evolution moves forward, adapting organisms to current conditions. The idea that it can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ferns-evolving-backward-a-new-look-at-the-evolution-of-life/">loop back</a> and restore long-lost traits isn’t just controversial - it’s considered highly unlikely. 



Even when organisms regain something similar to an ancestral trait, they almost never do it through the exact same genetic route. But that’s what these Galápagos <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tomatoes-have-a-molecular-trick-to-survive-in-extreme-heat/">tomatoes</a> seem to be doing.



“It’s not something we usually expect,” said Adam Jozwiak, a molecular biochemist at UC Riverside and lead author of the study. “But here it is, happening in real time, on a volcanic island.”



The tomatoes aren’t just making alkaloids - bitter chemicals that many nightshade plants, like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crops-of-the-future-potatoes-that-thrive-in-heatwaves/">potatoes</a> and eggplants, produce for defense - they’re making an ancient version of them. And these aren't the same ones found in cultivated tomatoes today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-chemical-clue-from-the-past">A chemical clue from the past</h2>



The team collected over 30 tomato samples from across the Galápagos. On the eastern, older islands, tomatoes made the expected modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-how-pollinators-evade-plant-toxins/">alkaloids</a>. 



But on the younger, rockier western islands, something had changed. Those plants were producing a different form of the molecule - one with a structure seen only in distant tomato ancestors and still present in eggplant relatives.



The reason? A small tweak in enzyme chemistry. Specifically, four amino acid changes in one enzyme flipped the way the plant built its alkaloid molecule.



Two molecules can have the same atoms but act completely differently depending on how those atoms are arranged. In this case, that small change meant the difference between modern and ancient chemistry.



To test the idea, the researchers re-created the enzyme genes in the lab and inserted them into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tobacco-and-zinnia-can-thrive-in-polluted-land/">tobacco plants</a>. As a result, the tobacco plants started making the ancestral alkaloids, just like the western island tomatoes.



“Our group has been working hard to characterize the steps involved in alkaloid synthesis, so that we can try and control it,” Jozwiak said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-s-harsh-conditions-may-be-the-trigger">Nature's harsh conditions may be the trigger</h2>



Why is this happening? The researchers think the backward direction of tomato evolution has to do with the islands themselves.



The eastern islands are older, more stable, and have richer ecosystems. The western ones are newer, harsher, and less developed. The plants there may be responding to tougher conditions by falling back on an older, stronger chemical defense.



“It could be that the ancestral molecule provides better defense in the harsher western conditions,” Jozwiak said.



To make sure this was a true throwback, the team ran evolutionary modeling using modern DNA to reconstruct what ancient tomato ancestors might have looked like. The chemistry of today’s western island tomatoes matched those early models.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-reverse-evolution-real">Is reverse evolution real?</h2>



Referring to this phenomenon in Galápagos tomatoes as "reverse evolution” is a bold claim. There are other examples in nature - snakes regaining limbs, bacteria flipping traits - but they’re rare. This case stands out because the genetic and chemical steps are so precise and clearly documented.



“Some people don’t believe in this,” Jozwiak said. “But the genetic and chemical evidence points to a return to an ancestral state. The mechanism is there. It happened.”



And this shift isn’t just interesting for botanists. It has wider implications for other species - possibly even humans.



“I think it could happen to humans,” noted Jozwiak. “It wouldn’t happen in a year or two, but over time, maybe, if environmental conditions change enough.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reverse-evolution-as-a-survival-strategy">Reverse evolution as a survival strategy</h2>



The study opens a window into how flexible evolution might be. Traits we thought were gone forever may just be dormant, waiting for the right conditions to reappear.



“If you change just a few amino acids, you can get a completely different molecule,” Jozwiak said. “That knowledge could help us engineer new medicines, design better pest resistance, or even make less toxic produce. But first, we have to understand how nature does it. This study is one step toward that.”



What’s growing on the rocky edges of the Galápagos isn’t just wild tomato - it might be a preview of how life, under pressure, rewrites its own rules.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-59290-4">Nature Communications</a>.



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Reverse evolution? These wild tomatoes are turning back time

Evolution is taking an unexpected turn on the volcanic islands...

Trees may seem like quiet bystanders, but they’re vital to the health of ecosystems, the stability of our climate, and even our own survival. As the planet heats up, these ancient organisms are being pushed to their limits - and the impacts reach far beyond the forest.



A new study has shed light on the future of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-trees-decide-between-growing-and-breathing/">trees</a> under climate change. The research team modeled how more than 32,000 tree species might respond to changing temperatures. 



The findings are stark. If greenhouse gas emissions remain high, most trees on Earth could find themselves living in climates they have never known.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-most-trees-will-face-a-changing-climate">Most trees will face a changing climate</h2>



The study reveals a major upheaval for the world’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/traditional-forest-farming-is-an-overlooked-climate-solution/">trees</a>. According to study lead author Dr. Coline Boonman from <a href="https://www.wur.nl/en.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wageningen University</a>, the team found that nearly 70% of tree species will see significant climate shifts in at least part of their range by the end of this century.



"For some species, over half of their habitat could be affected under an extreme 4°C warming scenario," said Dr. Boonman.



This means trees in these regions will face temperatures, rainfall, and seasonal patterns outside their historical experience. For organisms adapted to specific conditions, these shifts may prove overwhelming. Some species may fail to reproduce. 



Others may suffer from drought, disease, or increased competition. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amazon-trees-glow-more-under-stress-but-photosynthesize-less/">Trees</a> cannot quickly move. They grow slowly, with some species taking decades to mature. As the climate shifts fast, many may be left behind.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-will-hit-some-regions-harder">Climate will hit some regions harder</h2>



The study does not just warn of future risks. It shows where those risks are most concentrated. The researchers mapped “exposure hotspots" - regions where tree diversity is most likely to face serious disruption.



These include large parts of Eurasia, northwestern North America, northern Chile, and the Amazon Delta. In these areas, the changes in climate could be so extreme that native species may not survive without human intervention.



“This research provides a global map of where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-part-of-the-climate-solution-but-not-the-whole-answer/">trees</a> are most vulnerable to climate change,” explained Dr. Boonman. “It’s a crucial tool for conservation planning and ecosystem resilience.”



Understanding where the most vulnerable regions lie helps conservationists and land managers act before it is too late. 



Some tree species might be relocated. Others may require intensive management or protection from added stressors like logging and land conversion. Without this data, efforts may arrive too late or miss the most critical areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-lives-and-heightened-risk">Long lives and heightened risk</h2>



Unlike animals, most trees cannot shift their range quickly in response to climate change. Their seeds may spread, but their growth is slow. Entire forests take decades or centuries to establish. That makes them especially prone to harm from fast-moving changes. 



Temperature increases, erratic rainfall, or intense droughts can all break the rhythm trees rely on to flower, fruit, and regenerate.



Importantly, this study only looked at climate exposure. It did not include other threats such as illegal logging, invasive pests, or pollution. This means that the risk to tree species is likely even greater than reported. 



A tree struggling with drought may also be weakened against disease. A forest hit by fire may face development before it can recover. Climate stress is just one part of a complex web of pressures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-refuges-amid-the-heat">Refuges amid the heat</h2>



Not all news from the study was grim. The researchers also identified what they call climate refugia. These are areas expected to remain relatively stable despite the overall global warming trend. 



In such zones, trees could persist with less stress, acting as sanctuaries for biodiversity if protected. These stable environments offer a rare opportunity. If shielded from human interference, they may become the lifeboats of future forests. 



In a rapidly warming world, these refuges could harbor tree species long enough for the climate to stabilize or for new conservation tools to be deployed. Their preservation is vital for long-term efforts to protect forest ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mitigation-and-conservation-strategies">Mitigation and conservation strategies </h2>



The study emphasizes the importance of quick and strategic conservation work. Protecting refugia must become a priority. 



Likewise, tracking high-risk species and identifying how they respond to stress will be key. In some cases, assisted migration, or moving trees to safer areas, may be the only option to preserve them.



Dr. Josep Serra-Diaz (Botanical Institute of Barcelona, CSIC-CMCNB), co-author of the study, called for urgent and focused global action. 



“This provides a comprehensive global study that shows where to focus our attention to conserve and where mitigation and adaptation need to be focused, looking at small scale opportunities to keep our treed ecosystems diverse," said Dr. Serra-Diaz.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-risks-to-tree-species">Climate risks to tree species</h2>



We cannot separate tree survival from our own. Forests play a vital role in regulating climate. 



Trees cool the atmosphere, absorb carbon, and even support water systems that nourish agriculture. If forests collapse, the damage will ripple through food systems, cities, and economies.



As climate exposure increases, preserving the stability of forests is not just an ecological concern. It is a human necessity. The question now is not whether trees will be affected, but whether we can act in time to protect them. 



Through research, planning, and collective action, there is still a chance to safeguard these ancient allies. But the window is closing.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2420059122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Tree species face unprecedented climate shifts across their ranges

Trees may seem like quiet bystanders, but they’re vital to...

We know the oceans are changing. But how have they changed over the last half-billion years? Until now, we had no clear measure of how the total mass of ocean life - not just its variety - has evolved over deep time. 



In a first-of-its-kind effort, scientists from <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/">Stanford University</a> measured how the biomass of marine organisms - the actual amount of living material in the ocean - has changed over the last 540 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-changes-in-ocean-life">Long-term changes in ocean life</h2>



The study shows a long-term trend of rising <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deforestation-causes-biomass-loss-beyond-directly-affected-areas/">biomass</a>, with noticeable crashes during major extinction events. This pattern closely tracks with known increases in marine biodiversity, suggesting a deep link between how much life the ocean holds and how varied that life is.



Study lead author Pulkit Singh is a postdoctoral scholar in Earth and Planetary Sciences in the <a href="https://sustainability.stanford.edu/">Stanford Doerr School of Sustainability</a>.



“Understanding the amount of biomass is important because it represents key traits about an ecosystem that are not captured by the number of species or even the number of niches that they fill,” said Singh.



“But as we move into the past, our measurements of biomass are very limited, so that was the big gap in biological history we wanted to fill with our study.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-life-changes-across-history">Ocean life changes across history</h2>



Getting to this result took years of meticulous work. Singh and his team dug into data from over 7,700 marine limestone samples spanning hundreds of millions of years. 



The samples came from more than 100 published studies and Singh’s own data collection. Each rock was cut and polished into slices thin enough for light to pass through, then examined under a microscope. 



Using a method called petrographic point-counting, the researchers calculated what percentage of each sample was made up of skeletal remains - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossilized-shells-can-help-predict-the-impacts-of-climate-change/">shells</a> from animals, certain algae, and single-celled protists.



It’s not just busywork. The amount of shell material in these rocks tells scientists how much living material existed at different points in Earth’s history. 



More shells in the ocean generally mean more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/all-living-things-emit-a-subtle-glow-that-ceases-at-death/">living things</a>. And more life usually means more energy flowing through ecosystems - a strong signal of planetary health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-challenge-of-measuring-biomass">The challenge of measuring biomass </h2>



Tracking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-biodiversity-crisis-is-actually-worse-than-we-thought/">biodiversity</a> through deep time has been part of science since the 19th century. But measuring biomass - the total amount of living material - is a much rarer effort. 



Measuring biomass demands massive amounts of data and offers no guarantee of a clear pattern.



“The first quantitative effort to document and graph biodiversity across geological time was made in 1860, but until Pulkit’s paper, there’s never been a corresponding biomass-across-time paper,” noted senior study author Professor Jonathan Payne. 



“I’m impressed by his intellectual courage to go and take a chance on a project like this.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biomass-over-millions-of-years">Biomass over millions of years</h2>



The earliest rocks examined, from the Cambrian period about 540 million years ago, showed low shell content - under 10 percent on average. 



By the Ordovician, starting around 485 million years ago, shell percentages rose. This increase lines up with the Cambrian Explosion, a period when life rapidly diversified.



Early on, sponges were major players. Later, they were overtaken by echinoderms (ancestors of starfish) and arthropods like trilobites. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-gradual-increase-in-biomass">A gradual increase in biomass </h2>



Over the next 230 million years, shell content stayed mostly above 20 percent, aside from big dips during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-life-became-strangely-uniform-after-earths-worst-mass-extinction/">mass extinctions</a>.



One of the sharpest declines came during the Permian-Triassic extinction about 250 million years ago - the “Great Dying.” Shell material dropped to just 3 percent. 



Life rebounded after that, although smaller setbacks followed during the end-Triassic and the well-known Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction 66 million years ago.



In our current era - the Cenozoic - shell volume climbed above 40 percent, boosted by creatures like mollusks and corals. “The overall pattern that we were able to capture is that it’s a gradual increase,” Singh said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consistent-biological-patterns">Consistent biological patterns </h2>



The team knew they had to rule out alternative explanations. Maybe shell-boring predators were less common in the past. Maybe certain environments were overrepresented in the data. 



To check, the researchers sorted samples by depth, latitude, and geological setting. The trend held steady.



“The more tests we did and the more we divided our dataset, we realized that these big biological patterns we were seeing stayed over time,” Singh said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-did-ocean-life-keep-growing">Why did ocean life keep growing?</h2>



The answer may come down to diversity. As life evolved to fill more ecological roles, it got better at using available energy. Organisms became more specialized, more interconnected. 



That allowed ecosystems to recycle nutrients more efficiently - from sunlight-eating phytoplankton to decomposers returning nutrients to the cycle.



“The overall idea is that there is more food available in ecosystems and because of that, the ecosystems can support more life, there’s more energy available, and that leads to greater abundance expressed in biomass,” Singh said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-are-rapidly-changing-ocean-life">Humans are rapidly changing ocean life</h2>



The study paints a long view of life’s upward climb, but it ends before the modern age. Today’s oceans face threats from overfishing, pollution, acidification, and climate change. 



Researchers agree - we’re already in the middle of a human-caused sixth mass extinction. And if biodiversity keeps falling, we may see long-term drops in biomass too - with effects that could last millions of years.



“From our study’s perspective, modern times are quite complicated given the extent of human activity that’s rapidly altering conditions planetwide, including in the oceans,” said Payne. 



“But our findings show that overall biomass is linked to biodiversity and that losses in biodiversity may suppress productivity for geologically meaningful intervals, adding one more argument of why conserving biodiversity is essential for the health of humans and our planet.”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0960982225007353">Current Biology</a>.



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Fossils reveal 500 million years of changes in ocean life

We know the oceans are changing. But how have they...

In cities and countryside alike, bees, hoverflies, and other pollinators face a common problem - dwindling food supplies. As meadows vanish and flower diversity shrinks, pollinators struggle to find the nectar and pollen they need to survive. 



Concerned citizens have begun planting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-flowers-grow-perfectly-despite-chaotic-gene-activity/">wildflowers</a> in gardens and parks to help, but there’s one lingering question: which flower mixes actually work best?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-the-best-flower-mixes">Identifying the best flower mixes</h2>



For years, suggestions came from well-meaning enthusiasts, local guides, or plant sellers. But until recently, there wasn’t enough science to back up these recommendations. 



That’s where a collaborative study led by botanists from the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/">University of Copenhagen</a> and the National Botanic Garden of Wales stepped in. They created, tested, and compared flower seed mixes using both field trials and systematic data reviews.



The goal was to identify flower mixes that truly support bees, hoverflies, and solitary bees - and look good doing it.



“Much of our knowledge in this area is anecdotal. So, there was a need for a scientific approach, where we systematically test different flowers to be sure how we can best help pollinators, which are extremely important to our ecosystems,” said Professor Natasha de Vere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-flower-mixes-in-real-gardens">Testing flower mixes in real gardens</h2>



The researchers reviewed 447 studies and tested flower mixes in real garden plots. They compared four commercial seed mixes and two experimental blends. Some contained only native plants, while others combined native and non-native species.



“We can see that seed mixtures containing both non-native and native flowering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flowering-plants-appeared-two-million-years-earlier-than-we-thought/">plants</a> establish themselves better in the soil, bloom for longer, and have more visits from pollinators. And they are also most attractive to the human eye,” said Professor de Vere.



Public preference also aligned with the data. In a survey at the National Botanic Garden of Wales, visitors overwhelmingly chose the non-native mixes as their favorites.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-which-flowers-work-best">Which flowers work best?</h2>



Based on the combined studies and field tests, these flowers emerged as top choices for pollinator-friendly seed mixes:



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Achillea millefolium (Yarrow)</li>



<li>Anthemis arvensis (Corn chamomile)</li>



<li>Centaurea cyanus (Cornflower)</li>



<li>Echium plantagineum (Purple viper’s bugloss)</li>



<li>Glebionis segetum (Corn marigold)</li>



<li>Papaver rhoeas (Common poppy)</li>



<li>Sinapis arvensis (Field mustard)</li>



<li>Tripleurospermum inodorum (Scentless chamomile)</li>



<li>Cosmos bipinnatus (Garden cosmos)</li>



<li>Linaria maroccana (Moroccan toadflax)</li>



<li>Phacelia tanacetifolia (Common phacelia)</li>
</ul>



Many of these species showed consistent flowering from July through October. Some, like G. segetum, attracted over 50% of hoverfly visits. 



Bumblebees preferred cosmos and cornflower. Solitary bees favored scentless chamomile and corn chamomile.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mixing-native-and-non-native-flowers">Mixing native and non-native flowers</h2>



Non-native plants in mixes extended the flowering season and increased diversity. This combination also improved visual impact and public engagement. Visitors responded positively to mixes with bright colors and layered blooming patterns.



Some mixes were tailored specifically to bumblebees or hoverflies. These attracted their target pollinators but also benefited others. For example, the bumblebee-specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-ai-cant-truly-understand-a-flower/">mix</a> also drew honeybees in high numbers.



However, solitary bees were harder to attract. They may need nesting resources nearby, such as bare soil or cavity spaces. Their low numbers in the trials suggest they need more than just flowers to thrive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-even-small-spaces-can-be-supportive">Even small spaces can be supportive</h2>



Professor de Vere emphasized that everyone can contribute. You don’t need a large garden. A few square meters of the right plants and flower mixes can provide critical food sources.



"It has become quite popular to plant strips of flowers in urban areas and in gardens where there may have been only grass lawns before. This is because flowers are good for bees, but also for our mental health," noted Professor de Vere.



“It is important that everyone does something to help - and even small changes can really make a difference. I myself only have a small backyard, which I have filled with the best plants for pollinators, and it is now full of bees and hoverflies.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-designing-the-perfect-pollinator-mix">Designing the perfect pollinator mix</h2>



The researchers followed a clear decision process to select plants. First, they eliminated invasive or banned species. 



Next, the team considered pollinator interaction records, horticultural value, cost, and flower traits. Plants were kept if they had over 10 verified pollinator interactions and were easy to grow from seed.



The researchers emphasized the need for both floral and nesting resources. For hoverflies, aquatic features or decaying wood may be key. Bees benefit from undisturbed soil and safe, pesticide-free environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-flower-mixes-that-work">The flower mixes that work</h2>



Mixes with both native and non-native species work best. They provide long-lasting blooms, visual appeal, and food for many types of pollinators. If you're planning your garden or advising a community project, focus on these top performers.



The best results came from blends that included G. segetum, C. bipinnatus, T. inodorum, and A. arvensis. These flowers dominated in both aesthetic surveys and insect visitation counts.



To help pollinators, plant smart. Choose flowers backed by science. And remember, even one flower bed can make a difference.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ppp3.70041" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plants People Planet</a>.



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Both bees and humans like these flower mixes the best

In cities and countryside alike, bees, hoverflies, and other pollinators...

By the end of this century, drought conditions could leave bees with nectar that's nearly empty of calories - up to a 95% loss. That’s not just bad news for bees. It’s also bad for plants, crops, and the people who grow and rely on them.



In a more moderate future, where rainfall drops by 30 percent, nectar calories could still fall by about a third. That kind of change ripples through entire ecosystems and straight into agriculture.



The findings come from scientists at <a href="https://www.international.unesp.br/">São Paulo State University</a> (UNESP), based on research supported by FAPESP.



“In terms of calories potentially lost in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flowers-hear-bee-sounds-and-make-sweeter-nectar-in-response/">nectar</a>, this is equivalent to more than a ton of sugar per hectare, from 1,325 to 71 kilos. Without nectar to consume, the bees leave, the plants don’t reproduce, and the farmers lose production,” said study co-author Professor Elza Guimarães.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rainfall-drought-and-food-for-bees">Rainfall, drought, and food for bees</h2>



The research team found that more rain can actually help nectar production. Under increased rainfall, nectar calories jumped by 74 percent. But that doesn’t mean “more rain” is always good.



“A high frequency and intensity of rainfall can have devastating consequences for plants, flower visitors such as birds and insects, and the maintenance of interactions between plants and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildflowers-are-self-fertilizing-to-deal-with-a-lack-of-pollinators/">pollinators</a>,” said Maria Luisa Frigero, the study’s first author, who conducted the research during her master’s program at UNESP.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-rainfall-patterns-disrupt-rainforest-food-webs/">Rainfall</a> affects everything from how easily bees can fly, to how much energy they need to stay warm and forage, to how nutrients move through soil. Heavy rains can wash away vital nutrients, erode topsoil, and suppress pollinator activity.



"The most recent IPCC report, AR6, presents evidence that extreme events, such as intense rainfall and droughts, are becoming increasingly frequent and severe in different regions worldwide," wrote the researchers.



"On one hand, the direct effects of an excessive increase in rainfall on crop production include soil erosion and damages to crop, jeopardizing food production; on the other hand, extended periods of drought can lead to land degradation, resulting in a decrease of crop productivity."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inside-the-greenhouse">Inside the greenhouse</h2>



The team conducted controlled experiments using <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/squash-bees-are-rapidly-spreading-around-the-world/">zucchini</a> plants, growing them in greenhouses where light, temperature, and nutrients were kept consistent. The only variable was the amount of water each group received. 



The researchers tested four different watering scenarios: one group received normal rainfall, serving as the control; another group received 30% less water; a third group got 57% more; and the final group experienced a simulated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-a-humble-plant-may-help-us-save-crops-from-drought/">drought</a> followed by extreme rainfall.



Each group had 30 plants. In total, 120 plants were observed for 60 days. No pollinators were allowed in, ensuring precise measurement of nectar and sugar production per flower and per plant.



Even though this work focused on one species under greenhouse conditions, the researchers believe the results are representative of what could happen to other crops in natural environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-impact-of-drought-on-bees">The impact of drought on bees</h2>



“We’re now exploring the effects of climate change on native and cultivated plant species by testing the impact of heat waves and other extreme events," said study co-author Priscila Tunes.



"Another development of this study is the investigation of how bees react to the changes that occur in flowers in this context, by means of behavioral analyses."



Tunes and the team are pushing the research forward, not just by measuring what plants produce, but by watching how pollinators respond.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-nectar-to-our-plates">From nectar to our plates</h2>



This study draws a direct line from climate change to nectar, pollinators, and food production. It shows how changes in rain patterns - something as simple as more or less water - can ripple outward into big, visible consequences.



And it raises real questions for the future: What happens if flowers stop feeding bees? Who will pollinate the plants? And what will we do when the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-cover-crops-may-be-the-future-of-sustainable-farming/">crops</a> don’t come?



"Animal pollination is responsible for most plant species’ reproduction including several crops that rely especially on bees for fruit and seed production," wrote the researchers.



"Thus, extreme climate events can cause disruptions in pollination mutualism and lead to a decrease in the production of many crops worldwide."



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-94565-2">Scientific Reports</a>.



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How droughts could starve bees and crops

By the end of this century, drought conditions could leave...

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