<p>Antilocapra americana peninsularis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports &#8212; NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-populations-dropped/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.</p>
<p>ITIS Reports &#8212; Antilocapra americana peninsularis ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=0b0949fc84f043009fc678128ef9902f&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i57j69i60l3j0.712j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.<strong>male goat Pronghorn</strong> are the only surviving species of the North American ungulate family Antilocapridae. The family to which the pronghorn belongs was originally divided into two subfamilies (one subfamily for extinct Miocene merycodonts and another group of all the other extinct forms plus the modern pronghorn).</p>
<p>FWS Digital Media Library &#8212; The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service&#8217;s National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.The Baja California pronghorn or peninsular pronghorn is a subspecies of pronghorn, endemic to Baja California in Mexico. The wild population is estimated at 200.Giant Sloths and Sabertooth Cats: Extinct Mammals and the Archaeology of the Ice Age Great Basin By Donald K Grayson If there is one thing I enjoy doing in my downtime, it’s reading about Pleistocene megafauna.</p>


Antilocapra americana peninsularis

<p>The universe is an infinite abyss filled with curiosities that have been puzzling humankind since we first craned our necks to the moonlit sky. Among these mysteries, the origins and mergers of supermassive black holes hold a special place.</p>



<p>Imagine a celestial entity with mass a million times that of the sun, tucked away in the center of a galaxy. That's not just any old space mystery - it's one of the grandest enigmas of the cosmos.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-black-hole-merger-events">Black hole merger events</h2>



<p>Researchers from the Nevada Center for Astrophysics at UNLV (NCfA) have recently made some intriguing revelations about these mighty <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jwst-has-detected-most-distant-black-hole-merger-ever/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic phenomena</a>.</p>



<p>The focus of their study was the supermassive black hole at the heart of our Milky Way galaxy, known as Sagittarius A* (Sgr A*). The evidence points to an enticing possibility - Sgr A* is likely the offspring of a past cosmic merger.</p>



<p>Published in the journal <em>Nature Astronomy</em>, the study explored recent observations from the Event Horizon Telescope (EHT). In 2022, the EHT achieved something phenomenal - it procured the first direct image of Sagittarius A*.</p>



<p>By syncing data from eight existing radio observatories worldwide, scientists created a mammoth Earth-sized virtual telescope.</p>



<p>Two astrophysicists from UNLV, Yihan Wang and Bing Zhang, leveraged this invaluable EHT data to probe how Sgr A* might have come into existence. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spin-and-misalignment-mystery">Spin and misalignment mystery</h2>



<p>Supermassive black holes are believed to grow either via the gradual accumulation of matter or by two existing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-holes-are-not-the-secret-source-of-dark-matter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black holes</a> merging.</p>



<p>Wang and Zhang examined various growth models to comprehend the peculiar rapid spin and misalignment of Sgr A* in regard to the Milky Way’s angular momentum. </p>



<p>After rigorous research, they established that these odd traits hint at a significant merger event involving Sgr A* and another <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supermassive-binary-black-holes-secrets-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supermassive black hole</a>, most likely from a satellite galaxy.</p>



<p>“Our understanding of how supermassive black holes grow and evolve will greatly benefit from this discovery,” said Wang, the lead author of the study.</p>



<p>"The misaligned high spin of Sgr A* indicates that it may have merged with another black hole, causing a dramatic alteration in its amplitude and orientation of spin.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-black-hole-merger-theory">Black hole merger theory</h2>



<p>The researchers didn’t just make these claims on a whim. They ran sophisticated simulations and tested numerous scenarios consistent with the observed spin properties of Sgr A*<em>. </em></p>



<p>The results suggested that a merger with a 4:1 mass ratio and a highly inclined orbital configuration could potentially replicate Sgr A's spin specifics.</p>



<p>“Around 9 billion years ago, after the Milky Way merged with the Gaia-Enceladus galaxy, this merger probably took place,” said Zhang, a distinguished professor of physics and astronomy at UNLV and the founding director of the <a href="https://ncfa.physics.unlv.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NCfA</a>.</p>



<p>“Not only does this event back the hierarchical black hole merger theory, but it also enlightens us on our galaxy's dynamic history.”</p>



<p>Sgr A* is not just any old celestial entity. It is perched at the center of our galaxy, more than 27,000 light-years from Earth. And to visualize this massive player, we need advanced tools like the EHT that facilitate direct imaging and help scientists test their predictive theories.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unraveling-galactic-history">Unraveling galactic history</h2>



<p>The implications of understanding the formation of supermassive black holes extend far beyond the singularities themselves; they offer insights into the evolutionary narrative of galaxies. </p>



<p>The merger events that lead to the creation of these cosmic titans may also reveal how galaxies like our Milky Way have sculpted their environments over billions of years. When we witness black holes of immense scale, we are essentially gazing back through time to comprehend pivotal epochs of cosmic history.</p>



<p>These phenomena serve as markers of significant interactions with other celestial bodies, allowing astrophysicists to piece together a more comprehensive picture of the galactic tapestry we inhabit.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-and-implications">Impact and implications</h2>



<p>The researchers anticipate that their findings will bear substantial implications for future observations. In particular, they would be valuable for upcoming space-borne gravitational wave detectors like the Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (LISA).</p>



<p>Slated for launch in 2035, LISA is predicted to detect similar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/merging-quasars-cosmic-dawn-reveal-how-early-universe-formed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supermassive black holes</a> mergers across the cosmos. </p>



<p>The researchers concluded: "The inferred merger rate, consistent with theoretical predictions, suggests a promising detection rate of SMBH mergers for the space-borne gravitational wave detectors expected to operate in the 2030s."</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-024-02358-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Astronomy.</em></a></p>



<p>-----</p>



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Milky Way's black hole formed through a merger

The universe is an infinite abyss filled with curiosities that...

<p>Imagine this: with just a focus on 0.7% of the world's land, we could safeguard a third of the world's endangered tetrapod species. How? The answers lie in a recent study from Imperial College London, On the Edge, and ZSL.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-era-of-conservation-efforts">New era of conservation efforts</h2>



<p>We live in a world teeming with biodiversity, where 0.7% of our planet's land can house a stunning one third of threatened tetrapod species. </p>



<p>The team at <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Imperial College London</a>, backed by supporting organizations, On the Edge and ZSL, have adopted a new perspective for conservation. </p>



<p>Focused on regions boasting wondrous biodiversity and species with unique evolutionary traits and global endangerment, they're setting the stage for a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-we-failing-the-worlds-most-threatened-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new era of conservation efforts</a>.</p>



<p>The list of endangered species in their radar ranges from a very unique lemur in Madagascar, called the aye-aye, and a bird that seems like it’s put on high heels and a cape, the secretary bird. </p>



<p>There’s also a frog that looks like it’s preparing for a masquerade ball with a pig nose, known as the purple frog, and let's not forget the gharial, an endangered crocodile species from India with a nose so long it would give Pinocchio a run for his money.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proactive-protection-or-persistent-pressure">Proactive protection or persistent pressure?</h2>



<p>Despite these identifiable hotspots of biodiversity, the unfortunate truth is that only 20% of these areas are under any form of protection. Human activities continue to exert growing pressures on these regions, almost like tightening a noose around our own natural wealth.</p>



<p>Sebastian Pipins, a PhD candidate at the Grantham Institute, Imperial College London, and the lead author of this study, provides his insights. He emphasizes the immediate concern these regions pose due to their exceptional biodiversity richness. </p>



<p>"Our research highlights the regions of the world that are of immediate concern. Furthermore, it shows that in protecting just a fraction of the Earth’s land surface, huge gains can be made for the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-is-tracking-endangered-animal-habitats-from-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preservation</a> of nature," said Pipins.</p>



<p>"Given the global importance of the biodiversity found within these regions, high-income countries must mobilize funding to facilitate sustainable development that can benefit both humans and nature."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-on-the-edge-of-extinction">On the edge of extinction</h2>



<p>This project isn’t about conservation alone. It's also about preserving the evolutionary narrative of our world, written over millennia. </p>



<p>EDGE is short for Evolutionarily Distinct (ED) and Globally Endangered (GE) species. These are creatures that have few or no close relatives today, carrying unique evolutionary stories on the brink of being silenced forever.</p>



<p>With nearly 3,000 EDGE species mapped out, the team identifies 25 "EDGE Zones" for impactful conservation efforts. </p>



<p>These areas are biodiversity-rich hotspots, such as large portions of Southeast Asia and the Indo-Gangetic plain, the Amazon basin, the Atlantic Forest, Hispaniola, Cameroon's highlands, and the Eastern Arc mountains of East Africa.</p>



<p>Interestingly, the greatest concentration of EDGE species was found in less than 100 square kilometers in Madagascar. Along with Mexico and Indonesia, it hosts the highest number of EDGE species. It's almost like they're the VIP lounges for the world's most <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/the-12-endangered-birds-most-at-risk-of-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unique creatures</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-unique-endangered-species">Saving unique, endangered species</h2>



<p>Dr. Rikki Gumbs, a co-author of the study from the ZSL’s EDGE of Existence program, drops a stark reality check on us: Three-fourths of the world's most unique animals are confined to a single country.</p>



<p>Most EDGE Zones, especially in Southeast Asia, face an impending biodiversity disaster due to human disturbances. </p>



<p>It's not just about protecting our unique creatures; we're also dealing with a scenario where humans residing in these EDGE Zones face deprivation in health, education, and living standards.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-priceless-biodiversity-of-endangered-species">Priceless biodiversity of endangered species</h2>



<p>Governments often struggle to strike a balance between addressing human needs and preserving biodiversity. The researchers emphasize that high-income countries must step up to the plate, mobilizing funding for sustainable development benefiting both humans and nature.</p>



<p>The team's ambitious global goal? Get more EDGE Zones under protected status, with the current figure standing at a dismal 20 percent. As the planet gears up for COP16 Biodiversity Conference, it's time to push for increased commitments and resources to preserve and restore our shared natural world.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bigger-picture-for-biodiversity">Bigger picture for biodiversity</h2>



<p>This study isn't about conservation of endangered species alone. It's about preserving the library of life on Earth, where every creature holds a unique tale of evolution. Our researchers strongly believe that the EDGE Zone approach can be extended to other important groups of wildlife, including plants and fish.</p>



<p>The charitable organization On the Edge and the ZSL's EDGE of Existence program are already using the research findings to guide their activities. Here's hoping that these campaigns and regional efforts, combined with storytelling and increased funding, will turn the tide for the unique species of the world.</p>



<p>In the end, we're talking about securing 0.7% of our planet's land to protect a third of our threatened tetrapods. It's a small shift in perspective, but it carries a massive potential for positive change. </p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-51992-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.</em></p>



<p>-----</p>



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Protecting just 0.7% of land can save many unique species

Imagine this: with just a focus on 0.7% of the...

<p>Ever had that moment when you throw a rock into a pond and observe the ripples moving away from the spot? Now, imagine something similar happening, but on a much bigger scale - in space. That's what happened when NASA's DART spacecraft made history by altering the path of a gigantic space rock hurling through the cosmos.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dart-mission-makes-history">DART mission makes history</h2>



<p>In 2022, DART made more than just ripples, it made waves of debris in space. It strategically collided with the Dimorphos asteroid, causing a ripple effect that shifted its orbit around its larger sibling, the Didymos asteroid.</p>



<p>The interaction didn't just stop there. The impact kicked up an astronomical dust storm, a cloud of debris that may soon become a tad bit personal for us Earthlings and our rusty neighbor, Mars. The most recent models suggest that some of the smaller meteoroids from this debris might make their way to both Earth and Mars.</p>



<p>Not to worry, though. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/turning-moon-soil-lunar-regolith-space-debris-into-building-materials/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">debris</a> shower won't be disastrous, but rather a sight to behold, quite safely from our terrains.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planetary-defense-collaboration">Planetary defense collaboration </h2>



<p>With a diameter of about 160 meters, the small moon Dimorphos orbits the larger body Didymos in what is known as a binary asteroid system. </p>



<p>The DART <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/dart/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spacecraft</a>, or the Double Asteroid Redirect Test, made contact with Dimorphos on September 26, 2022.</p>



<p>The outcome? A significant shortening of Dimorphos' orbit around Didymos by half an hour. It was the first act in an international planetary defense collaboration - a literal game-changer.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hera-will-investigate-further">Hera will investigate further</h2>



<p>Now, who's going to clean up this mess? Enter ESA's <a href="https://www.esa.int/Space_Safety/Hera" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hera spacecraft</a>. Scheduled for launch this October, Hera will reach Dimorphos for a close-up "crash scene investigation," following the DART mission's impact.</p>



<p>"The DART impact offers a rare opportunity to investigate the delivery of ejecta to other celestial bodies, thanks to the fact that we know the impact location and that this impact was observed by the Italian LICIACube deployed from DART as well as by Earth-based observers," said ESA Hera mission scientist and co-author of this exciting development, Michael Kueppers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-will-dart-debris-reach-earth">Will DART debris reach Earth?</h2>



<p>To understand how the debris from the Dimorphos impact might reach us, it's essential to assess its speed. </p>



<p>“Our results indicate the possibility of ejecta reaching the gravitational field of Mars in 13 years for launch velocities around 450 m/s, while faster ejecta launched at 770 m/s could reach its vicinity in just seven years," explained Eloy Peña-Asensio, lead author of the study.</p>



<p>"Particles moving above 1.5 km/s could reach the Earth-Moon system in a similar timescale.”</p>



<p>However, whether the debris would indeed make it to Mars or Earth is subject to several factors. In essence, the location of the debris in the impact plume plays a deciding role.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-human-made-meteor-shower">A human-made meteor shower</h2>



<p>“In the coming decades, meteor observation campaigns will be crucial in determining whether fragments of Dimorphos, resulting from the DART impact, will reach our planet. If this happens, we will witness the first human-made meteor shower,” noted Peña-Asensio.</p>



<p>As for the consequential meteoroids, the largest ones would likely be about the size of a softball. These larger particles would burn up in Earth’s atmosphere. However, they might manage to slip through the thinner <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sky-cranes-are-shaping-the-future-of-mars-missions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian</a> atmosphere.</p>



<p>However, it's the smaller particles that move at higher speeds which stand a chance to reach the Earth's atmosphere. But there's no need to panic. We have plenty of time and resources to track the debris and ensure our safety.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-dart-mission">Significance of the DART mission</h2>



<p>The significance of the DART impact is not solely about potential meteor showers or altered space debris routes. It's also about the human spirit of curiosity, exploration, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-first-lunar-earth-flyby-gave-juice-spacecraft-successful-gravity-boost-to-jupiter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conquering new frontiers</a>.</p>



<p>"Our accurate knowledge of the impact site and impactor properties in terms of size, mass, and velocity plus the observations of the ejecta are what allowed us to estimate the long-term fate of the material leaving the Didymos system," said Michael Kueppers.</p>



<p>Hera, named after the Greek goddess of marriage, is expected to begin its investigation of the asteroid pair in late 2026. According to ESA, the spacecraft will perform high-resolution mapping of Dimorphos, providing extremely valuable information for future asteroid deflection missions and science.</p>



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DART mission debris will create a human-made meteor shower

Ever had that moment when you throw a rock into...

<p>Dinosaur fossils have revealed an astonishing discovery - collagen, the protein found in bones, skin, muscles, and ligaments, has been detected in specimens as old as 195 million years. This far exceeds the expected half-life of peptide bonds, which usually break down within 500 years.</p>



<p>Such a remarkable finding challenges long-held assumptions about how biological materials degrade over time.</p>



<p>Typically, proteins are some of the first components to disappear from fossils, leaving behind only hard minerals like bone. </p>



<p>Yet, in the case of these ancient dinosaurs, collagen has somehow persisted, offering scientists a unique opportunity to explore molecular preservation in an entirely new way.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-collagen-defies-time">Dinosaur collagen defies time</h2>



<p>A recent study from the <a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT) explains how collagen can survive far beyond its expected lifespan. </p>



<p>The researchers uncovered a special atomic-level interaction that defends collagen from water molecule attacks, forming a barricade that prevents peptide bonds from being broken through hydrolysis.</p>



<p>Study senior author Ron Raines, the Firmenich Professor of Chemistry at MIT, collaborated with lead author and postdoc Jinyi Yang, postdoc Volga Kojasoy, and graduate student Gerard Porter.</p>



<p>"We provide evidence that that interaction prevents water from attacking the peptide bonds and cleaving them. That just flies in the face of what happens with a normal peptide bond, which has a half-life of only 500 years," explained Professor Raines.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-flexibility-of-dinosaur-collagen">The flexibility of dinosaur collagen</h2>



<p>Collagen is essential to biological structures, particularly due to its tough, fibrous composition. Made of long, intertwined protein strands forming a triple helix, collagen is remarkably stable.</p>



<p>"Collagen is the scaffold that holds us together," said Professor Raines. "What makes the collagen protein so stable, and such a good choice for this scaffold, is that unlike most proteins, it’s fibrous."</p>



<p>Evidence of collagen has even been found in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extraordinary-dinosaur-fossils-discovered-from-the-end-of-cretaceous-era/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaur fossils</a>, including an 80-million-year-old <em><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-rex-was-about-70-percent-bigger-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tyrannosaurus rex</a></em> fossil and a nearly 200-million-year-old sauropodomorph fossil.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-secrets-behind-collagen-s-longevity">Secrets behind collagen's longevity</h2>



<p>Collagen's peptide bonds, formed between carbon and nitrogen atoms, are resistant to hydrolysis because of their structure. These bonds also include a double bond with oxygen, creating a molecular structure known as a carbonyl group.</p>



<p>The carbonyl oxygen can share its unbonded electrons with the neighboring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/did-the-building-blocks-of-life-form-inside-of-water-droplets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">peptide bond</a>, preventing water from disrupting the structure.</p>



<p>To test this, the team created two collagen mimics. One mimic formed the triple helix (trans), while the other had rotated peptide bonds (cis). The researchers found that water could infiltrate and disrupt the cis form, while the trans form resisted water damage.</p>



<p>"A peptide bond is either cis or trans, and we can change the cis to trans ratio. By doing that, we can mimic the natural state of collagen or create an unprotected peptide bond. And we saw that when it was unprotected, it was not long for the world," noted Professor Raines.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-immortal-protein">The immortal protein</h2>



<p>Unlike other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-dinosaur-protein/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">proteins</a>, collagen is composed entirely of triple helices, with no weak links. "Collagen is all triple helices, from one end to the other. There’s no weak link, and that’s why I think it has survived," said Professor Raines.</p>



<p>While other hypotheses suggest dehydration or other factors may contribute to collagen’s longevity, the MIT research points to the unique molecular protection as a key factor. </p>



<p>"I can’t discount the contributions from other factors, but 200 million years is a long time, and I think you need something at the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discrimination-speeds-up-aging-molecular-level/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">molecular level</a>, at the atomic level in order to explain it," noted Raines.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-collagen-and-protein-preservation">Dinosaur collagen and protein preservation</h2>



<p>The discovery of dinosaur collagen and its ability to survive for hundreds of millions of years opens new doors in the study of protein preservation and fossilization. </p>



<p>These findings could revolutionize how scientists approach the study of ancient life, enabling more accurate reconstructions of prehistoric biology. </p>



<p>Furthermore, in fields such as paleobiology and biotechnology, understanding how proteins withstand degradation over time can inspire new technologies and applications.</p>



<p>As researchers continue to explore the intricacies of collagen, the mysteries of how ancient proteins defy time could lead to broader scientific breakthroughs that span multiple disciplines, from archaeology to bioengineering.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acscentsci.4c00971" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Central Science</a></em>.</p>



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How dinosaur collagen survived the test of time

Dinosaur fossils have revealed an astonishing discovery - collagen, the...

<p>Honesty is usually considered the best policy, but there are moments when telling the truth isn’t always the right choice. Social norms help humans decide when to be truthful and when to bend the truth to spare someone’s feelings or avoid harm. But how do these norms translate to robots, which are becoming increasingly integrated into our daily lives? </p>



<p>To explore whether humans are comfortable with robots lying, researchers asked nearly 500 participants to evaluate and justify different types of robot <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-happens-when-robots-lie/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deception</a>.</p>



<p>“I wanted to explore an understudied facet of robot ethics, to contribute to our understanding of mistrust towards emerging technologies and their developers,” explained lead author Andres Rosero, a PhD candidate at <a href="https://www.gmu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">George Mason University</a>. </p>



<p>“With the advent of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/could-generative-ai-go-mad-and-wreck-internet-data/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">generative AI</a>, I felt it was important to begin examining possible cases in which anthropomorphic design and behavior sets could be utilized to manipulate users.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distinct-types-of-deceptive-robot-behavior-nbsp">Distinct types of deceptive robot behavior&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The researchers selected three common work scenarios involving robots - medical, cleaning, and retail - and tested three distinct types of deceptive behavior.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These behaviors were categorized as external state deceptions (lying about the outside world), hidden state deceptions (concealing the robot’s capabilities), and superficial state deceptions (exaggerating the robot’s abilities).</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-external-state-deception-nbsp">External state deception&nbsp;</h3>



<p>In the external state deception scenario, a robot acting as a caretaker for a woman with Alzheimer’s lies, telling her that her late husband will be home soon.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-state-deception-nbsp">Hidden state deception&nbsp;</h3>



<p>The hidden state <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-deception-is-a-growing-issue-that-we-cannot-control/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deception</a> scenario involves a woman visiting a house where a robot is cleaning, unaware that the robot is secretly filming her. </p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-superficial-state-deception-nbsp">Superficial state deception&nbsp;</h3>



<p>In the superficial state deception scenario, a robot in a store complains about feeling pain while helping move furniture, prompting a human to ask someone else to take over for the robot.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-people-view-robot-deception-nbsp">How people view robot deception&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The team recruited 498 participants, asking each to read one of the scenarios and respond to a questionnaire.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The participants were asked whether they approved of the robot’s actions, how deceptive they considered the behavior, whether the deception was justifiable, and who, if anyone, they believed was responsible for the lie. The researchers then analyzed the responses to identify patterns in how people viewed each type of deception.</p>



<p>Of the three scenarios, participants were most disapproving of the hidden state deception involving the house cleaning robot that was secretly filming. They rated it as the most deceptive and found it largely unjustifiable.&nbsp;</p>



<p>In contrast, while the external and superficial state deceptions were also seen as deceptive, the superficial deception - where the robot pretended to feel pain - was viewed more negatively, likely because it seemed manipulative.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-lies-are-justified">Some lies are justified</h2>



<p>Interestingly, participants were most supportive of the external state deception, where the robot lied to the Alzheimer’s patient. Many justified the lie by saying it protected the patient from emotional pain, prioritizing compassion over truthfulness.</p>



<p>While participants could offer justifications for all three forms of deception - some suggested that the hidden state deception might have been for security reasons - most were firmly against the idea of robots lying about their capabilities without disclosure.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-robots-that-manipulate-users-nbsp">Robots that manipulate users&nbsp;</h2>



<p>More than half the participants who encountered the superficial state deception, where the robot faked pain, also found it unacceptable. When it came to these unacceptable deceptions, participants often pointed the blame at the robot’s developers or owners rather than the robot itself.</p>



<p>“I think we should be concerned about any technology that is capable of withholding the true nature of its capabilities, because it could lead to users being manipulated by that technology in ways the user (and perhaps the developer) never intended,” Rosero said.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“We’ve already seen examples of companies using web design principles and artificial intelligence chatbots in ways that are designed to manipulate users towards a certain action. We need regulation to protect ourselves from these harmful deceptions.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gauging-human-reactions-to-robots">Gauging human reactions to robots</h2>



<p>However, the researchers acknowledged that this study represents just a first step in understanding human responses to robot deception. They noted that future experiments should use real-life scenarios - such as videos or roleplay simulations - to better gauge human reactions.</p>



<p>“The benefit of using a cross-sectional study with vignettes is that we can obtain a large number of participant attitudes and perceptions in a cost-controlled manner,” Rosero explained.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Vignette studies provide baseline findings that can be corroborated or disputed through further experimentation. Experiments with in-person or simulated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-will-humans-react-to-coexisting-with-robots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human-robot interactions</a> are likely to provide greater insight into how humans actually perceive these robot deception behaviors.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emerging-technologies-and-ethical-decisions">Emerging technologies and ethical decisions</h2>



<p>The research opens the door to understanding how we navigate the ethics of deception when it comes to emerging technologies like robots and AI.&nbsp;</p>



<p>As robots increasingly interact with humans in caregiving, service, and other industries, it's crucial to explore how comfortable we are with their behaviors, particularly when they involve deception.</p>



<p>With this study, the researchers have started a conversation about the ethical complexities of robot deception, pushing us to consider not just what robots can do, but what they should do. And as AI and robotic technologies continue to evolve, the need for clear regulations to protect users from potential manipulation becomes ever more pressing.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/frobt.2024.1409712" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Frontiers in Robotics and AI</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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Digital deception: How do humans respond to lying robots?

Honesty is usually considered the best policy, but there are...

<p>A new study sheds light on how the brain initiates spontaneous actions without any external triggers. </p>



<p>The research not only explains how these actions emerge but also offers insight into the mysterious ramping of neural activity before movement - a phenomenon that has puzzled scientists for years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-origins-of-spontaneous-action-nbsp">Origins of spontaneous action&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The study was led by Jake Gavenas during his time as a PhD student at the Brain Institute at <a href="https://www.chapman.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chapman University</a>. He collaborated with two faculty members, Uri Maoz and Aaron Schurger, to explore the origins of spontaneous action. </p>



<p>Together, the researchers simulated activity in neural networks and compared the results to real human intracortical recordings during spontaneous movement.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The findings offer a fascinating explanation for how the brain's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neurons-can-predict-human-speech-before-we-say-a-word/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurons</a> work together to trigger movement without any clear external signal.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-signals-and-conscious-actions">Brain signals and conscious actions</h2>



<p>One of the study's key discoveries is that rapid fluctuations in the activity of individual neurons can combine within a network, resulting in much slower fluctuations when viewed at the population level.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This helps explain a phenomenon that many people have experienced but never fully understood - such as when you're standing on a diving platform, contemplating a jump. Nothing outside of you is telling you to jump, but at some point, you make the decision internally, and then you move.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The brain, specifically the motor cortex, is coordinating muscle contractions to make this happen, but the question is: where do the initial signals to jump come from, and how do they relate to your conscious decision to act?</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spontaneous-voluntary-actions">Spontaneous voluntary actions</h2>



<p>Since the 1960s, neuroscientists have observed that electrical activity in the brain begins to increase one to two seconds before a spontaneous voluntary action. </p>



<p>Many researchers believed this slow ramping up of activity represented the brain preparing to move, following a preconscious decision. But what remained unclear was how this ramping process starts, as it seemed to emerge from nowhere.</p>



<p>This slow-ramping brain activity has sparked years of debate among neuroscientists and philosophers about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-do-not-have-free-will-stanford-scientist-robert-sapolsky/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">free will</a> and conscious control. </p>



<p>The big question has been whether this ramping signals that the brain is preparing to move even before we consciously decide to act, raising concerns that our actions might be predetermined at an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-behavior-is-influenced-by-the-unconscious-mind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unconscious</a> level. Understanding where this ramping activity comes from has been a central problem in neuroscience.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neural-activity-before-spontaneous-actions-nbsp">Neural activity before spontaneous actions&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Researchers like Maoz and Schurger have challenged the view that the brain makes a preconscious decision to move.&nbsp;</p>



<p>In 2012, Schurger proposed an alternative explanation, suggesting that the slow ramping in neural activity is part of a broader process. In this process, slow background fluctuations in the motor cortex accumulate until they hit a certain threshold, triggering movement.</p>



<p>In this framework, the key moment isn't when the slow ramping begins, but rather when the fluctuations cross a threshold to initiate action. This would explain why scientists see ramping activity before movement - because, looking back from the point of action, slow fluctuations would have been leading up to the threshold crossing all along.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This explanation, while compelling, left one crucial question unanswered: where do these slow background fluctuations in neural activity, often called 1/f noise, come from, considering that individual neurons fluctuate quite rapidly?</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slow-ramping-signals-nbsp">Slow-ramping signals&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The study is the first to provide an explanation for how slow background fluctuations arise from networks of neurons, none of which, individually, operate on such slow timescales.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The research shows that when neurons interact in a network, their fast, individual fluctuations can combine into slower, population-level fluctuations. These slow fluctuations can then lead to a threshold-crossing event, triggering movement and giving rise to the ramping activity that appears before spontaneous actions.</p>



<p>“We see similar slow-ramping signals before other kinds of spontaneous behaviors, like coming up with creative ideas or freely remembering things that have happened to you. A similar process might therefore underlie those phenomena, but only time and further research will tell,” Gavanas said.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-brain-triggers-movement">How the brain triggers movement</h2>



<p>In short, this study provides a possible explanation for the slow, spontaneous fluctuations in neural activity, which are widespread in neural systems and critical to understanding how the brain triggers movement without external cues.</p>



<p>Moreover, the study highlights an important point about how researchers interpret their findings. According to Maoz, it reveals the bias we have as researchers to think that our results uncover a causal mechanism, when it may really be just a correlation.</p>



<p>This observation reminds us that in neuroscience, understanding the difference between correlation and causation is crucial for making sense of how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-does-creativity-start-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain</a> functions.</p>



<p>The research is published published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-51401-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Communications</em></a>. </p>



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What causes the brain to initiate spontaneous actions?

A new study sheds light on how the brain initiates...

<p>Starchy foods have played a pivotal role in human evolution, influencing not only our diets but also our genetic makeup. </p>



<p>A recent study has revealed that the rise of agriculture - around 12,000 years ago - and the subsequent increase in starchy staples like wheat and grains, significantly impacted the human genome.</p>



<p>Researchers from the United States, Italy, and the United Kingdom found that our ability to digest carbohydrates has significantly evolved over time. This is closely linked to the rise of agriculture and the increase of starchy foods in our diets.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-evolutionary-power-of-starchy-foods">The evolutionary power of starchy foods</h2>



<p>The ability to extract energy from starchy foods has increased remarkably during this period, as shown by an expansion in the number of genes encoding enzymes that break down starch - jumping from an average of eight to over 11.</p>



<p>"The copy number of amylase genes had increased in Europeans since the dawn of agriculture, but we had never been able to sequence this locus fully before. It is extremely repetitive and complex," said Peter Sudmant, assistant professor of integrative biology at the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Berkeley</a>, and one of the lead authors of the study. </p>



<p>This increase in amylase genes closely matched the rise and spread of agriculture across Europe from the Middle East, aligning with changes in dietary patterns.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-the-amylase-locus">Decoding the amylase locus</h2>



<p>The researchers meticulously examined the genome's amylase locus, where the salivary amylase gene (AMY1) and two pancreatic amylase genes (AMY2A and AMY2B) reside. </p>



<p>"If you take a piece of dry pasta and put it in your mouth, eventually it'll get a little bit sweet. That's your salivary amylase <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/enzyme-produced-during-exercise-protects-against-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enzyme</a> breaking the starches down into sugars," explained Sudmant.</p>



<p>While this happens in all humans and other primates, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/complete-sequencing-of-the-human-genome-reveals-new-findings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human genome</a> contains a significantly higher number of amylase gene copies compared to our primate relatives, such as chimpanzees and Neanderthals, who possess only a single copy of AMY1.</p>



<p>UC Berkeley postdoctoral fellow Runyang Nicolas Lou, one of the study's co-authors, elaborated: "Our study found that each copy of the human genome harbors one to 11 copies of AMY1, zero to three copies of AMY2A, and one to four copies of AMY2B. Copy number is correlated with gene expression and protein level and thus the ability to digest starch."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-survival-advantage-and-global-adaptation">Survival advantage and global adaptation</h2>



<p>The presence of multiple amylase genes provided a survival advantage, with the incidence of chromosomes carrying multiple copies increasing sevenfold over the last 12,000 years. </p>



<p>This evolution was not confined to Europe. The researchers found evidence of similar patterns in other agricultural populations globally, regardless of which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-of-the-future-breadfruit-is-resistant-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">starchy plant</a> was domesticated.</p>



<p>Erik Garrison, a co-lead author from the <a href="https://www.uthsc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tennessee Health Science Center</a>, highlighted the broader implications of the findings: "One of the exciting things we were able to do here is probe both modern and ancient genomes to dissect the history of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/feeding-habits-shaped-the-skulls-of-humans-and-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">structural evolution</a> at this locus."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-dawn-of-a-new-method">The dawn of a new method</h2>



<p>Another breakthrough in the study was the development of a new method for identifying diseases involving genes with multiple copies, like amylase. </p>



<p>This method also opens doors to exploring rapidly duplicating genes related to the immune system, skin pigmentation, and mucus production. </p>



<p>The research hints at a potential link between higher AMY1 copies and increased tooth decay, though further investigation is needed.</p>



<p>Joana Rocha, a co-author from UC Berkeley, compared the genomic structure of the amylase locus to “sculptures made of different Lego bricks." </p>



<p>Long-read sequencing techniques allowed the team to reconstruct these complex genetic structures with unprecedented accuracy, shedding light on human evolutionary history and its genetic diversity.</p>



<p>This research, funded by the U.S. National Institutes of Health, is part of an expanding effort to better understand how genetic adaptations have shaped human health and disease through our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bronze-age-teeth-discovery-highlight-the-evolution-of-the-human-diet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">changing diets</a> over millennia.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-starchy-foods-and-human-health">Starchy foods and human health</h2>



<p>The evolutionary relationship between starchy foods and human genetics continues to shape modern health. </p>



<p>As our ancestors adapted to carbohydrate-rich diets, today's populations still show varying abilities to digest starch, potentially influencing susceptibility to conditions such as obesity and diabetes. </p>



<p>Understanding this genetic adaptation to starchy foods not only offers insights into our past but also provides valuable information for addressing contemporary health challenges linked to diet and metabolism.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07911-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a></em>.</p>



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How starchy foods shaped human genomes

Starchy foods have played a pivotal role in human evolution,...

<p>Once draped with seas and swathed in rivers, Mars was hardly the barren wasteland that it is today. But just as water can evaporate from your glass on a hot day, it seems Mars' liquid assets went poof sometime over the last 3 billion years. </p>



<p>Where did the water go? We know that a portion of it went deep underground, seeping into the Martian crust. But the rest of it? Well, that's the focus of a recent study.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-escape-of-mars-water">Escape of Mars' water</h2>



<p>Scientists have identified two possible exits for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insights-alien-life-mars-water-sulfur-discovered-gained-studying-extreme-life-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian water</a>. One, it could have filtered into the ground and become frozen in time. Two, it could have broken down into atoms and bounced into the great beyond - space. As interesting as the first scenario sounds, let's focus on the latter one.</p>



<p>John Clarke and his team in the <a href="https://www.bu.edu/csp/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for Space Physics</a> at Boston University explain that understanding water's fate on Mars necessitates tracking the escapee atoms.</p>



<p>By measuring the current escape rate and number of hydrogen atoms fleeing into space, they can trace the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planets-are-hiding-much-more-water-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">history of water on the planet</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hydrogen-in-the-martian-atmosphere">Hydrogen in the Martian atmosphere</h2>



<p>The water molecules in Mars' atmosphere are essentially dismantled by sunlight into two types of atoms: hydrogen and deuterium, or "heavy hydrogen."</p>



<p>Deuterium is a hydrogen atom with an added neutron, which gives it twice the mass and drags it down, making it slower to escape into space.</p>



<p>Over time, as more basic hydrogen escaped and deuterium lagged, the ratio of deuterium to hydrogen in the Martian atmosphere grew. And this growing ratio is a treasure map for scientists, leading them back to the period when Mars was bustling with water.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hubble-meets-maven">Hubble meets MAVEN</h2>



<p>As instrumental as the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/maven/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MAVEN</a> (Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution) spacecraft's data was to this study, it had its limitations. It seems even space telescopes have blind spots. </p>



<p>MAVEN struggles to detect deuterium emissions during the lengthy Martian winter, when Mars swings away from the sun. </p>



<p>So, the <a href="https://hubblesite.org/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hubble Space Telescope</a> swooped in to fill in the gaps, completing the picture of a three-Martian-year cycle (687 Earth days for a single Martian year). With additional data dating back to 1991, Hubble contributed vastly to this study long before MAVEN arrived at Mars in 2014.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-turbulent-atmosphere">A turbulent atmosphere </h2>



<p>In our fast-paced world, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-water-found-on-mars-would-cover-the-planet-over-one-mile-deep/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a> is also experiencing its share of change. The Martian atmosphere is not the static entity scientists once thought it to be. It's not just a slow, relaxed diffusion of atoms upwards until they reach an escape altitude - it's a far more high-octane process. </p>



<p>Mars' closeness to the sun causes water molecules to speed through the atmosphere, discharging atoms at higher altitudes.</p>



<p>Scientists have found this transformation is so swift that it even needs added energy to explain the changes. This paints a far more dynamic picture of Mars' atmosphere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-solar-wind-in-mars-water-loss">Role of solar wind in Mars' water loss</h2>



<p>One cannot discuss the loss of water from Mars without considering the impact of solar wind. This constant stream of charged particles emitted by the sun plays a significant role in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-frost-detected-on-mars-enormous-volcanoes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian atmosphere's evolution</a>. </p>



<p>Unlike Earth, which is protected by its magnetic field, Mars lacks a global magnetic shield, allowing solar wind to directly interact with its atmosphere. These interactions can strip away light gases, including hydrogen, from the atmosphere. </p>



<p>Recent studies have indicated that solar wind has been a persistent thief, exacerbating the loss of water molecules over eons by providing the energy needed to liberate lighter atoms from their atmospheric bonds, further diminishing the planet's once-thriving liquid reservoirs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-from-isotope-analysis">Insights from isotope analysis</h2>



<p>As scientists delve deeper into the puzzle of Mars' water loss, isotope analysis emerges as a powerful tool in their arsenal. </p>



<p>By examining the ratios of hydrogen isotopes - regular hydrogen versus deuterium -researchers can gain insights into the history and volume of liquid water that once circulated on the planet. Isotopic signatures serve as valuable markers, providing clues to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-vanishing-water-mystery-new-insights-curiosity-rover/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental conditions</a> when the water was abundant.</p>



<p>This analytical approach not only helps paint a more detailed picture of Mars' hydrological history but also opens avenues for comparison with Earth, allowing scientists to enhance their understanding of the planetary processes that govern water retention and loss. </p>



<p>As we continue to explore these methodologies, we inch closer to unraveling the mysteries of our enigmatic neighbor.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-piecing-together-an-intergalactic-puzzle"><strong>Piecing together an intergalactic puzzle</strong></h2>



<p>Unraveling the historical mystery of water on Mars extends beyond our solar system. It presents invaluable information for understanding the evolution of Earth-sized planets elsewhere in the cosmos.</p>



<p>With astronomers identifying more of these distant planets, Mars, Venus, and Earth serve as models to understand their conditions.</p>



<p>The research appears in the recent edition of <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adm7499" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Science Advances</em></a>, published by the American Association for the Advancement of Science.</p>



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Mars lost most of its water, but where did it go?

Once draped with seas and swathed in rivers, Mars was...

<p>Bad teen behavior usually happens away from adult supervision, which means it's easy for parents to blame others for their child's delinquent behavior.</p>



<p>When parents believe that other teens are a bad influence, they may feel tempted to limit these friendships. However, a recent study suggests that this overbearing approach could be counterproductive.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prohibiting-friendships-can-backfire">Prohibiting friendships can backfire</h2>



<p>A new study cautions parents - especially meddling moms - against prohibiting friendships, as such actions might worsen the very behavior they aim to correct.</p>



<p>The study was co-authored by Brett Laursen, a professor of psychology at <a href="https://www.fau.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida Atlantic University</a>, and Goda Kaniušonytė from <a href="https://www.mruni.eu/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mykolas Romeris University</a>.</p>



<p>The researchers followed a diverse group of students, consisting of 292 boys and 270 girls aged 9 to 14, over the course of a school year.</p>



<p>The students completed surveys at regular intervals to measure their conduct, perceived maternal disapproval of friends, peer status, and classroom disruptiveness.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-maternal-disapproval-impacts-teen-behavior">Maternal disapproval impacts teen behavior</h2>



<p>The findings reveal that maternal disapproval of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strong-teen-friendships-build-lasting-resilience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">friendships</a> in response to behavior issues can damage a child's peer status, exacerbating the behavioral problems that mothers intend to address.</p>



<p> "Maternal friend disapproval has counterproductive consequences for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/kindergarten-conduct-childhood-behavioral-problems-will-cost-society-later/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior problems</a> because of the deleterious impact it has on peer status," explained Laursen. </p>



<p>The children, alienated from their peers, faced increased classroom disruptions and adjustment difficulties.</p>



<p>Results from the study indicate that when mothers intervened to restrict friendships, they inadvertently worsened their child’s relationships with peers, causing further issues in behavior. </p>



<p>The researchers found that classmates responded to maternal interference with increased disliking of the child, not just a reduction in popularity. </p>



<p>As a result, children who were subject to friend prohibitions often found themselves ostracized, with classmates distancing themselves to avoid ridicule.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-domino-effect-of-prohibited-friendships">The domino effect of prohibited friendships</h2>



<p>The study also explored the potential for parents to unintentionally succeed in disrupting friendships. </p>



<p>"Imagine this scenario," said Laursen. "A friendship ends because a mother prohibits it. Now the child needs a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reconnecting-with-old-friends-is-as-scary-as-making-new-ones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new friend</a>. Who wants to be friends with someone who has an unpleasant, interfering mother?" </p>



<p>"Chances are good that friend options are now quite limited, and the child is forced to consider someone who also is rejected by peers; someone who has a hard time making friends."</p>



<p>In many cases, the limited social options available to children after such interventions meant they were more likely to befriend classmates who exhibit the same behavior problems.</p>



<p>The pressure to conform to disruptive behaviors was heightened, compounding the very issues that the mothers had hoped to resolve. </p>



<p>Moreover, the loss of peer status led to increased distress, making it more difficult for children to develop healthy coping mechanisms. </p>



<p>Exclusion from social interactions with typically developing peers deprived them of the chance to learn and practice age-appropriate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/kids-who-are-active-on-social-media-are-just-as-active-offline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social skills</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-parental-support-improves-teen-behavior">Parental support improves teen behavior</h2>



<p>“Mothers may think they are protecting their children, but in reality, their actions often push them further into undesirable situations,” Laursen noted. </p>



<p>This unintended consequence highlights the risks of direct interference in children’s friendships, especially when it involves cutting off ties with peers.</p>



<p>The study authors suggest that instead of prohibiting friendships, parents should focus on creating positive, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supportive-adults-help-protect-children-from-mental-health-issues/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supportive relationships</a> with their children. This, they argue, may help buffer against the negative influence of troublesome peers.</p>



<p>"Parents should consider positive alternatives to friend prohibition," said Laursen. "Focus on maintaining positive relationships with children, because warmth and support can be effective buffers against troublesome peer pressure, potentially disrupting the downward spiral of peer problems and adjustment difficulties."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-encouraging-constructive-peer-engagement">Encouraging constructive peer engagement</h2>



<p>The researchers further advise that parents should encourage their children to engage in constructive peer activities within supervised settings. </p>



<p>Participation in clubs and other adult-sponsored activities could offer opportunities for positive peer interaction while minimizing deviant behavior. </p>



<p>According to Laursen, creating these positive environments for friendship can help children build healthier social connections without the need for restrictive parental interference.</p>



<p>Study co-author Goda Kaniušonytė added that parents’ well-meaning interventions often stem from concerns about their child’s behavior, but these efforts can have the opposite effect. </p>



<p>By limiting social opportunities, children may fall into a cycle of rejection and behavioral issues, making it harder for them to adjust in the long term.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://acamh.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jcpp.14043" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

When moms meddle: Friend disapproval worsens teen behavior

Bad teen behavior usually happens away from adult supervision, which...

<p>Flea toads, despite being just seven millimeters in length, are among the smallest vertebrates on the planet. Regardless of their tiny size, their organs and bodily functions are almost identical to those of animals that are hundreds or even thousands of times larger.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While extreme miniaturization is a phenomenon seen in nature, the exact mechanisms behind how animals become so small have long remained a mystery. </p>



<p>Now, thanks to a grant of around $1.7 million from the <a href="https://erc.europa.eu/homepage" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Research Council</a> (ERC), a <a href="https://www.ku.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Copenhagen</a> researcher is setting out to solve this puzzle.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-miniature-animals-with-optimal-function-nbsp">Miniature animals with optimal function&nbsp;</h2>



<p>What do flea toads and smartphones have in common? Both have undergone extreme miniaturization while still maintaining all their essential components. </p>



<p>In the tech world, we’ve grown accustomed to devices becoming smaller while retaining or even increasing functionality. </p>



<p>Similarly, in nature, creatures like flea toads, dwarf pygmy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discovered-three-new-species-of-freshwater-goby-fish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">goby fish</a>, and bumblebee bats have evolved to shrink while keeping their vital organs and functions intact, much like their larger relatives.&nbsp;</p>



<p>But what exactly happens within these creatures, especially at the genetic level, when they undergo such evolutionary changes to reduce in size? And are there any biological limits to how small these animals can get?</p>



<p>These are some of the questions Mark D. Scherz, a researcher at the <a href="https://snm.dk/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural History Museum of Denmark</a>, will explore over the next five years. His research will focus on uncovering the genetic processes that govern miniaturization in vertebrates.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-how-animals-become-miniature-nbsp">Understanding how animals become miniature&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-animals-vulnerable-human-expansion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Large animals</a> are often the ones to grab our attention. But I think it to be just as fascinating how nature has managed to miniaturize the exact same vital organs and cram them into a less than one-centimeter-long frog. Today, we know surprisingly little about how it all happens, and I want to change that,” Scherz explained.</p>



<p>Much like the tech industry has continually reduced the size of transistors to make devices smaller and more efficient, nature has found ways to make animals miniature over millions of years. </p>



<p>Scientists believe that extreme miniaturization is linked to evolutionary innovation, although the exact mechanisms remain poorly understood.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-changes-during-miniaturization-nbsp">Genetic changes during miniaturization&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Scherz’s research project, GEMINI (Genomics of Miniaturisation in Vertebrates), aims to uncover the specific genetic changes that occur as animals become smaller. </p>



<p>The goal is to create a sort of genetic “template” that will reveal what happens in the DNA of vertebrates when they <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brazilian-flea-toad-worlds-smallest-vertebrate-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shrink in size</a>.</p>



<p>“In several independent studies that looked at the genomes of miniaturized animals, a kind of clean-up and innovation takes place, where the genome becomes smaller. A lot of this happens in repetitive bits of the genome that we used to call <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/junk-dna-may-set-humans-apart-from-chimpanzees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">‘junk’ DNA</a>. But some of it happens in other genes as well, which is what we need to learn more about,” Scherz said.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-size-big-innovations-nbsp">Small size, big innovations&nbsp;</h2>



<p>In the past, scientists believed that animals generally evolved to become larger over time, a concept known as “Cope’s rule.” However, it is now clear that this isn’t always the case - and for a good reason.</p>



<p>“Animals can't just keep growing bigger and bigger. At some point, their physiology reaches a limit, and so does gravity. That’s why there are phases where body size reduces, allowing for a trend toward increased size later on,” Scherz said.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“We also think that small size might be where the really big innovations happen, which we then see expanded when the descendants get bigger again. That makes these miniaturized animals particularly exciting to study when we’re trying to figure out how innovations evolve in nature.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-overlooked-phenomenon-nbsp">An overlooked phenomenon&nbsp;</h2>



<p>For decades, miniature animals have been somewhat overlooked in favor of studying large species like blue whales and elephants. </p>



<p>Some of the biggest discoveries in the field of miniaturization date back to the 1990s, with fewer recent advancements.</p>



<p>“Everyone’s attention is on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blue-whales-continue-their-battle-for-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">blue whales</a> and elephants. Any child you ask can tell you about the largest land mammal and the largest marine mammal and the largest dinosaur that has ever lived,” said Scherz.</p>



<p>“But scaling up and getting bigger is not a big problem. It is a far more impressive feat to have (practically) everything in a twenty-three-ton blue whale compressed into a seven-millimeter package.”</p>



<p>However, interest in miniaturization is experiencing a resurgence, partly due to exciting new discoveries. </p>



<p>Earlier this year, researchers in Brazil found the world’s smallest vertebrate, the flea frog, measuring just seven millimeters in length. This discovery has reignited curiosity about the biological processes behind miniaturization.</p>



<p>“We live at a time when probably the smallest vertebrates ever are around us, but they are too easy to overlook, so we just forget about them. This project will allow us to gain a genetic understanding of what controls this 'miniaturization process' and investigate whether there is something that keeps animals from becoming even smaller,” Scherz concluded.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Why do some animals evolve to become miniature?

Flea toads, despite being just seven millimeters in length, are...

<p>Neighbors can often be annoying, intruding on our personal space or being too loud. But is it worthwhile to fight them? Parrotfish, for instance, choose not to battle it out with their neighbors. </p>



<p>In a new study led by the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colorado Boulder</a>, researchers revealed that the stoplight parrotfish - a brightly colored species living in the shallow waters off Florida and in the Caribbean Sea - tends to behave more tolerantly toward neighboring parrotfish, but rather aggressively toward strangers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-role-of-parrotfish-nbsp">Ecological role of parrotfish&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The experts spent days underwater observing parrotfish, to gather new insights into a species which plays a major role in maintaining healthy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reefs-could-vanish-if-temperatures-continue-to-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coral reefs</a>, while also contributing to the white sand beaches of the Caribbean.</p>



<p>“Parrotfish are an important part of the coral reef ecosystem and the ecological functions it provides,” said lead author Joshua Manning, a postdoctoral researcher in the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at CU Boulder. “Understanding their behavior will help us evaluate whether and how they can buffer the effects of climate change on coral reefs.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-parrotfish-with-beak-like-teeth-nbsp">Parrotfish with beak-like teeth&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Stoplight parrotfish are some of the largest parrotfish species in the Caribbean reefs, measuring up to 1.5 feet long. They sport strong, beak-like teeth which allow them to spend nearly 90% of the day eating microscopic organisms that grow on and within the calcium carbonate structures produced by corals.&nbsp;</p>



<p>As the parrotfish remove coral skeletons, they make space for new corals to grow and produce white sand as their digestive waste.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-claiming-their-territory-nbsp">Claiming their territory&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Since they are highly territorial animals, male stoplight parrotfish defend territories as large as two tennis courts, where they spend their time foraging and mating with a small group of female followers.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, not every parrotfish has a specific territory. Some of them are “floaters,” as Manning calls them, constantly scouting the reefs and claiming space that becomes available.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-parrotfish-respect-their-neighbors">Parrotfish respect their neighbors</h2>



<p>As an experienced diver, Manning spent over 400 hours underwater during his doctoral studies trying to understand how the stoplight parrotfish behave and interact with one another. His observations revealed that the fish might be smarter than previously thought.&nbsp;</p>



<p>By following ten spotlight parrotfish off the coast of Bonaire, a Caribbean island, he discovered that each time a floater swam by an occupied territory, the territory holders would puff up, displaying their fins and aggressively chasing the floater away.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Surprisingly though, when parrotfish from neighboring territories approached the boundary lines, territory holders appeared to be much less aggressive.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-dear-enemy-effect">The “dear enemy” effect</h2>



<p>When parrotfish did behave aggressively toward their neighbors, it was most frequently because they had strayed too far into other parrotfish’s territory while chasing another parrotfish.</p>



<p>This “dear enemy” effect, as scientists call it - when territory holders show less <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/do-animals-have-mirror-neurons-that-spark-aggression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aggression</a> toward neighbors than strangers - has also been observed in frogs, squirrels, sparrows, and several other animal species. However, this was the first time this phenomenon was discovered in parrotfish. </p>



<p>According to Manning, parrotfish might be more aggressive toward floaters because they are more likely to try to take over their territories.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Moreover, since territory-holding males have better mating opportunities, their continuous patrolling and defense efforts take a toll on their physical condition and, as a consequence, they have to focus their energy on fighting off the most critical threats.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-capacity-to-learn-and-use-information-nbsp">The capacity to learn and use information&nbsp;</h2>



<p>To the scientists’ surprise, floaters appeared to recognize territorial boundaries. For instance, floaters often swam across the reefs using the buffer zones between established territories in order to avoid aggression.</p>



<p>“These fish may be smarter than what we give them credit for. They seem to recognize neighbors, find the boundaries of territories, and have the capacity to learn and use information,” Manning said.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-parrotfish-accelerate-reef-recovery-nbsp">Parrotfish accelerate reef recovery&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Due to global warming, coral reefs worldwide are declining rapidly. Between 2023 and mid-May 2024, experts have found mass <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-worlds-largest-coral-bleaching-event-is-now-underway/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coral bleaching</a> - which happens when corals expel the algae living in their tissues due to stress caused by high ocean temperatures and other climatic factors - in 62 countries and territories worldwide. </p>



<p>Since parrotfish depend on coral reefs for shelter and food, coral loss due to ocean acidification and warming can have major impacts on their habitat and populations. Yet, parrotfish are able to accelerate reef recovery from bleaching events by creating space for coral larvae to settle and grow.</p>



<p>“Reefs are a vital source of food for us and support immense biodiversity, including species with significant medical potential,” said Manning.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“By studying how parrotfishes use space and how their grazing influences coral recruitment patterns, we can better understand how reefs can recover from disturbances and adapt to climate change.”</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ecy.4407" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Ecology</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Parrotfish are more aggressive with strangers than neighbors

Neighbors can often be annoying, intruding on our personal space...

<p>Have you ever considered the impact of simply observing how others deal with challenging situations? It's a lot more profound than you might think. This act of empathy can help us develop a layer of emotional armor, helping us with resilience and shielding us from the mental health ravages of trauma, such as depression.</p>



<p>The researchers at the University of Lausanne (UNIL) have been delving into this, studying how this "emotional contagion" works in mice – and they've cracked the code.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-resilience-anyway">What's resilience, anyway?</h2>



<p>When life throws us tough situations, we humans have a knack for getting through it, picking up and pressing on. This is what we call resilience. </p>



<p>That said, not everyone finds it so easy to bounce back from traumatic events. Some folks may feel stuck in a rut, losing their motivation and drive, the telltale signs of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/childhood-maltreatment-fuels-mental-health-crisis-in-australia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">depression</a>. </p>



<p>If we could <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-with-high-resilience-live-up-to-ten-years-longer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">boost resilience</a> in these vulnerable individuals, we could fortify them against the onset of debilitating mental health conditions. However, we're not quite there yet. </p>



<p>"There is a lack of clinical tools or underlying mechanisms to promote this type of conditioning capable of fostering a resilient reaction as in healthy people," says Manuel Mameli, Associate Professor at the Department of Fundamental Neurosciences at the Faculty of Biology and Medicine, <a href="https://www.unil.ch/central/en/home.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNIL</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peek-learn-endure-for-emotional-resilience">Peek, learn, endure for emotional resilience</h2>



<p>How did the UNIL neuroscientists crack this nut? </p>



<p>They created an experimental model to promote resilience and then measure its effects on the development of pathological traits following trauma. The process was quite ingenious.</p>



<p>"We started from the recognized fact that simply observing the emotional experiences of others helps us to learn from them. It's a phenomenon known as emotional contagion, and it engages resilience", explains Manuel Mameli.</p>



<p>They used an "observer" mouse, who got to watch another mouse experiencing mild electric shocks. This observation served as a protective shield for the observer mice -- when they later experienced the shocks themselves, they largely avoided falling into depression-like states.</p>



<p>On the other hand, the mice that didn't get a chance to observe the shocks, they weren't so lucky.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-serotonin-our-resilience-maestro">Meet serotonin, our resilience maestro</h2>



<p>Stumbling upon the behavioral principle was a big win. But the UNIL scientists didn't stop there. They dived deeper, identifying the brain mechanism mediating this learning process. </p>



<p>They focused on an itsy-bitsy brain structure called the habenula, known for its involvement in our emotional and sensory processing, and regulation of neurotransmitters linked with depression, notably serotonin. They developed imaging tools to track this elusive molecule in mice. </p>



<p>"It's very difficult to measure the variation of serotonin in the brain. Thanks to a biosensor developed by Yulong Li of <a href="https://english.pku.edu.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Peking University</a>, co-author of the study, we were able to identify the key mechanism," says Manuel Mameli.</p>



<p>The team found that this emotional contagion coincided with a change in neuron function in the habenula, along with a surge in serotonin release in this region. </p>



<p>"It's the dynamics of serotonin that change during this task, and this is the key finding of our study," reveals Sarah Mondoloni, a postdoctoral fellow in Manuel Mameli's lab at UNIL.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emotional-resilience-and-mental-health">Emotional resilience and mental health</h2>



<p>The revolutionary findings at the UNIL offer promising implications for mental health treatment and therapy. </p>



<p>If emotional contagion can bolster resilience, then therapeutic models that incorporate observational learning may be beneficial for those struggling with mental health issues.</p>



<p>Such approaches could potentially enable individuals to develop coping mechanisms by learning from those who have navigated similar challenges successfully. </p>



<p>This could be particularly impactful for vulnerable populations, offering a pathway towards improved mental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/resilience-is-surprisingly-linked-to-gut-and-brain-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health resilience</a> in a more holistic and supportive environment.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-directions-in-research">Future directions in research</h2>



<p>Building upon the exciting discoveries related to serotonin in the habenula, future research must continue to explore the neurobiological pathways involved in emotional contagion and resilience. </p>



<p>Investigating how these processes can be harnessed not only in animal models but in human populations is crucial. </p>



<p>Additionally, researchers might look into related neurotransmitters and their roles in bolstering or limiting resilience, thereby broadening our understanding of the intricate interplay between social learning and emotional health. </p>



<p>Such inquiries may pave the way for novel interventions that tap into our inherent capacity for resilience through shared human experiences.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-understanding-of-depression">New understanding of depression</h2>



<p>Depression has long been linked to serotonin. Many antidepressants target serotonin, aiming to boost its concentration in the brain. </p>



<p>This study introduces a novel angle, indicating that a localized surge of serotonin in the habenula could fend off depressive symptoms following a traumatic experience. </p>



<p>"Our discovery could pave the way for new therapeutic applications relevant to depression, for example by testing existing pharmacological serotonin activators. Their use could be refined to achieve better therapeutic approaches," Mameli aptly concludes.</p>



<p>So next time you watch someone dealing with a tough situation, know that you're not just a passive observer. You're building mental resilience, potentially protecting your mental well-being. </p>



<p>And, who knows, this new understanding of serotonin could eventually lead to better therapeutic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-with-a-history-of-depression-tend-to-process-more-negative-information/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">approaches to fight depression</a>.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adp3897" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Science</em></a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Seeing others' struggles can strengthen our emotional resilience

Have you ever considered the impact of simply observing how...

Date	Citation Page	Title
09/25/1975	40 FR 44149 44151	Lists of Endangered and Threatened Fauna; 40 FR 44149 44151
04/21/1975	40 FR 17590 17591	Lists of Endangered and Threatened Fauna (10); 40 FR 17590 17591