Ara ambiguus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports &#8212; NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/lake-st-clair-of-the-u-s-and-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.
ITIS Reports &#8212; ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=b8d82ea8aeaf42d9bfe752a2afa05139&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i57j69i60l3j0.1322j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.
FWS Digital Media Library &#8212; The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service&#8217;s National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.The great green macaw ( Ara ambiguus ), also known as Buffon&#8217;s macaw or the great military macaw, is a Central and South American parrot found in Nicaragua, Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia and Ecuador. The great green macaw, also known as Buffon&#8217;s macaw or the great military macaw, is a Central and South American parrot found in Nicaragua, Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia and Ecuador. Two allopatric subspecies are recognized; the nominate subspecies, Ara ambiguus ssp. ambiguus, occurs from Honduras to Colombia, while Ara ambiguus ssp. guayaquilensis appears to be endemic to remnants of dry forests on the southern Pacific coast of Ecuador. The nominate subspecies lives in the canopy of wet tropical forests and in Costa Rica is usually associated with the almendro tree, Dipteryx oleifera.

Ara ambiguus

Global methane emissions have continued to rise at an alarming rate despite international efforts to curb them.&nbsp;



More than 150 countries have pledged to reduce methane emissions by 30% by the end of this decade, yet new research reveals that in the past five years, methane emissions have surged faster than ever before.



In a perspective article published on September 10 in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ad6463" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Research Letters</a>, alongside data in Earth System Science Data, researchers warned that the current trend “cannot continue if we are to maintain a habitable climate.”&nbsp;



Both papers were part of the <a href="https://www.globalcarbonproject.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Carbon Project</a>, led by <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford University</a> scientist Rob Jackson, which tracks global greenhouse gas emissions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-trajectory-of-rising-methane-rates-nbsp">Extreme trajectory of rising methane rates&nbsp;</h2>



The data reveals that atmospheric methane levels are now more than 2.6 times higher than pre-industrial levels, marking the highest concentration in at least 800,000 years.&nbsp;



Methane <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/methane-emissions-are-greatly-underestimated-by-the-epa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emission rates</a> are currently rising along the most extreme trajectory predicted by climate scientists. This trend could lead to global warming of more than 3 degrees Celsius (5 degrees Fahrenheit) by the end of the century.&nbsp;



“Right now, the goals of the Global Methane Pledge seem as distant as a desert oasis,” said Jackson, who is the Michelle and Kevin Douglas Provostial Professor at Stanford's Doerr School of Sustainability. “We all hope they aren’t a mirage.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spike-in-methane-emission-rates">Spike in methane emission rates</h2>



Methane, though short-lived compared to carbon dioxide, is a potent greenhouse gas. During its first 20 years in the atmosphere, methane traps heat nearly 90 times more effectively than carbon dioxide, making it a critical target in efforts to limit global warming.&nbsp;



However, despite increased attention on methane reduction, total emissions have surged by 61 million tons - or about 20% - over the past two decades.&nbsp;



This spike has been primarily driven by increases in coal mining, oil and gas production, livestock farming, and decomposing organic waste in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/landfills-emit-exorbitant-amount-methane-into-atmosphere/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">landfills</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-regional-disparities-in-methane-emissions-nbsp">Regional disparities in methane emissions&nbsp;</h2>



Marielle Saunois of <a href="https://www.universite-paris-saclay.fr/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Université Paris-Saclay</a>, lead author of the Earth System Science Data paper, emphasized the regional disparities in methane emissions.



“Only the European Union and possibly Australia appear to have decreased methane emissions from human activities over the past two decades. The largest regional increases have come from China and southeast Asia.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-methane-from-human-activities-nbsp">Methane from human activities&nbsp;</h2>



In 2020, the most recent year for complete data, around 400 million tons - or 65% - of global methane emissions were linked to human activities.&nbsp;



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/agriculture-higher-methane-emissions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Agriculture</a> and waste management together contributed two-thirds of these emissions, while the fossil fuel industry was responsible for the remainder. The researchers found that methane emissions from human sources have continued to rise through at least 2023.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reduced-emissions-of-nitrogen-oxides">Reduced emissions of nitrogen oxides</h2>



A particularly sharp increase in atmospheric methane was recorded in 2020, with 42 million tons added - double the average annual increase during the 2010s and more than six times the increase seen during the early 2000s.&nbsp;



Pandemic lockdowns in 2020 temporarily reduced emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx), pollutants that typically degrade methane in the atmosphere. This reduction in NOx emissions contributed to the methane buildup.&nbsp;



“We’re still trying to understand the full effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-lockdowns-had-unexpected-impacts-on-wildlife-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">COVID lockdowns</a> on the global methane budget,” Jackson explained. “COVID changed nearly everything - from fossil fuel use to emissions of other gasses that alter the lifetime of methane in the atmosphere.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-influence-of-humans-on-methane-rates">Growing influence of humans on methane rates</h2>



In their most recent assessment, Global Carbon Project scientists revised how they classify methane sources.&nbsp;



Previously, all methane from wetlands, lakes, and rivers was considered natural. However, the latest methane budget accounts for the growing influence of human activities on these emissions.&nbsp;



For example, human-made reservoirs contribute an estimated 30 million tons of methane annually, as submerged organic material decays and releases the gas.&nbsp;



“Emissions from reservoirs behind dams are as much a direct human source as methane emissions from a cow or an oil and gas field,” noted Jackson.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threat-to-global-climate-goals-nbsp">Threat to global climate goals&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers estimate that about one-third of methane emissions from wetlands and freshwater sources in recent years have been influenced by human factors, such as agricultural runoff, wastewater, land use changes, and rising temperatures.



The continued rise in methane emissions poses a significant threat to global climate goals. As extreme weather events and heat waves become more frequent, the consequences of this trend are becoming increasingly clear.&nbsp;



“The world has reached the threshold of 1.5C increases in global average surface temperature, and is only beginning to experience the full consequences,” noted the study authors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgent-action-is-needed">Urgent action is needed </h2>



Addressing this challenge will require global efforts to reduce methane emissions at their source. This includes implementing measures such as leak detection in the fossil fuel industry, improved waste management, and changes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellites-detect-methane-emission-from-cow-burps/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">livestock</a> farming practices.&nbsp;



Without urgent and concerted action, methane emissions will continue to drive global temperatures beyond critical thresholds, threatening the planet's habitability.



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Rising methane emissions threaten Earth's habitability

Global methane emissions have continued to rise at an alarming...

When Ilber Manavbasi practices a challenging piano riff, he doesn’t just focus on hitting the right notes. He pushes himself to rehearse under a variety of different conditions.



Manavbasi is a graduate student researcher in the <a href="https://beckman.illinois.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology</a> at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign.



“I practice in diverse conditions and contexts. I practice hungry, tired, angry, and happy. I practice different songs at different speeds and sometimes with different pianos,” said Manavbasi. "It’s the variety of practice that makes me a better performer.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-variety-improves-learning-nbsp">Variety improves learning&nbsp;</h2>



Manavbasi's approach reflects findings from recent research he and his colleagues conducted at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, suggesting that variety in practice might also improve <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-learning-how-the-brain-stores-new-information/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">learning</a>, particularly in older adults.&nbsp;



The study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2024.101829" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Intelligence</a>, demonstrated that engaging in diverse practice activities, rather than repetitive drills, helped older adults learn a new working memory task more effectively. 



The research highlights the potential of varied cognitive training in maintaining mental sharpness as we age.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-varied-practice-and-mental-skills">Varied practice and mental skills</h2>



“People often think that the best way to get better at something is to simply practice it over and over again, but robust skill learning is actually supported by variation in practice,” said lead investigator Elizabeth A. L. Stine-Morrow, a researcher at the Beckman Institute.



“While the importance of diversity in practice has been well established in the area of motor learning, our study demonstrated that this principle applies to the development of mental skills as well.”



The concept of varied practice isn't new. In 1978, a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/003151257804600201" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> by Kerr and Booth showed that children who practiced tossing a beanbag from different distances were more accurate than those who practiced from a fixed distance.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-more-diverse-approach-to-learning-nbsp">A more diverse approach to learning&nbsp;</h2>



Similar patterns have been observed in athletics and academics - world-class athletes often have early exposure to multiple sports, and Nobel laureates frequently have experience outside their main field of study.



This led Stine-Morrow to wonder how varied practice might apply to cognitive training. Could a more diverse approach to learning improve mental performance, particularly in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/working-memory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">working memory</a>?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



The researchers focused on working memory, the ability to hold one piece of information in mind while engaging in another task.&nbsp;



“We chose working memory because it is a core ability needed to engage with reality and construct knowledge,” Stine-Morrow said. “It underpins language comprehension, reasoning, problem-solving, and many sorts of everyday cognition.”



Because working memory often declines with age, the researchers recruited 90 local participants between the ages of 60 and 87. They began the study by assessing each participant’s working memory through a reading span task, which tested their ability to remember information while reading unrelated sentences.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-variety-of-practice-methods-for-learning">Variety of practice methods for learning</h2>



Participants were asked to read and comprehend sentences like, “Headwear worn by royalty is called a crown,” or “An animal with orange and black stripes is a zebra,” and then recall a series of letters presented alongside each sentence.



After this initial assessment, participants underwent four weeks of cognitive training. For the first two weeks, they trained using one of four different practice methods. 



The various methods included practicing the reading span task itself, learning a new working memory activity, engaging in multiple working memory activities, or completing a control task unrelated to working memory. 



During the last two weeks, all of the participants practiced a variation of the reading span task.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-training-variety-improves-learning-nbsp">Training variety improves learning&nbsp;</h2>



The results were clear: those who engaged in a variety of practice, using multiple working memory activities, showed the most improvement on the final reading span test, outperforming participants who only practiced the same task throughout.



Interestingly, the mixed practice group didn’t start off as the top performers. “They needed to work for it,” Stine-Morrow said. “Mixed practice did not directly lead to better performance; it led to better learning. That group was the slowest to improve on the reading span task, but they ultimately reached the highest peak.”



One possible explanation for this is the principle of mutualism, where related abilities improve together. Varied practice may have triggered mutual growth among different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/kids-instrument-cognitive-skills/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive skills</a>, leading to more substantial improvements over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-effects-of-varied-cognitive-training">The effects of varied cognitive training</h2>



“With this study, we have demonstrated the broad principle of mutualism through the small lens of how it applies to working memory,” Stine-Morrow explained. “If you scale up this principle and combine it with different kinds of skills, that could demonstrate broader effects.”



The study was conducted remotely, with participants using home computers or iPads provided by the research team due to COVID-19 restrictions. Despite the challenges of fitting these activities into their daily lives, participants were eager to engage with the tasks.



“We are grateful to the folks in the Chambana community who support our research, especially in this case, where they had to fit these activities into their lives over the course of four weeks,” Stine-Morrow said. “Most people thought the activities were challenging, but fun, and treated them as a game they wanted to win.”



This study provides early evidence that varied cognitive training could be an effective tool for improving working memory and mental acuity in older adults, offering a hopeful strategy for maintaining <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-for-the-aging-brain-mediterranean-diet-protects-cognitive-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive health</a> as we age.



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When it comes to practice and learning, variety is key

When Ilber Manavbasi practices a challenging piano riff, he doesn’t...

Recent observations using the ultra-widefield prime focus camera of the Subaru Telescope have shown that there may be a population of small astronomical objects further out in the Kuiper Belt still waiting to be discovered. 



According to the experts, the findings are essential for a better understanding of the formation of the solar system.



The research was made possible through an international collaboration between the Subaru Telescope and the New Horizons spacecraft traveling through the outer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-water-travel-through-our-solar-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar system</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kuiper-belt-what-you-should-know">Kuiper Belt: What you should know</h2>



The Kuiper Belt is a huge area in our solar system that lies beyond Neptune, packed with icy bodies and leftovers from the solar system’s early days. 



Think of it as a distant, cold junkyard orbiting the Sun, filled with things like dwarf planets, comets, and rocky debris.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pluto-got-its-heart-in-a-violent-collision/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pluto</a>, which used to be our ninth planet, is the most famous inhabitant of the Kuiper Belt, but it's just one of many. These objects, known as Kuiper Belt Objects (KBOs), come in all sizes, from tiny rocks to massive ones that could compete with small planets.



The belt stretches from about 30 to 55 astronomical units (AU) from the Sun -- that’s 30 to 55 times the distance between Earth and the Sun!



Scientists think the Kuiper Belt might hold key insights into how our solar system formed. It’s like a frozen time capsule, keeping materials that haven’t changed much in billions of years.



By studying KBOs, astronomers hope to figure out the conditions that were around when the Sun and planets were just getting started.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-horizons-flew-through-the-kuiper-belt-nbsp">New Horizons flew through the Kuiper Belt&nbsp;</h2>



NASA's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-horizons-ultima-thule/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New Horizons</a> spacecraft was launched in 2006 in order to observe the surfaces of outer solar system bodies up close for the first time in our history. 



The spacecraft successfully completed a flyby of the Pluto system (2015), and later on (2019)  it made a flyby of one of the Kuiper Belt objects, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/space-snowman-arrokoth-celestial-objects-become-ice-bombs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">(486958) Arrokoth</a>.



Although there were four other spacecraft which have flown to the outer solar system, New Horizons is the only one that has flown through the Kuiper Belt.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-viewing-objects-in-the-kuiper-belt-nbsp">Viewing objects in the Kuiper Belt&nbsp;</h2>



When examining Kuiper Belt objects from the ground, we can only observe them at small solar phase angles (the angle between the sun, the object, and the observer).&nbsp;



However, when looking at an object in the outer solar system from a spacecraft in the Kuiper Belt, these objects can be observed at different phase angles and their reflection characteristics can be utilized to estimate their surface properties.&nbsp;



Yet, the camera on the New Horizon spacecraft has a narrow field-of-view and cannot find Kuiper Belt objects on its own.&nbsp;



Fortunately, the Subaru Telescope can use its wide-field camera to discover a variety of Kuiper Belt objects and then narrow down the collection of objects which the spacecraft can fly by and examine.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-horizons-and-the-subaru-telescope-nbsp">New Horizons and the Subaru telescope&nbsp;</h2>



The collaboration between the New Horizons spacecraft and the Subaru Telescope was initiated in 2004.



During the 2004–2005 observations with the Subaru Telescope’s prime focus camera (Suprime-Cam), the orbital alignment between Pluto and the spacecraft caused a portion of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-way-galaxy-is-surrounded-by-massive-magnetic-fields/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>’s center to appear in the background of the search area for Kuiper Belt objects.



While it was highly difficult to search for solar system objects with multiple background stars, the scientists were able to localize 24 Kuiper Belt objects.



Unfortunately, the Kuiper belt objects discovered until now require too much fuel for New Horizons to flyby, but new ones at greater distances might fall within the available fuel reach of the spacecraft.&nbsp;



In 2020, deeper observations with the Hyper Suprime-Cam (HSC) on the Subaru Telescope began, and, by 2023, 239 Kuiper Belt objects were discovered.



“The most exciting part of the HSC observations was the discovery of 11 objects at distances beyond the known Kuiper Belt,” said team member Fumi Yoshida, a scientist at the <a href="https://www.uoeh-u.ac.jp/english.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Occupational and Environmental Health Sciences</a> and the Planetary Exploration Research Center at the <a href="https://www.it-chiba.ac.jp/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chiba Institute of Technology</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-discovery-of-mysterious-objects-nbsp">Unexpected discovery of mysterious objects&nbsp;</h2>



A large number of objects discovered with HSC are located at distances ranging from 30 to 55 astronomical units (au) from the Sun (with one au corresponding to the distance between the Sun and Earth) and are thought to belong to the known Kuiper Belt.



However, the experts were not expecting to discover what looks to be a cluster of objects in the 70–90 au region and a valley between 55 and 70 au, where only a small number of objects are distributed.



Is there a new population of Kuiper Belt objects located at 70–90 au?&nbsp;"If this is confirmed, it would be a major discovery. The primordial solar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-the-mysterious-origins-of-the-crab-nebula/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nebula</a> was much larger than previously thought, and this may have implications for studying the planet formation process in our solar system,” Yoshida explained.



“This is a groundbreaking discovery revealing something unexpected, new, and exciting in the distant reaches of the solar system; this discovery probably would not have been possible without the world-class capabilities of the Subaru observatory,” added New Horizons mission principal investigator Alan Stern.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-solar-system-formation-nbsp">Understanding solar system formation&nbsp;</h2>



In order to determine the precise orbits of these objects, the scientists are continuing observations with HSC. 



“I think the discovery of distant objects and the determination of their orbital distribution are important as a stepping stone to understanding the formation history of the solar system, comparing it with exoplanetary systems, and understanding universal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planet-formation-new-insights-mechanics-physics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet formation</a>,” Yoshida said.



New Horizons is currently traveling further out, at approximately 60 au from the Sun, hoping to discover many more distant objects.



The findings will be published in two articles in the <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/journal/2632-3338" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Planetary Science Journal</a> and are currently available on the <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2403.04927" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arXiv</a> preprint server.



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Mysterious objects spotted in the outer solar system beyond Pluto

Recent observations using the ultra-widefield prime focus camera of the...

Black holes are squaring off in a cosmic dance that scientists have captured in extraordinary detail, thanks to NASA's Hubble Space Telescope and the Chandra X-ray Observatory. 



These massive celestial objects, pulling in everything around them with their immense gravitational force, are locked in a dramatic gravitational tango, offering a rare glimpse into the powerful forces shaping our universe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-twin-supermassive-black-holes">Twin supermassive black holes</h2>



The closest confirmed <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/black-holes-merging_galaxy-MCG-03-34-064_hubble_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pair of supermassive black holes</a>, located about 300 light-years apart, are buried deep within galaxies on the verge of collision. They're shining brightly as active galactic nuclei (AGN), fueled by infalling gas and dust.



The intense brightness is a result of the energy released as matter spirals into the black holes, heating up and emitting radiation across multiple wavelengths.



This cosmic encounter offers valuable insights into the complex interactions driving galaxy mergers and the evolution of black holes over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dual-black-holes-headed-for-collision">Dual black holes headed for collision </h2>



This AGN pair, detected in the gas-rich galaxy MCG-03-34-64, is the closest one observed in the local universe using multiwavelength observations. 



"Like two Sumo wrestlers squaring off, the closest confirmed pair of supermassive black holes have been observed in tight proximity," noted <a href="https://hubblesite.org/contents/news-releases/2024/news-2024-022.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



Previous discoveries of "dual" black holes have shown greater separations, but this pair provides a unique glimpse into a nearby cosmic merger, situated about 800 million light-years away.



Study lead author Anna Trindade Falcão is an expert in the <a href="https://www.cfa.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for Astrophysics | Harvard &amp; Smithsonian</a> in Cambridge, Massachusetts. 



"We were not expecting to see something like this," said Falcão. "This view is not a common occurrence in the nearby universe, and told us there's something else going on inside the galaxy."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-powerful-sources-of-high-energy-emission">Powerful sources of high-energy emission </h2>



The discovery was serendipitous. Hubble's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insta360-cameras-have-captured-stunning-images-of-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">high-resolution</a> imaging revealed three optical diffraction spikes within the host galaxy, suggesting a concentration of glowing oxygen gas. Falcão's team followed up with the Chandra X-ray Observatory to investigate.



"When we looked at MCG-03-34-64 in the X-ray band, we saw two separated, powerful sources of high-energy emission coincident with the bright optical points of light seen with Hubble," Falcão explained. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/black-holes-merging_galaxy-MCG-03-34-064_illustration_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/black-holes-merging_galaxy-MCG-03-34-064_illustration_NASA_1s.webp" alt="This is an artist's depiction of a pair of active black holes at the heart of two merging galaxies, MCG-03-34-64. They are both surrounded by an accretion disk of hot gas. Some of the material is ejected along the spin axis of each black hole. Confined by powerful magnetic fields, the jets blaze across space at nearly the speed of light as devastating beams of energy. Credit: NASA/ESA" class="wp-image-1944388"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This is an artist's depiction of a pair of active black holes at the heart of two merging galaxies, MCG-03-34-64. They are both surrounded by an accretion disk of hot gas. Some of the material is ejected along the spin axis of each black hole. Confined by powerful magnetic fields, the jets blaze across space at nearly the speed of light as devastating beams of energy. Credit: NASA/ESA</figcaption></figure>



"We put these pieces together and concluded that we were likely looking at two closely spaced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-black-holes-become-supermassive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supermassive black holes</a>."



Further confirmation came from archival radio data from the Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array. The energetic duo emits powerful radio waves, further solidifying the theory. 



"When you see bright light in optical, X-rays, and radio wavelengths, a lot of things can be ruled out, leaving the conclusion these can only be explained as close black holes," said Falcão.



The origin of a third light source seen by Hubble remains a mystery. 



"That might be gas that is shocked by energy from a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supermassive-black-hole-jet-points-straight-toward-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">jet</a> of ultra high-speed plasma fired from one of the black holes, like a stream of water from a garden hose blasting into a pile of sand," said Falcão.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-cosmic-collision-of-black-holes">A cosmic collision of black holes</h2>



As these two black holes spiral closer over millions of years, they are destined to collide, sending ripples through space in the form of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gravitational-waves-dark-matter-big-bang-breakthrough/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gravitational waves</a>.



While current detectors like LIGO capture waves from stellar-mass black hole mergers, the upcoming LISA mission is designed to detect the longer wavelengths produced by supermassive black holes. 



Partnering with NASA, the European Space Agency is leading the mission, which is scheduled to launch in the mid-2030s.



"The next-generation gravitational wave detector, called the LISA (Laser Interferometer Space Antenna) mission, will consist of three detectors in space, separated by millions of miles, to capture these longer wavelength gravitational waves from deep space," noted <a href="https://hubblesite.org/contents/news-releases/2024/news-2024-022.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-fate-of-merging-black-holes">The fate of merging black holes</h2>



As the two supermassive black holes continue their slow spiral toward one another, they will eventually collide in a cataclysmic event that will reshape their surrounding galaxies. 



The black hole collision, expected to take millions of years, will likely eject massive amounts of energy and material and alter the cosmic environment.



Though the final merger is far off, ongoing observations of this pair provide a rare opportunity to study the dynamics of merging black holes and how they influence galaxy evolution.



The study is published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-4357/ad6b91" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal</a>.



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Hubble spots two supermassive black holes spiraling on a collision course

Black holes are squaring off in a cosmic dance that...

Warm waters in the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico can power massive hurricanes. However, the level of destructiveness of such hurricanes does not depend only on the climate, but also on the people and properties that are in harm's way.&nbsp;



For instance, in various coastal cities, fast population growth has left an increasing number of people inhabiting areas at high risk of flooding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-socially-vulnerable-communities-nbsp">Socially vulnerable communities&nbsp;</h2>



Wanyun Shao, an associate professor of geography at the <a href="https://www.ua.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Alabama</a>, studies precisely this human dimension of climate change and related <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-risk-natural-disasters-doubled/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural disasters</a>.&nbsp;



Her research shows that socially vulnerable communities - which are least capable of preparing for disasters or recovering afterward - are usually concentrated in regions which are more susceptible to flooding, especially on the Gulf Coast.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coastal-populations-nbsp-exposed-to-hurricanes">Coastal populations&nbsp;exposed to hurricanes </h2>



Nowadays, almost 40% of the U.S. population lives in coastal areas, many of which are increasingly exposed to hurricanes and high tide flooding that have been worsened by sea level rise.



Particularly, the Gulf of Mexico is prone to multiple climate change-induced severe weather events. For instance, when Hurricane Beryl hit Texas in July 2024 and caused heavy rain and flooding, three million homes and businesses lost power for several days - at the same time when they were exposed to an intense heat wave.&nbsp;



Furthermore, over one-fifth of the population in Harris County (home to Houston), is socially vulnerable, so they are more susceptible to harm from extreme weather.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vulnerable-cities-on-the-gulf-coast-nbsp">Vulnerable cities on the Gulf Coast&nbsp;</h2>



Socially vulnerable populations include the elderly, persons with disabilities, people living in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellite-imagery-used-to-map-global-poverty/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">poverty</a>, and mobile home dwellers. These people don't have the necessary resources or physical ability to prepare for storms, or the means to rebuild their homes in the wake of such natural disasters.



Many cities along the Gulf Coast, including Houston, New Orleans, Mobile, Alabama, and Tampa, Florida, have large socially vulnerable populations. In addition, in some of these cities, land development and political decisions have increased the risks posed by hurricanes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-challenges-from-urban-sprawl-nbsp">Extreme challenges from urban sprawl&nbsp;</h2>



Houston is a clear case study that shows the extreme challenges arising from unbridled urban sprawl in coastal cities, particularly those most threatened by hurricanes.



From 2000 to 2023, Harris County grew by one-third, adding 1.3 million residents. While the economic boom related to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-population-10-9-billion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">population growth</a> brought new jobs to the county, many of these jobs do not pay well, making Harris County's poverty rate 16.5% (compared to the national average of 11.5%).



After Hurricane Harvey's massive flood damage in 2017, a heated debate started. Many people pointed out a problematic reality - Houston was built on a swamp.&nbsp;



In these conditions, the laissez-faire mentality of Texas politics, which prioritizes not intervening in population growth, has contributed to unbridled urban development, turning what once was a wetland to concrete land. Thus, with wetlands just paved over, heavy rain cannot be easily absorbed, making new neighborhoods highly vulnerable to flooding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgent-need-to-rethink-urban-development-nbsp">Urgent need to rethink urban development&nbsp;</h2>



Previous research by Shao’s research group that focused on risk decision-making has found that, among all land use and land cover types in the county, developed land has increased fastest, from 35% of the county's land in 2000 to 50% in 2020.



Hurricane Harvey provided a good example of the importance of planning for extreme weather events in urban development. Unfortunately, as the hurricane’s devastation fades in the collective memory, increasingly more people are now moving to Houston.



According to Shao and her colleagues, coastal communities cannot afford to wait for a natural disaster's wake-up call to start investing in protecting themselves. To prepare for future such disasters, they must urgently rethink urban development, while keeping the realities of climate change in mind.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hurricane-resilience-in-coastal-cities">Hurricane resilience in coastal cities</h2>



Building resilience involves strengthening flood control systems and upgrading emergency response strategies to account for increasingly severe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coastal-hurricanes-are-intensifying-faster-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">storms</a>. This also requires implementing zoning regulations that restrict construction in high-risk flood zones.&nbsp;



In some cases, it may even be necessary to consider managed retreat, where buyouts are used to relocate vulnerable communities to safer areas.



Raising public awareness is equally crucial. Educational campaigns can inform people about disaster risks, while accurate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-outrun-the-flood-risks-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flood</a> risk maps can encourage individuals to purchase insurance, select safer locations, and better safeguard their homes against local hazards.&nbsp;



Effective awareness efforts often collaborate with grassroots organizations to expand their reach, ensuring that vulnerable populations are informed and prepared.



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Coastal cities are increasingly vulnerable to hurricanes 

Warm waters in the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of...

Recent discoveries of Neanderthal remains in a cave in southern France have provided new insights into why Neanderthals became extinct around 40,000 years ago.&nbsp;



A study by researchers at the University of Copenhagen’s <a href="https://globe.ku.dk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Globe Institute</a> suggests that Neanderthals' isolated lifestyle may have contributed to their demise, a hypothesis that has long been considered by scientists.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-isolation-of-neanderthals-nbsp">Social isolation of Neanderthals&nbsp;</h2>



The study, which involved the analysis of a Neanderthal male's remains, supports the idea that Neanderthals may have gone extinct due to inbreeding and limited social interaction.&nbsp;



According to Professor Martin Sikora, one of the researchers behind the study, the Neanderthal genomes reveal a pattern of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/inbreeding-is-more-common-today-than-45000-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">inbreeding</a> over generations, reducing their genetic diversity and weakening their chances of long-term survival.



“When we look at these genomes from Neanderthals, we see that they are quite inbred and therefore don’t have much genetic diversity. They have been living in small groups for many generations. We know that inbreeding reduces <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/south-africas-leopards-have-the-highest-genetic-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic diversity</a> in a population, which can be detrimental to their ability to survive if it occurs over a longer term,” explained Professor Sikora.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-genome-discovered">New genome discovered</h2>



The newly discovered Neanderthal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-and-neanderthals-may-belong-to-the-same-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genome</a> differs from other late Neanderthals previously studied, further supporting the theory that Neanderthals lived in small, isolated groups. In contrast, early modern humans appeared to have been more socially connected, which may have contributed to their survival. 



The ability to communicate and exchange knowledge between groups would have been advantageous for early humans, especially as they formed networks that helped prevent inbreeding, as seen in Siberia.



“This is in the more speculative end, but even just the notion of being able to communicate more and exchange knowledge is something humans do that Neanderthals to some extent might not have done, due to their isolated lifestyles by organizing themselves in smaller groups. And that is an important skill to have,” said study co-author Tharsika Vimala, a postdoctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen.



“We see evidence of early modern humans in Siberia forming so-called mating networks to avoid issues with inbreeding, while living in small communities, which is something we haven’t seen with Neanderthals.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limited-amount-of-dna">Limited amount of DNA </h2>



Although Neanderthal remains have been found across Eurasia, only a limited amount of their DNA has been successfully recovered.&nbsp;



Some of the oldest known Neanderthal DNA, dating back 120,000 years, has been extracted from specimens in the Altai Mountains, Belgium, and Germany. The “new” Neanderthal genome from France is one of only five such discoveries in Western Europe that are less than 50,000 years old.



“Our team in Copenhagen extracted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mystery-solved-how-neanderthal-dna-got-diluted-in-europe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DNA</a> from his tooth, sequenced the DNA and analyzed his nuclear genome, which is the DNA found within the core of the cells. The DNA was analyzed along with other known Neanderthal genomes to understand their shared history,” Sikora explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-multiple-neanderthal-communities-in-isolation">Multiple Neanderthal communities in isolation </h2>



The researchers also re-analyzed the genome of another late Neanderthal from France, finding that this individual came from a different lineage than the newly discovered genome. This suggests that multiple isolated Neanderthal communities coexisted in Western Europe until their extinction.



This discovery adds an important piece to the puzzle of Neanderthal history. Previous studies of Neanderthals in more remote regions, like the Altai Mountains, had already hinted at the possibility that isolation played a role in their extinction, but the genomic evidence from Western European Neanderthals was lacking until now.



“It is something that we have talked about for a while. But we needed more evidence, and this is some of the evidence that we were looking for and needed to figure out how likely this hypothesis of them going extinct because of their isolated lifestyle is. We do, however, need much more genomic data to paint a better picture of their history,” Vimala said.



The study, published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell-genomics/fulltext/S2666-979X(24)00177-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell Genomics</a>, provides a crucial step toward understanding the reasons behind the Neanderthals' extinction and how their isolated way of life may have contributed to it.



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New evidence may explain what caused the Neanderthal extinction

Recent discoveries of Neanderthal remains in a cave in southern...

Cannabis agriculture is experiencing a revolution brought on by genetic research, propelling a new era in the cultivation and production of this globally sought-after crop.



At the heart of this transformation is the ability to manipulate plant genetics for optimized growth and productivity. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cannabis-genetics-and-enhanced-production">Cannabis genetics and enhanced production </h2>



A recent breakthrough centers around a key gene called CsMIKC1, which influences the number of flowering sites in Cannabis sativa.



The role of this gene in the development of the inflorescence, the flowering part of a plant, presents brand new opportunities for enhancing productivity in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/infectious-pathogen-has-spread-to-90-percent-of-cannabis-farms-in-california/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cannabis farming</a>.



Through meticulous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/boosting-crop-colors-with-gene-editing-can-improve-weed-control/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gene editing</a> and functional analysis, scientists have uncovered the substantial impact of CsMIKC1 on flower production. The discovery could lead to transformative change in agricultural practices.



The research may ultimately pave the way to the creation of highly productive and resilient cannabis strains that are custom-designed to maximize both medicinal and industrial uses. This would help to address the growing global demand for specialized <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabinoids-as-pesticides-study-reveals-potential-of-hemp-compounds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cannabinoids</a> and hemp-based products.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-demand-for-cannabis-products">Global demand for cannabis products</h2>



The perceived value of Cannabis sativa is largely hinged on its cannabinoids, derived chiefly from female inflorescences. However, optimizing flower and grain yield has been a daunting task due to inadequately explored genetic control of inflorescence development. 



As the global demand for cannabis-derived products escalates, it is vital to understand the regulatory mechanisms that lie beneath the surface.



Research into the genetic influences on inflorescence development can lay the fundamental groundwork for developing strategies to meet global production requirements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inflorescence-in-cannabis-sativa">Inflorescence in Cannabis sativa</h2>



A collaborative team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.caas.cn/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences</a> has gained significant insights into the genetic makeup of inflorescence.



"Female inflorescence is the primary output of medical cannabis. It contains hundreds of cannabinoids that accumulate in the glandular trichomes," noted the researchers. "However, little is known about the genetic mechanisms governing cannabis inflorescence development."



The experts identified the CsMIKC1 gene as a controlling factor in cannabis flowering. They examined how mutations and overexpression of CsMIKC1 influenced flower and grain production. The study highlights the gene’s potential for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reducing-nitrogen-oxide-pollution-could-boost-crop-yields/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amplifying crop yields</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extensive-genetic-network">Extensive genetic network </h2>



In their investigation, the scientists identified a key quantitative trait locus (QTL) on chromosome 8 linked to the number of inflorescences per branch, leading to the discovery of the CsMIKC1 gene. 



This gene works as a transcription factor, influencing inflorescence growth by interacting with proteins CsBPC2 and CsVIP3. 



When the CsMIKC1 gene was overexpressed in transgenic plants, there was a significant hike in the number of inflorescence, flower production, and grain yield. 



Conversely, mutants with CsMIKC1 showed stunted growth and lower yields, highlighting the regulatory significance of this gene. 



The study also revealed the influence of ethylene signaling pathways on CsMIKC1. By mapping key genes regulated by CsMIKC1, the researchers identified an extensive genetic network that governs inflorescence formation, providing crucial insights for future crop enhancement strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-optimizing-crop-performance">Optimizing crop performance </h2>



Study co-author Dr. Jianguang Su is an expert at the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences.



“The identification of CsMIKC1 as a regulator of inflorescence development marks a significant step forward in cannabis genetics. This gene is crucial in determining flower yield, which has profound implications for both medicinal and industrial uses," said Dr. Su. 



"By utilizing genetic modification techniques, we can develop targeted approaches to optimize crop performance, enhancing the Cannabis industry’s potential. This research not only deepens our understanding but also opens up exciting possibilities for developing high-yielding strains.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-cannabis-cultivation">The future of cannabis cultivation</h2>



Looking ahead, it's clear that the discovery of CsMIKC1 and its influence on inflorescence development opens up a whole new domain for genetic engineering to boost cannabis yields.



This newfound knowledge can stimulate the creation of novel cultivars with improved flower and grain production, optimizing agricultural efficiency. 



Furthermore, the involvement of ethylene signaling pathways presents opportunities for refined agronomic practices, such as ethylene treatments, to further amplify flower yield.



These advancements hold enormous promise to escalate cannabis production, keeping pace with the accelerating demand for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-may-be-a-highly-effective-treatment-for-cancer-patients/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">medicinal</a> and industrial applications globally.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/hr/article/11/8/uhae161/7691881" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Horticulture Research</a>.



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Cannabis production may soon get a major boost

Cannabis agriculture is experiencing a revolution brought on by genetic...

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) has issued a warning for a significant geomagnetic solar storm. This event is expected to impact Earth on September 12, 2024, and continue through September 14, 2024. 



The storm is classified as a G3 or greater on the <a href="http://www.swpc.noaa.gov/noaa-scales-explanation" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NOAA space weather scale</a>, indicating moderate to strong effects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-geomagnetic-solar-storms">Understanding geomagnetic solar storms</h2>



A geomagnetic storm occurs when solar activity, such as solar flares or coronal mass ejections (CMEs), disturbs the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/earths-magnetic-field-origin-structure-and-impact-on-humanity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's magnetic field</a>. 



These storms are driven by solar wind, a stream of charged particles released from the upper atmosphere of the Sun. 



When these particles interact with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-magnetic-field-is-shifting-and-putting-navigation-at-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's magnetic field</a>, they can cause various effects, from beautiful auroras to disruptions in power and communication systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-areas-and-impacts-expected">Areas and impacts expected</h2>



The primary areas affected will be regions located above 50 degrees geomagnetic latitude, which includes parts of Canada, Alaska, and northern Europe. However, the effects could reach further south depending on the storm's intensity.



Here’s what could happen during this event:



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Power Systems: Voltage irregularities may occur, leading to potential disruptions or false alarms in power grids. Operators should be on high alert for unusual activity.</li>
</ul>



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Satellites and Spacecraft: Satellites in low Earth orbit might experience increased drag and charging on their surfaces, potentially causing orientation problems or reduced lifespan.</li>
</ul>



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>GPS and Navigation Systems: Satellite navigation (GPS) could face intermittent issues, such as loss of signal or increased error in positioning. This could affect not only personal GPS devices but also aviation and maritime operations.</li>
</ul>



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Radio Communications: High-frequency (HF) radio communications might be unreliable, especially in polar regions, which could disrupt aviation, maritime, and emergency services relying on these frequencies.</li>
</ul>



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Auroras: On a brighter note, the geomagnetic storm might <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/auroras-are-a-visual-warning-of-shocks-to-earths-magnetic-field/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">produce spectacular auroras</a>, probably visible in the southern regions of the United States.</li>
</ul>



<ol class="wp-block-list"></ol>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-current-solar-storm-activity-overview">Current solar storm activity overview</h2>



Over the past 24 hours, solar activity has been high, with a major X1.3 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sun-blasts-biggest-x-class-solar-flare-nineteen-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar flare detected</a> from an unnumbered region on the Sun's southeast limb. 



This flare was accompanied by multiple radio bursts, signaling intense solar storm activity. Additionally, several medium-sized (M-class) flares were reported from other active regions on the Sun.



The solar activity is expected to remain at moderate levels, with a slight chance of another strong flare (X-class) from September 12 to 14.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-energetic-particles-and-solar-wind">Energetic particles and solar wind</h2>



The flux of high-energy electrons (greater than 2 MeV) remains at moderate levels, while the proton flux is trending towards normal. 



However, there is a slight chance of increased proton flux reaching the minor threshold level from September 12 to 14.



Recent data suggests that two <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-solar-outburst-detected-simultaneously-at-earth-the-moon-and-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Coronal Mass Ejections</a> (CMEs), from September 8 and 10, have reached Earth. 



An initial shock was detected around 2:54 AM UTC, causing the solar wind speed to rise from around 350 km/s to over 520 km/s. This increase could lead to prolonged geomagnetic disturbances.



Elevated solar wind conditions are expected to continue through September 13, with an additional enhancement likely around September 14 due to another CME from September 11.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-to-expect-in-the-coming-days">What to expect in the coming days</h2>



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Geomagnetic Solar Storm Conditions: The geomagnetic field is currently fluctuating between quiet and active levels. However, moderate geomagnetic storms (G2 level) have already been recorded and could escalate further.</li>
</ul>



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Storm Forecast: Conditions are expected to remain unsettled to stormy through September 13, 2024 with another period of heightened activity possible on September 14 due to the arrival of the latest CME.</li>
</ul>



<ol class="wp-block-list"></ol>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-staying-prepared-during-a-solar-storm">Staying prepared during a solar storm</h2>



Geomagnetic storms can impact various sectors, including aviation, navigation, satellite operations, and power systems. Here are a few ways to stay prepared:



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>For Power Companies: Monitor systems closely for voltage irregularities and ensure backup systems are ready.</li>
</ul>



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>For Satellite Operators: Be prepared for increased drag on low Earth orbit satellites and potential surface charging effects.</li>
</ul>



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>For Travelers and Emergency Responders: Be aware of potential GPS inaccuracies and HF radio communication issues.</li>
</ul>



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>For the Public: Enjoy the auroras if you’re in a location where they are visible, but also stay informed through local news or weather channels for updates on potential disruptions.</li>
</ul>



Stay tuned to Earth.com and the <a href="http://www.swpc.noaa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NOAA’s Space Weather Prediction Center</a> for real-time updates and alerts on the ongoing space weather conditions. 



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NOAA Warning: Strong solar storm headed to Earth, auroras expected

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) has issued a...

The Amazon rainforest is a unique biodiversity hotspot, home to an astonishing array of plants and animals found nowhere else on Earth. Many of these species are restricted to specific regions, but the reasons behind this have long puzzled scientists. 



Now, a new international study, led by the <a href="https://www.ceh.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UK Center for Ecology &amp; Hydrology</a> (UKCEH), offers fresh insights into the Amazon's evolution during the last Ice Age, between 2.6 million and 11,700 years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fragile-ecosystems-of-the-amazon">Fragile ecosystems of the Amazon</h2>



The research challenges long-standing beliefs about how the Amazon <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-amazon-rainforest-and-the-looming-threat-of-drought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainforest</a> responded to climatic changes during the Ice Age. 



The findings suggest that the Amazon is far more sensitive to environmental fluctuations than previously thought, providing yet another reminder of the dangers posed by rapid, human-induced climate change and large-scale land use shifts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interconnected-refuge-for-specialized-species">Interconnected refuge for specialized species</h2>



For years, scientists have debated whether, during the Ice Age, the Amazon was divided into isolated “forest islands” known as refugia, or whether the forest remained continuous, similar to its current expanse.&nbsp;



The UKCEH-led study, published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s44185-024-00056-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">npj Biodiversity</a>, offers a new perspective: while forest islands existed, they were connected by woodlands and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amazons-rainforests-are-at-risk-of-transforming-into-dry-grassy-savannas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">savannas</a>. This allowed certain adaptable animals to move between different habitats, while acting as a barrier for more specialized species that rely on specific ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biodiversity-of-the-amazon">Biodiversity of the Amazon</h2>



The vegetation and climate of a region play a key role in natural evolution. As environmental conditions changed, animals across the Amazon adapted, leading to the emergence of new species in different areas. This process explains why the Amazon hosts such a diverse range of life today.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-are-still-fighting-climate-change-against-all-odds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Climate changes</a> in the past played a huge role in shaping how the Amazon forest looked and where it grew. Similar changes are coming very soon and much faster,” said lead author Douglas Kelley, a land surface modeler at UKCEH. 



“Previously, fluctuations in climate took thousands of years to happen, enabling plants and animals to adapt, but now significant global warming is happening within decades due to increasing human-driven greenhouse gas emissions.”



The research team included scientists from institutions such as the <a href="https://www.ontario.ca/page/forest-research" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ontario Forest Research Institute</a>, Kiel University in Germany, the UK’s Met Office, and the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-amazon-biodiversity-of-the-ice-age-nbsp">Amazon biodiversity of the Ice Age&nbsp;</h2>



By combining advanced climate and vegetation modeling with fossilized pollen records from sediment, the experts were able to create detailed predictions of the types of plants that thrived in the Amazon during the Ice Age. Previous research had largely relied on single techniques, but this study incorporated a broader range of data and methods.



Crucially, the researchers considered the gaps between areas where fossilized pollen has been found and analyzed whether animals could have moved between these habitats.&nbsp;



Computer and statistical models predicted what types of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-vegetation-database-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vegetation</a> likely existed in these in-between areas, verifying the team's predictions with the plant types recorded in adjacent regions.



During the Ice Age, the Amazon’s forest cover was dramatically reduced due to the colder, drier climate. Lower levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, along with dry conditions, limited tree growth and led to more frequent wildfires, which destroyed large portions of the forest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-innovative-nature-of-the-research-nbsp">Innovative nature of the research&nbsp;</h2>



Study co-author Dr. Hiromitsu Sato of the Ontario Forest Research Institute highlighted the innovative nature of the team's approach.&nbsp;



“We believe our study, involving integrated modeling methods, provides the best evidence to date on the origins of the rich <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-impact-of-fire-on-amazon-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> in the Amazon,” said Dr. Sato.



“Using land surface modeling to provide crucial information on biodiversity is a new and very exciting innovation that could be used in future to investigate the history of species where there is a shortage of data.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-amazon-diversity-of-the-past">Understanding Amazon diversity of the past</h2>



Looking ahead, the researchers plan to explore how various groups of Amazonian species - such as monkeys, frogs, antbirds, butterflies, and lianas - diverged over thousands of years in response to changing environments.&nbsp;



By continuing to investigate the intricate relationship between climate, vegetation, and species evolution, the team hopes to gain a deeper understanding of the Amazon’s past - and how this knowledge can inform efforts to protect its future in the face of ongoing environmental challenges.



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How the Amazon became a biodiversity hotspot

The Amazon rainforest is a unique biodiversity hotspot, home to...

Imagine having a crystal ball that could predict the next volcanic eruption. For millions of people living near active volcanoes, such a tool would be invaluable. 



Interestingly, some crystals formed deep within the Earth can indeed help forecast volcanic activity. These crystals, which are created as molten rock travels from beneath the Earth's surface, hold vital clues about past eruptions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crystals-hold-a-record-of-eruptions-nbsp">Crystals hold a record of eruptions&nbsp;</h2>



By employing advanced scientific methods, researchers can extract a hidden record from these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stars-turning-crystals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crystals</a>, uncovering the reasons, locations, and timings of previous eruptions. This historical information can help interpret early signs of volcanic unrest, such as earthquakes, which often signal magma moving toward the surface.&nbsp;



In a new column in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-024-01509-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Geoscience</a>, Teresa Ubide, a geoscientist at the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Queensland</a>, discusses how we are getting closer to having crystal balls - at least for volcanoes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crystals-formed-by-cooling-magma">Crystals formed by cooling magma</h2>



When <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanic-magma-traced-to-melting-in-earths-crust/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magma</a>, the extremely hot molten rock that powers eruptions, forms tens of kilometers below Earth's surface in the mantle, it begins a complex journey upward.&nbsp;



During this trip, magma may pause in reservoirs and travel through a winding path before eventually erupting. As magma ascends, it cools, forming small crystals that can be carried to the surface during eruptions.



Once magma reaches the surface, it can either flow as lava or explode into fragmented particles known as pyroclasts. As these materials cool, they solidify into volcanic rocks, which preserve the crystals formed deep within the Earth. These crystals serve as “crystal balls,” preserving the memory of everything they experienced inside the volcano.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distinct-appearance-of-volcanic-crystals">Distinct appearance of volcanic crystals</h2>



The appearance of these crystals depends on their mineral composition. For instance, the green olivine found in Hawaiian lavas and the white plagioclase crystals in the Tweed volcano's lavas on the Queensland-New South Wales border are distinct examples.&nbsp;



However, one of the most critical minerals for studying volcanoes is clinopyroxene. This mineral produces shiny black crystals that hold essential information about the inner workings of volcanoes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemical-changes-within-the-crystals-nbsp">Chemical changes within the crystals&nbsp;</h2>



Clinopyroxene crystals may be as tiny as a grain of sand, but under a microscope, they reveal extraordinary details about volcanic activity. They grow in concentric zones, similar to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-largest-ever-solar-storm-discovered-through-tree-rings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree rings</a>, with each zone documenting changes in the magma environment within the volcano.&nbsp;



The outermost growth zone is particularly important, as it can indicate if an eruption was triggered by fresh magma rising from deep within the Earth.&nbsp;



By analyzing the chemical changes within these crystals, scientists can estimate how long it took for magma to reach the surface - information that could help predict future eruptions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-indications-of-potential-volcanic-eruptions">Indications of potential volcanic eruptions</h2>



These crystals sometimes grow with different compositions in various directions, a phenomenon called sector zoning, which resembles an hourglass inside the crystal.&nbsp;



Sector zoning provides further clues, suggesting that the magma underwent complex processes such as mixing with other magma, releasing gas, or rising quickly before an eruption.&nbsp;



By identifying these processes in the crystals, volcanologists can watch for similar signs at the surface, offering early indications of potential volcanic activity.



It’s also critical to identify where within the volcano these eruption triggers occur. This information can help determine if certain depths, where earthquakes or ground deformations occur, are particularly significant for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-research-enhances-predictions-on-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predicting an eruption</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pressure-conditions-during-crystal-formation-nbsp">Pressure conditions during crystal formation&nbsp;</h2>



The chemical makeup of clinopyroxene crystals also provides clues about the pressure conditions during their formation, which can be translated into the depth of magma storage below the surface.&nbsp;



Analyzing these chemical variations requires cutting-edge laboratory techniques, such as using lasers the width of a human hair or focusing intense synchrotron light from particle accelerators like the one in Melbourne, Australia.&nbsp;



These tools enable scientists to extract detailed information about the magma’s journey from the microscopic structures of the crystals.



Next time you hike near a volcano, whether it's in Hawai'i, Iceland, or the Glass House Mountains in Australia, look closely at the rocks for colorful specks. These tiny crystals are the keys to unlocking the history of the volcano - and they might also offer insights into its future.



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Crystals can help predict volcanic eruptions

Imagine having a crystal ball that could predict the next...

The world is racing against time, rapidly devouring resources that sustain life, and if we continue on our current trajectory, even basic living standards might become a luxury. But, there's hope for the Earth and its resources. 



A recent report suggests that we have the power to change the tide, provided we transform our economic systems and technologies, and adopt a more equitable resource management approach.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-green-light-for-cities-and-businesses">Green light for cities and businesses</h2>



The research, conducted by an international team of scientists including those from The Australian National University (<a href="https://www.anu.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ANU</a>), makes a compelling case for cities and businesses to step up. 



The report, published in The Lancet Planetary Health, urges them to adopt the mantle of “stewards” of Earth’s critical resources. 



By demonstrating how to reduce their environmental impact, cities and businesses could play a vital role in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2024-the-tide-may-finally-be-turning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">protecting the planet</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-earth-s-resources">Protecting Earth's resources</h2>



The research, a product of the Earth Commission's first phase, involved more than 40 researchers from various disciplines worldwide. 



<a href="https://earthcommission.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Earth Commission</a>, founded in 2019, includes 18 globally respected scholars who provide interdisciplinary insights.



The report leans heavily on the findings of the Safe and Just Earth System Boundaries report published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06083-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> last year. 



This report unveiled a disturbing fact -- humanity has overstepped most of the crucial boundaries within which people and the planet can flourish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-driving-change-in-earth-s-resources">Driving change in Earth's resources</h2>



Distinguished Professor Xuemei Bai from ANU, one of the three lead authors who led the working group on Translation, emphasized the pivotal role of companies and cities. 



According to her, these entities possess the necessary resources to effect sweeping changes and significantly lessen the strains on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-environment-day-2024-a-call-for-land-restoration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">our planet</a>.



"Companies and cities have a huge potential to make a difference, especially if they work towards the same goal, which is to ensure the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-records-shatter-2024-set-to-be-hottest-year-ever/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet</a> can provide for everyone long-term," Professor Bai points out. 



She added that they are more adaptable than states and can set science-based goals that align with the research findings.



Her colleague, Professor Stuart Bunn from <a href="https://www.griffith.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Griffith University</a>, echoed her sentiments. He co-led a working group focusing on freshwater and nutrient pollution boundaries, another critical aspect of Earth's sustainability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenge-of-our-lifetime">Challenge of our lifetime</h2>



The research confirmed that our planet's resilience is under immense strain. However, it emphasized that it's still possible for humans to avoid the adverse effects of Earth's system change if we act urgently.



The way forward? Reducing inequalities in accessing and using critical resources like freshwater and nutrients. 



Alongside this, there needs to be fair sharing of responsibilities such as carbon emission reduction, combined with an economic and technological overhaul.



Without urgent transformations, the report warns that by 2050, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-just-experienced-its-hottest-day-ever/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's climate</a> could deteriorate so much that there would be no "safe and just space" left.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sustainability-and-earth-s-resources">Sustainability and Earth's resources</h2>



Innovation stands as a cornerstone in the pursuit of sustainability, offering solutions that can bridge the gap between consumption and conservation. 



By harnessing advancements in technology, such as renewable energy, smart agriculture, and sustainable manufacturing practices, we can significantly reduce our ecological footprint. 



Universities, research institutions, and private companies are increasingly collaborating to develop cutting-edge solutions that not only address immediate environmental concerns but also create systems that can adapt to future challenges. 



This interconnected web of innovation empowers communities and industries to meet their needs while safeguarding our planet's resources for generations to come.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-path-to-a-safe-and-just-space">Path to a "safe and just space"</h2>



To prevent this potential catastrophe, the researchers recommend a series of critical actions to save the Earth's resources. 



Primarily, policymakers, businesses, civil society, and communities need to collaborate to transform our economic system with policies and funding mechanisms that address inequality while reducing pressure on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-days-getting-longer-rotation-slows-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nature and climate</a>.



Secondly, efficient and effective management, sharing, and usage of resources at all societal levels are fundamental. 



This includes tackling excessive consumption in some communities, which denies access to vital resources for the most needy.



Thirdly, investing in sustainable and affordable technologies that allow us to reduce resource usage is paramount in reopening the "safe and just space."



Here's the bottom line: sure, we're in deep water, but we're not drowning yet. This report is a lifeline, a blueprint for change, and a call to action. 



As daunting as the challenge might seem, we have the resources, the knowledge, and yes, the responsibility, to turn things around.



The report is published in the journal <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanplh/article/PIIS2542-5196(24)00042-1/fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Lancet Planetary Health</a>.



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How cities and businesses can help save Earth and its resources

The world is racing against time, rapidly devouring resources that...

Air samples collected at altitudes up to 2,000 miles above Japan held an astonishing variety of living microbes, such as bacteria and fungi, many of which are toxic to humans.



Not just the homegrown ones either. Some of these microbial stowaways traveled over 1,000 miles with the help of aerosols, originating from regions lush with fertilizers and pesticides.



This has launched the scientific world into a wave of questions about the journey of human, animal, and plant pathogens across vast geographical terrains, invisible to the naked eye. 



Leading this microbial exploration was the Barcelona Institute for Global Health (<a href="https://www.isglobal.org/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ISGlobal</a>) with support from the Daniel Bravo Andreu Private Foundation (<a href="https://www.fundaciodanielbravo.org/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FPDBA</a>).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbes-travel-in-the-air">Microbes travel in the air</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-laid-the-foundation-for-early-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pathogens</a> hitching a ride on the wind isn’t unheard of. But the diversity of microbes that can survive at high altitudes, where conditions could give even an Everest mountaineer pause, is a fresh revelation.



“We know that above a certain point in the troposphere (called the planetary boundary layer), certain materials can be transported over long distances because the air in that region is isolated from the surface and there is less friction. But we did not suspect that viable microorganisms could be there also,” says&nbsp;Xavier Rodó, ICREA researcher at ISGlobal.



Rodó and his team carried out ten tropospheric flights to examine microbial diversity at high altitudes -- a significant jump from studies usually executed just a few meters above the ground or the ocean.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-the-microbial-travel-path">Tracing the microbial travel path</h2>



Rodó and his international team boarded a Cessna aircraft and conducted air surveys above Japan, tracing wind currents from mainland Asia. 



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-deadly-microbes-travel-around-the-world-so-quickly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">transcontinental airways</a>, known as tropospheric bridges, connect air from distant parts of the world.



For context, think about air that lifts in mainland China and then descends over Tokyo, courtesy of typical winter weather conditions. 



A total of 22 aerosol filter samples were gathered during two periods (in February and April 2014), methodically analyzed for their chemical and biological composition.



Sequencing DNA from the samples, the team identified over 266 fungal and 305 bacterial genera associated with the aerosols. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-types-of-microbes-in-the-air">Types of microbes in the air</h2>



This microbial soup included potential pathogens for humans, animals, and plants -- familiar names like Escherichia coli, Serratia marcescens, Haemophillus parainfluenzae, and several Staphylococcus species were among the bacterial mix.



The fungal factions included genera like Candida and Cladosporium, to name a couple.



“Surprisingly, the Micrococcus luteus strain isolated was resistant to multiple drugs, including carbapenems, glycopeptides, ciprofloxacin, and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole," says Sofya Podzniakova, co-first author of the study.



"Our findings suggest that antimicrobial resistance could spread over long distances via this previously unrecognized route", 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tropospheric-travel-tunnel-of-air-microbes">Tropospheric travel tunnel of air microbes</h2>



If you're curious about the origin of these airborne pathogens, the answer could be right underneath our noses -- or rather, our feet.



The presence of elements such as zinc sulfate and potassium, usually found in fertilizers and pesticides, implies an agricultural source. A scenario quite consistent with the extensively farmed croplands in northeast China.



The high-altitude and ground samples from the days examined showed a striking similarity in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-microbes-can-tell-us-about-global-changes-in-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbial diversity</a>. A consequence of air descending from altitudes to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-activities-underground-revealed-by-new-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ground</a>, perhaps? 



The particle transport models simulated by Roger Curcoll, currently a researcher at the Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya -- BarcelonaTech (<a href="https://www.upc.edu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UPC</a>), would certainly support this theory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-chapter-in-microbe-transport-study">New chapter in microbe transport study</h2>



The implications of this study are profoundly impactful. “Our findings uncover a rich and unprecedented diversity of microbes that are dispersed by wind currents thousands of kilometers away from their sources by intense tunnels of wind that form high in the troposphere,” Rodó emphasized.



“They represent a paradigm shift in our understanding of how human health can be affected by pathogens thriving in the environment, particularly in the air."



Though there's no direct trace yet linking the presence of known human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-pandemic-looms-as-pathogens-move-from-wild-plants-to-crops/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pathogens</a> in aerosols and health effects, the study affirms the pressing need for further exploration of air microbes and microbial pathogens' long-distance travel.



So, the next time you feel the wind against your face, remember, it has stories to tell -- tales of microbial hitchhikers scaling the heights of the troposphere and crossing continents. Globe-trotting pathogens show us how interconnected our world truly is, even in ways we can't see.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2404191121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Toxic microbes can travel thousands of miles through the air

Air samples collected at altitudes up to 2,000 miles above...

Date	Citation Page	Title
10/02/2015	80 FR 59975 60021	Two Foreign Macaw Species; Final rule.
02/21/2013	78 FR 12011 12012	Listing Three Foreign Macaw Species; Proposed rule; reopening of comment periods.
07/06/2012	77 FR 40171 40219	Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Two Foreign Macaw Species
07/14/2009	74 FR 33957 33960	90-Day Finding on a Petition to List 14 Parrot Species as Threatened or Endangered