Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features a galaxy that is located about 600 million light-years away in the constellation Gemini. The Hubble Space Telescope observed a supernova in this galaxy - which appears as a bright blue dot in the photograph.



“This picture was taken roughly two months after a supernova named SN 2022aajn was discovered in this galaxy. The supernova is visible as a blue dot at the center of the image, brightening the hazy body of the galaxy,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-a-supernova">What is a supernova?</h2>



Supernovae are spectacular explosions marking the violent deaths of stars. These cosmic events are so luminous they can briefly outshine entire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-are-much-bigger-than-we-originally-believed-gas-clouds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> and radiate more energy in a few weeks than our Sun will in its entire lifetime.&nbsp;



Supernovae explosions release heavy elements like carbon, oxygen, and iron into the interstellar medium. This stellar debris becomes the building blocks for new stars, planets, and even life itself. 



Supernovae also produce neutron stars or black holes, depending on the remaining core’s mass after the explosion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-types-of-supernovae-nbsp">Types of supernovae&nbsp;</h2>



There are two main types of supernovae, classified based on their causes. Type I supernovae occur when a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/white-dwarf-stars-may-be-billions-of-years-older-than-estimated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">white dwarf</a> in a binary system accretes material from its companion star, eventually reaching a critical mass and triggering a runaway nuclear reaction.&nbsp;



Type II supernovae happen when a massive star, at least eight times the mass of the Sun, exhausts its nuclear fuel. Unable to support its own gravity, the core collapses, resulting in a massive explosion that ejects the outer layers into space.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-the-distance-to-faraway-galaxies-nbsp">Measuring the distance to faraway galaxies&nbsp;</h2>



According to ESA, SN 2022aajn is a Type Ia supernova. “Supernovae of this type help astronomers measure the distance to faraway galaxies. This is possible because Type Ia supernovae are thought to be of the same intrinsic luminosity - no matter how bright they seem from Earth, they put out the same amount of light as other Type Ia supernovae.”



This means that researchers can calculate the distance to the supernova and its host galaxy by comparing the observed brightness to the expected brightness.



“This seemingly simple measurement method is complicated by cosmic dust. The farther away a supernova is, the fainter and redder it will appear - but intergalactic dust can make a supernova appear fainter and redder as well,” explained ESA.



“To understand this complication, researchers will use Hubble to survey a total of 100 Type Ia supernovae in seven wavelength bands from the ultraviolet to the near-infrared.”



By analyzing the brightness of supernovae across multiple wavelengths, researchers can distinguish between the influences of dust and distance, refining our measurements of galaxies that exist billions of light-years away.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-many-galaxies-exist">How many galaxies exist?</h2>



The number of galaxies in the universe is estimated to be around two trillion, based on observations from Hubble and more recent data from the James Webb Space Telescope. 



This estimate is derived from deep-field surveys that reveal countless galaxies, each containing billions to trillions of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/interstellar-tunnel-found-that-connects-our-solar-system-to-other-stars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a>.&nbsp;



However, because our observations are limited by current technology and the vastness of the cosmos, the actual number could be even higher.&nbsp;



Many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-galaxies-formed-from-the-earliest-elements-in-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> remain unseen due to their extreme distances, faintness, or obstruction by cosmic dust.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-constellation-gemini-nbsp">The constellation Gemini&nbsp;</h2>



Gemini is one of the 12 zodiac constellations and is best known for representing the mythological twins Castor and Pollux. It is located in the northern celestial hemisphere and is most visible during winter in the Northern Hemisphere.&nbsp;



The constellation is bordered by Taurus to the west, Cancer to the east, and Orion to the south.



The two brightest stars in Gemini - Castor and Pollux - represent the heads of the twins and are easy to spot. Pollux, the brighter of the two, is an orange giant star about 34 light-years from Earth, while Castor is a more complex system made up of six stars. 



The constellation also contains several notable deep-sky objects, including the open cluster Messier 35, which is a beautiful collection of young stars located near Gemini’s western border.



Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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Hubble spots a supernova in the constellation Gemini 

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the barred spiral galaxy NGC 1559, located around 35 million light-years away in the southern constellation Reticulum. The image was captured by the James Webb Space Telescope. 



"The data featured in this portrait make use of two of Webb’s instruments: the Mid-InfraRed Instrument (MIRI) and Near-InfraRed Camera (NIRCam)," noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"Here MIRI captures the glow of interstellar dust grains, which trace out the interstellar medium, the fuel for future star formation. NIRCam shows the light from stars, even young stars hidden behind prodigious amounts of dust. NIRCam also captures emission from ionized nebulae around young stars."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-reveals-galaxies-in-new-light">Webb reveals galaxies in new light</h2>



According to ESA, the data was collected by the <a href="https://sites.google.com/view/phangs/home">PHANGS team</a> as part of a program in which Webb will observe 55 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/james-webb-captures-galaxies-that-are-too-old-to-exist/">galaxies</a> that have also been mapped by the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) radio telescope, the Hubble Space Telescope, and more.&nbsp;



"By combining Webb’s unprecedented view of the dust and stars with data from these other facilities, the team aims to obtain a new, highly detailed view of how stars are born, live, and die in galaxies across the Universe."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ngc-1559-a-loner-in-space">NGC 1559: A loner in space</h2>



Although NGC 1559 appears to sit close to one of our nearest neighbors in the sky - the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) - this is just a trick of perspective, noted ESA.



While it is part of the Reticulum constellation, NGC 1559 is not part of the Local Group of galaxies but instead resides in a more distant region of space.



"In reality, NGC 1559 is physically nowhere near the LMC in space; in fact it truly is a loner, lacking the company of any nearby galaxies or membership of any galaxy cluster."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-in-ngc-1559">Star formation in NGC 1559</h2>



NGC 1559 is notable for its active star formation and strong magnetic fields. It has also been the site of several <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernovae</a>, making it of particular interest to astronomers who study stellar evolution and the life cycle of stars.



The structure of NGC 1559 includes well-defined spiral arms that contain young, hot stars and regions of ionized gas, indicative of ongoing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-is-starving-its-host-galaxy-of-star-forming-fuel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-extragalactic-wonder">An extragalactic wonder</h2>



Despite being relatively small compared to larger galaxies like the Milky Way, NGC 1559 is an important object for understanding how barred spiral galaxies evolve and the processes that trigger supernovae.



The galaxy’s remote location and active nature make it a fascinating subject of study in the field of extragalactic astronomy. 



The isolation of NGC 1559 allows for a clearer view of its structure without much interference from neighboring galaxies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-barred-spiral-galaxies">Barred spiral galaxies</h2>



Barred spiral galaxies are a type of spiral galaxy characterized by a central bar-shaped structure composed of stars. This bar extends out from the core and connects to the galaxy's spiral arms, which swirl outward in a graceful pattern.



Scientists believe that the bar plays a crucial role in the evolution of the galaxy, funneling gas towards the core and potentially triggering star formation or feeding a central black hole. 



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/newly-discovered-stars-milky-way-are-old-as-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, our own galaxy, is an example of a barred spiral. These galaxies are quite common in the universe, making up about two-thirds of all observed spiral galaxies.



The bar itself is thought to be a temporary feature, developing as the galaxy matures and possibly disappearing over time as the dynamics of the stars change. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-reticulum-constellation">The Reticulum constellation</h2>



The Reticulum constellation is a small, faint constellation in the southern sky. Its name means "the reticle" in Latin, which refers to the crosshairs in an eyepiece of a telescope. 



The constellation was named in the 18th century by the French astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille to honor the reticle he used in his scientific instruments. It is one of the 88 modern constellations recognized by the International Astronomical Union.



Image Credit: ESA/Webb, NASA &amp; CSA, A. Leroy, J. Lee and the PHANGS Team



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Spiral galaxy glows with young stars and interstellar dust

Today's Image of the Day from NASA features the spiral galaxy NGC 2566, which is located 76 million light-years away in the constellation Puppis. The image was captured by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope.



“A prominent bar of stars stretches across the center of this galaxy, and spiral arms emerge from each end of the bar. Because NGC 2566 appears tilted from our perspective, its disk takes on an almond shape, giving the galaxy the appearance of a cosmic eye,” said <a href="https://phys.org/news/2024-12-hubble-spies-spiral-galaxy-ngc.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



“As NGC 2566 appears to gaze at us, astronomers gaze right back, using Hubble to survey the galaxy's star clusters and star-forming regions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-appearance-of-ngc-2566">Complex appearance of NGC 2566</h2>



NGC 2566 lies at a considerable distance from Earth, making it a challenging object for amateur astronomers to observe in detail without powerful telescopes.&nbsp;



It can be seen in the Southern Hemisphere sky and is better observed from locations with minimal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-light-pollution-influences-interest-in-astronomy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">light pollution</a>.&nbsp;



The galaxy's arms are populated with young, bright stars, regions of active star formation, and interstellar gas and dust - giving it a dynamic and complex appearance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-the-ages-of-stars">Measuring the ages of stars</h2>



According to NASA, data from Hubble is especially valuable for studying stars that are just a few million years old. “These stars are bright at the ultraviolet and visible wavelengths to which Hubble is sensitive.”



“Using these data, researchers can measure the ages of NGC 2566's stars, which helps piece together the timeline of the galaxy's star formation and the exchange of gas between star-forming clouds and the stars themselves.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-in-galaxies">Star formation in galaxies</h2>



Star formation in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shapes-of-one-million-galaxies-hint-at-the-universes-origins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> is a fascinating and complex process that unfolds over millions of years. It begins in vast clouds of gas and dust, known as molecular clouds, which are often found in the spiral arms of galaxies or in regions of irregular or starburst galaxies.&nbsp;



These clouds provide the raw material for star formation, consisting primarily of hydrogen and helium, with trace amounts of heavier elements.



As the molecular clouds collapse under their own gravity, regions within them begin to condense and fragment, forming dense clumps. Within these clumps, protostars emerge. Their formation is driven by the gravitational pull drawing in surrounding gas.&nbsp;



During this process, the gas heats up due to increasing pressure, eventually igniting nuclear fusion in the core, signaling the birth of a new star.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rate-of-star-formation-nbsp-across-galaxies">Rate of star formation&nbsp;across galaxies</h2>



The rate of star formation varies across galaxies is influenced by numerous factors. In spiral galaxies like the Milky Way, star formation is most active in the spiral arms, where density waves compress gas and dust, triggering the collapse of molecular clouds.&nbsp;



Elliptical galaxies, which often have little cold gas and dust, typically exhibit low rates of star formation or none at all.



Starburst galaxies, on the other hand, experience episodes of exceptionally high star formation, often triggered by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-captures-a-galaxy-collision-with-a-radiant-smile/">galactic collisions</a> or interactions. 



These events can funnel large amounts of gas into central regions, leading to intense star-forming activity. However, such bursts are usually short-lived on cosmic timescales, exhausting the available gas quickly.



The environment within a galaxy also plays a significant role. Stellar winds and supernova explosions from existing stars can both inhibit and promote star formation. They may disperse gas, preventing further collapse, or compress nearby clouds, triggering new star formation.&nbsp;



Over time, as galaxies evolve, the availability of gas diminishes, leading to a gradual decline in star formation activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-puppis-constellation-nbsp">The Puppis constellation&nbsp;</h2>



The Puppis constellation in the southern sky represents the stern of a ship. It was once part of a larger constellation known as Argo Navis, which depicted the mythical ship of Jason and the Argonauts.&nbsp;



However, Argo Navis was later divided into three separate constellations: Puppis, Carina (the keel), and Vela (the sails). Puppis is the largest of these three and contains many notable celestial objects.



This constellation is home to several bright stars, including Naos (Zeta Puppis), a hot, massive star that emits intense ultraviolet radiation. Puppis also hosts a wide variety of deep-sky objects, such as open <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stunning-star-clusters-captured-in-the-extreme-outskirts-of-the-milky-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star clusters</a> and nebulae.&nbsp;



Among these, Messier 46 and Messier 47 stand out. Both are beautiful star clusters that are visible through binoculars or small telescopes. The region is dense with stars because it lies along the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-way-collision-may-change-everything-we-know-about-our-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, making it a prime area for stargazing and astrophotography. 



Image Credit: NASA



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Cosmic eye in the Puppis constellation

Today's Image of the Day from NASA features the spiral...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features a portion of the Rosetta Nebula, captured by the Hubble Space Telescope.



The Rosetta Nebula is a vast cloud of gas and dust located in the constellation Monoceros, also known as the Unicorn. Shaped like a blooming rose in deep space, it lies about 5,200 light-years from Earth and spans roughly 100 light-years in diameter.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-image-of-the-rosetta-nebula-nbsp">Image of the Rosetta Nebula&nbsp;</h2>



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/35-years-of-hubble-the-telescope-that-changed-our-view-of-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hubble</a> zooms into a small portion of the nebula that is only four light-years across (the approximate distance between our Sun and the neighboring Alpha Centauri star system),” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



“Dark clouds of hydrogen gas laced with dust are silhouetted across the image. The clouds are being eroded and shaped by the seething radiation from the cluster of larger stars in the center of the nebula.”&nbsp;



“An embedded star seen at the tip of a dark cloud in the upper right portion of the image is launching jets of plasma that are crashing into the cold cloud around it. The resulting shock wave is causing a red glow. The colors come from the presence of hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distinct-appearance-of-rosetta">Distinct appearance of Rosetta</h2>



Stellar winds and ultraviolet light are gradually carving out a cavity in the nebula’s center while simultaneously triggering new waves of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fluffy-molecular-clouds-may-change-our-understanding-of-star-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> along its dense edges.&nbsp;



The Rosetta Nebula is often studied to understand the life cycle of stars and the complex interactions between radiation and interstellar material.&nbsp;



Its intricate structure and visual appeal have made it a favorite target for both professional astronomers and astrophotographers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nebulae-that-are-similar-to-rosetta-nbsp">Nebulae that are similar to Rosetta&nbsp;</h2>



Compared to other famous nebulae, the Rosetta Nebula stands out for its symmetry and floral appearance, which give it a distinct, iconic look. It's often compared to the Orion Nebula, which is much closer to Earth at about 1,300 light-years away and far brighter in the night sky.&nbsp;



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orion-nebula-destroys-an-oceans-worth-of-water-every-month/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Orion Nebula</a> is a bustling stellar nursery visible even to the naked eye, while the Rosetta requires a telescope and is more diffuse and fainter despite being larger in actual size.



The Eagle Nebula, home to the famous "Pillars of Creation," shares a similar process of star formation and sculpting by radiation, but the Eagle has more dramatic, finger-like structures.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stellar-feedback-and-cosmic-evolution">Stellar feedback and cosmic evolution</h2>



The Lagoon Nebula and the Trifid Nebula, both in the constellation Sagittarius, also resemble the Rosetta in that they are active star-forming regions, but they lie in a denser part of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astronomers-found-something-strange-at-core-of-milky-way-galaxy-webb-meerkat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a> and are often surrounded by a rich starfield.



What makes the Rosetta Nebula particularly interesting scientifically is the clear interaction between its central star cluster and the surrounding gas, offering a textbook example of how massive stars influence their environment.&nbsp;



It may not be as visually iconic as the Orion or as dynamic as the Eagle, but it's a beautiful and instructive example of stellar feedback and cosmic evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-history-of-the-rosetta-nebula-nbsp">History of the Rosetta Nebula&nbsp;</h2>



The history of the Rosetta Nebula, like many deep-sky objects, is a blend of observational discovery and increasing scientific understanding over time.&nbsp;



Although it was likely spotted by earlier astronomers, its first documented observation was in the late 17th century by John Flamsteed, the first Astronomer Royal of England.&nbsp;



However, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/six-rogue-worlds-discovered-inside-a-young-star-forming-nebula/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nebula</a> itself was not fully recognized as a distinct object until the advent of astrophotography and improved telescopes in the 19th and 20th centuries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-clusters-of-the-enormous-cloud">Star clusters of the enormous cloud</h2>



The central star cluster, NGC 2244, was cataloged separately by William Herschel in the 18th century. Over time, astronomers realized that this cluster was embedded in a much larger, complex nebular structure.&nbsp;



As telescope technology advanced, astronomers identified several parts of the Rosetta Nebula and gave them separate designations, including NGC 2237, NGC 2238, NGC 2239, and NGC 2246 - essentially referring to different regions of the same enormous cloud.



Observations from space-based telescopes like Chandra (X-rays) and Spitzer (infrared) helped map the energetic processes inside the nebula, revealing how radiation and stellar winds from NGC 2244 are triggering the birth of new stars in its surrounding regions.



Image Credit: ESA



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Rosetta Nebula: Sculpted by starlight over millions of years

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the galaxy I Zwicky 18, which was captured in remarkable detail by the James Webb Space Telescope.



I Zwicky 18 is a blue compact dwarf <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/newly-discovered-stars-milky-way-are-old-as-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> located approximately 59 million light-years away in the constellation Ursa Major.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-in-i-zwicky-18">Star formation in I Zwicky 18</h2>



The galaxy is notable for its relatively young appearance and the fact that it contains very few heavy elements. These characteristics indicate that it has experienced little <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-stars-release-sneezes-of-gas-and-dust-as-they-develop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> compared to other galaxies of similar age.



“The galaxy was first identified by Swiss astronomer Fritz Zwicky in the 1930’s and resides roughly 59 million light-years from Earth,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>. “This galaxy has gone through several sudden bursts of star formation.”&nbsp;



According to ESA, I Zwicky 18 is typical of the kinds of galaxies that inhabited the early universe and is much smaller than our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/runaway-star-j1249-36-spotted-trying-to-escape-our-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-telescope-image-of-the-galaxy">Webb telescope image of the galaxy</h2>



“Two major starburst regions are embedded in the heart of the galaxy. The wispy brown filaments surrounding the central starburst region are bubbles of gas that have been heated by stellar winds and intense ultraviolet radiation unleashed by hot, young stars,” said ESA.



“A companion galaxy resides nearby to the dwarf galaxy, which can be seen at the bottom of the wider-field image. The companion may be interacting with the dwarf galaxy and may have triggered that galaxy's recent star formation.”&nbsp;



ESA explained that the “orange blobs” surrounding the galaxy are the dim glow from ancient fully formed galaxies at much larger distances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-characteristics-of-i-zwicky-18">Key characteristics of I Zwicky 18</h2>



As previously mentioned, the galaxy has a very low abundance of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium, suggesting that it has not undergone significant stellar processing.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-young-stellar-population-nbsp">Young stellar population&nbsp;</h3>



Despite its old age, I Zwicky 18 contains many young, hot stars. This suggests that it might have experienced a burst of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hubble-detects-awe-inspiring-newborn-star/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> relatively recently in its history.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interstellar-medium-nbsp">Interstellar medium&nbsp;</h3>



The galaxy has a high density of gas, which is a prime ingredient for star formation. This gas is mostly in the form of hydrogen.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unusual-characteristics">Unusual characteristics</h3>



Its characteristics are more typical of primordial galaxies found in the early universe, making it a valuable object of study for understanding galaxy formation and evolution.



Ultimately, I Zwicky 18 provides insights into the conditions and processes that might have been prevalent in the early universe.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-cycles-of-stars-and-dust">Life cycles of stars and dust</h3>



The image was captured as part of a Webb program to study the life cycle of dust in I Zw 18.&nbsp;



“Scientists are now building off of previous research with Hubble obtained at optical wavelengths, studying individual dusty stars in detail with Webb’s equivalent spatial resolution and sensitivity at infrared wavelengths.”&nbsp;



ESA noted that this galaxy is of particular interest as its content of elements heavier than helium is one of the lowest of all known <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-galaxy-formation-occurred-much-faster-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> in the local universe.&nbsp;



“Such conditions are thought to be similar to those in some of the first star-forming galaxies at high redshift, so the Webb study of I Zw 18 should shed light on the life-cycle of stars and dust in the early universe.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-constellation-ursa-major">The constellation Ursa Major </h2>



Ursa Major, also known as the Great Bear, is one of the most prominent and easily recognizable constellations in the northern sky. 



Its name, "Ursa Major," means "Great Bear" in Latin, and it has been a significant part of various mythologies and star lore across cultures for thousands of years. 



One of the most famous asterisms within Ursa Major is the Big Dipper, a group of seven bright stars that form a shape resembling a ladle or dipper. The Big Dipper is often used as a navigation tool because it points to Polaris, the North Star, located in the nearby constellation Ursa Minor.



Ursa Major is best viewed in the northern hemisphere and is circumpolar, meaning it is visible year-round for much of the Northern Hemisphere. Its position changes with the seasons, rotating around Polaris, the North Star.



Image Credit: NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope



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Dwarf galaxy provides a window into the early universe

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features a pair of interacting spiral galaxies known as the Antennae Galaxies. They are located approximately 45 million light-years away in the constellation Corvus.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antennae-galaxies-in-a-deadly-embrace">Antennae Galaxies in a deadly embrace </h2>



“The NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope has snapped the best ever image of the Antennae Galaxies. Hubble has released images of these stunning galaxies twice before, once using observations from its Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 (WFPC2) in 1997, and again in 2006 from the Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS),” noted <a href="https://esahubble.org/images/potw1345a/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



“The galaxies - also known as NGC 4038 and NGC 4039 - are locked in a deadly embrace. Once normal, sedate spiral galaxies like the Milky Way, the pair have spent the past few hundred million years sparring with one another.”



According to ESA, the clash of the Antennae Galaxies is so violent that stars have been ripped from their host <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxy-collision-2-million-mph-stephans-quintet-captured-unprecedented-detail/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> to form a streaming arc between the two.&nbsp;



The name of the galaxy pair comes from this long stream of stars and gas, which resembles insect antennae.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intense-bursts-of-star-formation-nbsp">Intense bursts of star formation&nbsp;</h2>



The collision has triggered intense bursts of star formation, making the Antennae Galaxies one of the nearest and most dramatic examples of a starburst galaxy.&nbsp;



Many of the newly formed stars are concentrated in massive star clusters, some of which are expected to evolve into globular clusters over millions of years.



“This new image of the Antennae Galaxies shows obvious signs of chaos. Clouds of gas are seen in bright pink and red, surrounding the bright flashes of blue star-forming regions - some of which are partially obscured by dark patches of dust,” explained ESA.



“The rate of star formation is so high that the Antennae Galaxies are said to be in a state of starburst, a period in which all of the gas within the galaxies is being used to form stars.”&nbsp;



“This cannot last forever and neither can the separate galaxies; eventually the nuclei will coalesce, and the galaxies will begin their retirement together as one large elliptical galaxy.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-antennae-galaxies">Significance of the Antennae Galaxies</h2>



The Antennae Galaxies are one of the most well-studied examples of galaxy collisions - offering insight into the processes that shape galaxies over time.



Astronomers study the Antennae Galaxies using a range of telescopes across different wavelengths, including visible light, infrared, and X-rays.&nbsp;



Observations in X-rays have revealed evidence of supernovae and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-holes-may-talk-to-galaxies-through-energetic-winds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black holes</a>, while infrared studies highlight regions of dust and star formation.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-milky-way-s-collision-course-nbsp">The Milky Way's collision course&nbsp;</h2>



The Antennae Galaxies provide a glimpse into the future of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uma3-u1-faintest-star-system-found-orbiting-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, which is expected to eventually merge with the Andromeda Galaxy - our closest spiral galaxy neighbor.



The cosmic collision course of the Milky Way and Andromeda will reshape both galaxies over billions of years.&nbsp;



This event is expected to occur in about 4.5 billion years. Both galaxies are part of the Local Group, a cluster of galaxies bound together by gravity. Their mutual gravitational pull is drawing them closer at a speed of approximately 110 kilometers per second.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-birth-of-an-elliptical-galaxy-nbsp">The birth of an elliptical galaxy&nbsp;</h2>



When the two galaxies collide, their individual stars will largely avoid direct collisions due to the vast distances between them. However, the gravitational forces involved will create dramatic effects.&nbsp;



These forces will distort the galaxies' <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shapes-of-one-million-galaxies-hint-at-the-universes-origins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shapes</a>, triggering intense bursts of star formation as gas clouds collide and compress. Over time, the galaxies will settle into a new, larger elliptical galaxy often referred to as "Milkomeda" or "Milkdromeda" by astronomers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-merger-and-the-solar-system">Galaxy merger and the solar system</h2>



Despite the seemingly destructive nature of the collision, the solar system is unlikely to face direct harm. Our Sun may find itself flung into a new orbit within the merged galaxy or even cast into intergalactic space.&nbsp;



The merger will also significantly alter the night sky, with the Andromeda Galaxy becoming increasingly prominent before blending into the unified structure.



This event is part of the natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-are-much-bigger-than-we-originally-believed-gas-clouds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution of galaxies</a> and serves as a fascinating reminder of the dynamic and ever-changing nature of the universe. 



While the collision is still billions of years away, studying it helps astronomers understand galactic interactions and the long-term future of our cosmic neighborhood.



Image Credit: ESA/Hubble &amp; NASA



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Violent clash of the Antennae Galaxies  

That wasn't the only unique behavior the camera captured, though. One night during mealtime, the spy gorilla recorded something that scientists hadn't seen before. They couldn't believe their eyes...or ears. Photo credit: David S. Bustamante/Soccrates Images/Getty Images

Never-Before-Seen

Mammalian sperm are unusually picky. They prefer cooler environments, thriving below normal body temperature. Yet, they must navigate the female reproductive tract, which is warmer. So how do they survive and succeed?



New research from <a href="https://medicine.washu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington University</a> School of Medicine in St. Louis explains how. Sperm use the temperature difference as a signal.



 When they enter the warmer female reproductive tract, they switch behavior. They move from calm, forward swimming to a vigorous, whip-like thrash. This change helps them pierce the egg for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-current-fertility-rate-isnt-enough-for-human-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fertilization</a>.



This discovery sheds light on male fertility. It also opens new directions for contraception.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heat-flips-a-sperm-switch">Heat flips a sperm switch</h2>



All mammals carry a sperm-surface protein called CatSper. It regulates ion entry, powering the tail’s strong motions. Scientists found that temperatures above 38°C (100.4°F) activate this protein.



“That hyperactive state in sperm is key for successful fertilization, and no one knew exactly how temperature triggers it,” said Polina Lishko, PhD, professor of cell biology and physiology at WashU Medicine. 



“Our work has identified a temperature-controlled switch in sperm that triggers these increased movements precisely when they are needed during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-fertility-rates-are-quickly-declining-and-little-is-being-done-about-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fertilization</a>.”



Before this study, CatSper was thought to respond only to pH and progesterone. But most mammalian sperm ignore progesterone. Temperature turns out to be the real switch.



This change explains why testicles hang outside the body. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/resveratrol-may-boost-female-fertility-naturally/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Evolution</a> keeps them cool so sperm remain inactive until they reach warmer territory - then, they activate at just the right moment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mammals-evolved-to-keep-sperm-cool">Mammals evolved to keep sperm cool</h2>



Humans aren't the only species with clever cooling tricks. Dolphins pass blood through their dorsal fins to cool it before it reaches their testes. Elephants do the same through their ears. These adaptations protect the sperm’s sensitivity.



Birds, which lack CatSper, don’t need this. Their sperm do not rely on the same activation signal. This protein, and its temperature-based switch, is unique to mammals.



Using advanced tools, the researchers watched electric charges shift inside individual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/poor-semen-quality-signifies-more-than-just-fertility-problems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sperm</a>. When exposed to higher temperatures, CatSper lit up. This marked the start of vigorous movement - just in time for fertilization.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-heat-to-make-sperm-hyperactive">Using heat to make sperm hyperactive </h2>



CatSper’s exclusive presence in sperm makes it an ideal drug target. Previous attempts to block it didn’t work well. But Lishko suggests a twist: instead of blocking it, activate it too early.



“Instead of creating inhibitors, it might be possible to activate CatSper with temperature thus, prematurely switching on this channel to drain the sperm of energy, so that by the time the sperm cell is ready to do its job and enter the egg cell, it is powerless,” said Lishko.



If successful, this method could prevent fertilization without affecting the rest of the body. It may also help men struggling with infertility by ensuring proper sperm activation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ovarian-changes-reduce-fertility">Ovarian changes reduce fertility </h2>



While sperm need temperature to activate, the female reproductive system faces a different aging problem. 



The researchers examined 62 human ovaries from donors aged 20 to 77. Using advanced gene-mapping tools, they found that different ovarian regions age at different rates.



The ovarian cortex, which houses immature eggs, showed signs of decline after age 40. The follicular niche - the support system for eggs - starts breaking down. In the medulla, immune activity ramps up by age 30. These changes reduce fertility well before menopause.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-egg-support-in-aging-ovaries">Egg support in aging ovaries</h2>



Granulosa and stromal cells showed the most dramatic aging. Fibroblasts, the builders of connective tissue, multiply in aging ovaries. They deposit fibrotic proteins that stiffen the ovarian tissue.



One key factor behind this fibrosis is reduced TGF-beta signaling. This pathway helps regulate repair and inflammation. Its loss leads to unchecked buildup of scar-like tissue in the ovarian cortex.



Over time, this damages the egg’s environment, even if some eggs remain. Fertility fades not just because of egg loss, but because the surrounding support system collapses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-fertility-treatments">Future fertility treatments </h2>



These studies together offer a broader view of fertility. In men, it’s about activation - timing sperm behavior using heat. In women, it’s about preservation - protecting the ovarian environment from early decline.



New therapies might target these weak points. In men, premature CatSper activation could offer safe birth control. In women, boosting TGF-beta or controlling fibrosis might preserve fertility longer.



Understanding both perspectives - activation and aging - could help design next-generation fertility treatments that support both partners in reproduction.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-58824-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Sperm have a heat-activated switch that may be key to fertility

Mammalian sperm are unusually picky. They prefer cooler environments, thriving...

What makes people happy has puzzled philosophers, psychologists, and ordinary people for centuries. Is happiness a gift we carry inside us, immune to outside conditions? Or is it built on the foundations of good jobs, strong relationships, financial comfort, and good health? 



Every year, projects like the <a href="https://worldhappiness.report" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">World Happiness Report</a> attempt to measure and explain well-being across societies. Yet, the more we explore, the clearer it becomes: happiness isn’t simple, and it certainly isn’t the same for everyone.



A new study published in the journal Nature Human Behaviour sheds powerful light on this puzzle. It challenges the idea that happiness follows one clear path. According to lead author Emorie Beck and her team, people find happiness in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-people-believe-they-deserve-good-karma-more-than-others/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">different ways</a> - and what works for one person may not work at all for another.



“We have to understand the sources of happiness to build effective interventions,” said Beck, assistant professor of psychology at the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Davis</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-major-views-on-happiness">Two major views on happiness</h2>



For decades, researchers have debated whether happiness comes from our life circumstances or our inner world. The first model, known as the “bottom-up” approach, argues that happiness builds up from life’s specific parts. 



When people are satisfied with domains such as their job, relationships, income, health, and housing, their overall <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-chasing-happiness-makes-you-feel-worse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life satisfaction</a> improves. This model shapes many public policies and international surveys. These efforts aim to boost happiness by improving access to external goods and services that support well-being.



But life doesn't always support that framework. Some people remain joyful even while facing hardship or loss. They seem untouched by circumstances that might break others. This brings attention to the “top-down” view of happiness. 



This model suggests that personality traits, mindsets, and emotional habits shape how we experience life. It emphasizes mental health practices, therapy, or mindfulness as tools to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/happiness-influences-online-shopping-habits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">improve well-being</a> by adjusting internal attitudes.



“But we all know people in our lives who experience traumatic events yet seem to be happy,” noted Beck.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-perspective-on-happiness">A new perspective on happiness </h2>



The idea that both internal and external <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-increases-feelings-of-hope-happiness-and-gratitude/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forces</a> shape happiness isn’t new. What makes this study stand out is its attempt to measure this interaction across individuals and time. 



According to the third model Beck and her team explored, happiness may flow in both directions. Inner qualities and outer life domains affect each other in ways that are dynamic and complex. From this perspective, targeting either the environment or the mind can make a difference.



But this still leaves many questions unanswered. Do all people follow the same pattern? Do policies based on population averages truly help those they aim to support? To answer these questions, the researchers introduced a fourth idea - a “personalized happiness” perspective.



This new approach proposes that happiness is not universal. Instead, the causes and effects of happiness are idiographic, or specific to each person. What raises happiness for one individual may not move the needle at all for another.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decades-of-data-on-happiness">Decades of data on happiness </h2>



To explore these ideas, Beck and her collaborators analyzed an enormous data set. They studied 40,074 people in five countries: Germany, Britain, Switzerland, The Netherlands, and Australia. 



These participants had taken part in repeated surveys over as many as 33 years. The surveys asked about their overall life <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/who-is-happier-being-single-men-or-women/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">satisfaction</a> and satisfaction in five life areas: work, income, health, housing, and relationships.



“What comes out is that we see roughly equal groups that demonstrate each pattern,” Beck explained.



Some participants fit the bottom-up model. Their happiness closely tracked satisfaction in life’s domains. Others followed a top-down pattern. Their internal well-being remained stable despite changes in their life circumstances. 



Another group showed bidirectional influence, where changes in one area affected the other. Finally, some individuals did not fit any clear model at all.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-personalized-happiness-is-more-than-a-theory">Personalized happiness is more than a theory</h2>



These findings gave weight to the personalized happiness approach. The researchers discovered that the population-level models often failed to match the actual patterns seen in individual lives. 



Between 41.4% and 50.8% of participants showed mostly one-way influences between domain satisfaction and life satisfaction. Only 19.3% to 25.9% showed bidirectional effects.



This shows that population averages often hide personal truths. Happiness, the study reveals, is shaped by unique configurations of traits and experiences. Even two people with similar incomes or job satisfaction may report entirely different levels of happiness.



The data also revealed that some people’s overall satisfaction did not link clearly to any of the measured domains. These individuals may experience satisfaction influenced by broader structural forces or singular life events that were not captured in the surveys.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-therapy">Implications for therapy</h2>



If the aim is to improve happiness for as many people as possible, this research sends a powerful message. One-size-fits-all strategies will not work. Improving healthcare, housing, or income may support some individuals, but not all. 



Likewise, mindfulness programs or therapy-based initiatives may not benefit people whose happiness depends more on external conditions. "Importantly, the most effective policies will be tailored to the individual themselves,” said Beck.



This perspective urges governments, organizations, and mental health practitioners to think differently. Instead of targeting a universal happiness recipe, they should aim to understand the diverse ingredients people draw from to feel fulfilled. 



Doing so might not just improve lives - it may also make public efforts more effective and meaningful.



“These things are treated separately, but they aren’t really. They feed into each other at a personal level,” Beck added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-individual-needs-and-differences">Individual needs and differences </h2>



The idea of personalized happiness, while promising, also presents challenges. The study showed clear individual patterns, but distinguishing those from random variations is difficult. 



Beck and her colleagues suggest that future research needs more precise and innovative methods to capture these subtle trends.



Supported by the <a href="https://www.nia.nih.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Institute on Aging</a>, this study lays the groundwork for a more human-centered view of happiness. Rather than assuming happiness is something we all measure in the same way, it invites a deeper respect for individual stories, differences, and needs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-path-doesn-t-fit-all">One path doesn’t fit all</h2>



This research invites us to rethink everything we thought we knew about happiness. It is not an endpoint with a single route. For some, it lies in community or stability. For others, it may come from within - through purpose, peace, or personal growth.



The science is clear: happiness is personal. To understand it, we must listen more closely, not just to the numbers, but to the people behind them.



Other contributors included Joshua Jackson of&nbsp;<a href="https://wustl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington University</a>, Felix Cheung of the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.utoronto.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Toronto</a>, and Stuti Thapa of the&nbsp;<a href="https://utulsa.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tulsa</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-025-02171-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Human Behaviour</a>.



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Where does happiness come from? It depends on who you are

What makes people happy has puzzled philosophers, psychologists, and ordinary...

The Hubble Space Telescope, the most celebrated observatory in history, is officially 35 years old.



To mark the milestone, NASA has released a fresh gallery of <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/missions/hubble/nasa-celebrates-hubbles-35th-year-in-orbit/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">images</a> spanning our solar system and well beyond - from Mars’s ruddy surface to star-forming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-the-mysterious-origins-of-the-crab-nebula/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nebulae</a> and a neighboring galaxy.



The new portraits serve not only as a birthday gift to the public, but also as a vivid reminder of how profoundly Hubble has transformed modern astronomy and popular culture alike.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fixing-hubble-s-blurry-beginnings">Fixing Hubble’s blurry beginnings</h2>



On April 24, 1990, the space shuttle Discovery roared into the sky with Hubble folded inside its cargo bay. A <a href="http://NASA.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a> commentator called the telescope "a new window on the universe," raising expectations sky-high.



Yet jubilation faded fast when engineers found a tiny mirror flaw that made early images frustratingly blurry.



The rescue came in December 1993, when astronauts performed the first of five intricate servicing missions. They installed corrective optics - an optical “contact lens” - and upgraded Hubble’s cameras and electronics. The successful fix restored the telescope’s vision and set the stage for three decades of breakthrough science.



“Hubble opened a new window to the universe when it launched 35 years ago,” said Shawn Domagal-Goldman, acting director of the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astrophysics Division</a> at NASA Headquarters. 



“Its stunning imagery inspired people across the globe, and the data behind those images revealed surprises about everything from early galaxies to planets in our own solar system.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-observatory-that-keeps-giving">An observatory that keeps giving</h2>



Since that turning point, Hubble has recorded nearly 1.7 million observations of roughly 55,000 celestial targets. 



Those data have generated more than 22,000 peer-reviewed papers, amassing over 1.3 million citations - figures that make Hubble the most scientifically productive telescope ever built. 



All its raw images and spectra, totaling more than 400 terabytes, are publicly archived, fueling new discoveries every year.



The mission’s longevity lets astronomers revisit cosmic scenes and track their evolution in near-real time. 



Hubble has tracked the seasonal shifts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-could-be-pushed-into-a-collision-course-with-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a> and Saturn, watched supernova remnants balloon outward, chronicled bright knots in active galactic nuclei, and even captured the afterglow of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-could-be-pushed-into-a-collision-course-with-earth/">asteroid collisions</a>. 



Each long-baseline study illuminates processes that once seemed too slow to witness within a single human career.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-hubble-redefined-the-cosmos">How Hubble redefined the cosmos</h2>



Before Hubble, ground-based observatories peering through Earth’s turbulent atmosphere could see only halfway across the visible universe. 



Estimates of cosmic age oscillated wildly, and astronomers could only speculate about whether every galaxy harbored a central <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-black-holes-become-supermassive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supermassive black hole</a>. The existence of planets around other stars was still unconfirmed.



Hubble rewrote those narratives. Its legendary Deep Field images unveiled a staggering population of faint, ancient galaxies stretching back more than 13 billion years. 



By tracking Cepheid variable stars and Type Ia supernovae, the telescope pinned down the rate of cosmic expansion. It helped expose <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-energy-is-ripping-the-universe-apart-but-we-arent-sure-how/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark energy</a>, a discovery that later earned the 2011 Nobel Prize in Physics.



Hubble also furnished the first measurements of exoplanet atmospheres and demonstrated that supermassive black holes lurk in the cores of most large galaxies. 



The telescope’s wide-ranging achievements inspired a wave of next-generation observatories, including the infrared-optimized James Webb Space Telescope.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-engineering-made-hubble-unstoppable">Engineering made Hubble unstoppable</h2>



Part of Hubble’s success stems from its design as a serviceable spacecraft. 



Between 1993 and 2009, five shuttle crews rendezvoused with the 24,000-pound telescope to swap out gyroscopes, batteries, and scientific instruments. These cosmic pit stops transformed Hubble into a nimble, ever-improving workhorse.



“The fact that it is still operating today is a testament to the value of our flagship observatories, and provides critical lessons for the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/programs/habitable-worlds-observatory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Habitable Worlds Observatory</a>, which we plan to be serviceable in the spirit of Hubble,” Domagal-Goldman noted.



While the final shuttle mission in 2009 left Hubble in excellent health, engineers have spent the past decade developing innovative software patches. They also created remote troubleshooting techniques to counter aging hardware.



As a result, the Hubble telescope remains fully operational. It partners with Webb to study exoplanet atmospheres and map the formation of distant galaxy clusters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-cultural-icon">A cultural icon</h2>



Beyond its scientific cachet, Hubble has captured the public imagination. Its images - Pillars of Creation, the Eagle Nebula, the Horsehead, the Sombrero Galaxy - decorate classrooms, inspire artists, and headline documentaries.



Hubble’s visual output demystifies astrophysics, turning arcane data into vibrant landscapes that convey both beauty and scale. 



The telescope’s success has shown that deep-space exploration is not just for scientists, but for everyone who gazes upward in wonder.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-telescope-built-on-hubble-s-lessons">New telescope built on Hubble’s lessons</h2>



Hubble’s torch will eventually pass to the Habitable Worlds Observatory (HWO), NASA’s proposed successor for the 2040s. 



With a mirror much larger than Hubble’s and capabilities in the ultraviolet and visible bands, HWO aims to be up to 100 times more sensitive to starlight.



A key mission goal is finding Earth-size planets in habitable zones and detecting possible signs of life in their atmospheres. Engineers plan to make HWO serviceable, drawing directly on the lessons learned from three decades of keeping Hubble alive and thriving.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legacy-that-s-still-growing">A legacy that's still growing</h2>



For now, Hubble continues its pioneering journey, orbiting Earth every 97 minutes at an altitude of about 330 miles. 



Each day it scans the space, adding new data to its towering archive and offering humanity fresh vistas of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-molecule-detected-in-space-where-stars-are-born/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star birth</a>, galaxy collisions, and planetary weather.



From its rocky start to its current stardom, Hubble’s 35-year run epitomizes ingenuity, perseverance, and curiosity - the very traits that fuel all great explorations. 



NASA’s newest image release is both a birthday card and a reminder: somewhere high above, an aging yet agile Hubble telescope still opens that “new window on the universe,” inviting us to peer through and dream.



Image Credit: NASA/ Hubble Heritage Team



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35 years of Hubble: The telescope that changed our view of the universe

The Hubble Space Telescope, the most celebrated observatory in history,...

The Antarctic Peninsula has drawn widespread attention due to the unusual heat affecting the region, which is warming about five times faster than the global average. 



The extreme heat shocked many observers when a temperature of 18.8°C (65.8°F) was recorded at Seymour Island in February 2020.



Scientists are concerned about how this temperature surge could impact ice melt and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-antarctic-waters-are-cooling-in-a-warming-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea</a> levels. These concerns prompted a new investigation into how conditions far away in the Tasman Sea might contribute to warming at the southern tip of the planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tasman-sea-heat-reaches-antarctica">Tasman Sea heat reaches Antarctica</h2>



The research was led by Dr. Fei Zheng from <a href="https://www.sysu.edu.cn/sysuen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sun Yat-sen University</a>, whose team traced a path of influence from <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00376-024-4350-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">waters</a> between Australia and New Zealand to the icy peninsula.



The experts discovered that winter sea surface temperatures in the Tasman Sea can influence atmospheric patterns that steer heat toward <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-lies-beneath-16000-feet-of-antarctic-ice-a-world-never-before-seen-by-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctica</a>. These findings highlight the surprising power of mid-latitude ocean changes.



“Our research shows that warmer or cooler temperatures in the Tasman Sea can send a climatic ‘ripple effect’ across the Pacific, ultimately warming the Antarctic Peninsula,” said Dr. Zheng.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-winds-drive-antarctic-warming">Shifting winds drive Antarctic warming</h2>



One key feature is the <a href="https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/clim/29/17/jcli-d-15-0843.1.xml" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pacific–South American pattern</a>, which emerges when the Tasman Sea shifts from cooler to warmer waters. This pattern forms a chain of shifting pressure and wind belts that can bring unusual warmth to certain parts of Antarctica.



The researchers noticed that high-resolution climate models capture this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarcticas-melting-ice-shelves-threaten-global-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pattern</a> better than those with fewer grid points.



“However, not all climate models capture this link accurately - higher-resolution models do a much better job,” said Dr. Zheng.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tasman-antarctica-link-confuses-models">Tasman-Antarctica link confuses models</h2>



Some models overestimate how much the Antarctic Peninsula temperature changes from year to year. They also underestimate how the Tasman Sea fluctuates during the same seasons.



Researchers caution that this mismatch could exaggerate how the atmosphere reacts to ocean shifts in some simulations. They aim to refine these models so that future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emergency-meeting-reveals-the-alarming-extent-of-antarcticas-ice-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperature</a> estimates become more dependable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antarctic-heat-affects-sea-levels">Antarctic heat affects sea levels</h2>



A warming Antarctic <a href="https://www.climate.gov/tags/antarctica" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Peninsula</a> can affect ice sheet stability and global sea-level changes. Insights from studies like this provide a clearer view of how distant oceans might tip the balance in vulnerable polar regions.



Shifts in temperature can also influence how local sea ice behaves and how wildlife copes with changing conditions. Tracking these influences supports better decisions about conservation and planning for future environmental shifts.



These findings may change how scientists and policymakers approach climate modeling on a global scale. If warming in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctica-is-greening-at-an-unprecedented-rate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctica</a> is linked to changes thousands of miles away, forecasts must look beyond local conditions.



This could shift funding and research priorities toward better monitoring of mid-latitude oceans. Long-term planning for coastal cities and global sea-level projections may now need to factor in the Tasman Sea as a major player.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-ocean-feedback-loops">The role of ocean feedback loops</h2>



The Tasman-Antarctica connection may also help explain recent feedback loops seen in climate records. Warmer waters in the Tasman Sea could alter wind patterns that trap heat in the Southern Hemisphere, reinforcing further warming in Antarctica.



This process, while still under study, suggests the ocean isn’t just responding to climate change - it may also be shaping it. Feedbacks like these are essential to understand if we want to predict how fast changes may unfold.



One major hurdle is the lack of high-resolution data for some ocean regions, including the Tasman Sea. Without better observations, even the most advanced models will struggle to predict future shifts accurately.



Researchers also warn that natural variability could mask long-term trends. Sorting short-term changes from deeper patterns will be key to improving projections for Antarctica’s future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antarctic-link-to-global-weather">Antarctic link to global weather</h2>



The atmospheric patterns linked to the Tasman Sea might not just affect Antarctica. Some researchers suggest that parts of South America and even the western United States could experience shifts in weather due to these ocean changes.



While the focus is still on Antarctica for now, future studies could reveal broader connections. Understanding these ripple effects might help explain unusual weather in regions far from the Southern Ocean.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-coastal-communities">Protecting coastal communities </h2>



Researchers plan to refine climate models by adding better data for smaller-scale ocean processes. They believe a closer look at ocean-atmosphere interactions will strengthen predictions for Antarctica and beyond.



Experts also hope that improving model accuracy could help communities plan for coastal threats. Robust forecasts may guide strategies that protect future generations from rising seas and shifting weather patterns.



Bringing together data from multiple sources helps researchers see the bigger picture of Antarctica’s challenges.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00376-024-4350-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Advances in Atmospheric Sciences</a>.



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Antarctic warming is influenced by ocean changes thousands of miles away

The Antarctic Peninsula has drawn widespread attention due to the...

The sun-baked flats of southern Peru hold a secret bigger than any signpost. From a low ridge, the landscape looks plain enough - just ocher earth and scattered stones. Yet from the air, pale etchings known as Nazca geoglyphs spread out across thirty-one miles of desert like pages in an ancient picture book.



Scholars have long marveled at these Nazca geoglyphs: animals, people, and patterns scraped into the soil roughly two thousand years ago. 



Their purpose has never been obvious, and for decades each new survey has offered more puzzles than answers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nazca-geoglyphs-carved-on-desert-canvas">Nazca geoglyphs carved on desert canvas</h2>



Masato Sakai of Japan’s <a href="https://www.yamagata-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yamagata University</a> has spent two decades walking the Nazca Pampa, a dry plateau that sits about 1,640 feet above sea level. 



The lack of rain and the region’s remoteness have sheltered the drawings from erosion and farming. 



Two main styles dominate the site. Giant “line-type” designs - think the famous hummingbird - stretch for hundreds of feet. 



Smaller “surface-type” figures appear where workers once brushed away dark stones to expose lighter sand.



Early mapping relied on planes and satellite photos. Even then, the sharpest images missed many faint or partial motifs. 



Relief-type figures, often no larger than a city bus, hug age-old footpaths and easily hide in the dusty palette.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-scans-the-peruvian-sands">AI scans the Peruvian sands</h2>



Enter a collaboration with IBM Research. Between September 2022 and February 2023, Sakai’s team fed an artificial-intelligence model examples of known glyphs, then set it loose on high-resolution photos of the entire plateau. 



In six months, the system flagged 303 new surface-type drawings - almost doubling the catalog built up since the early twentieth century. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Nazca-lines_petroglyphs_AI-analysis_credit-Yamagata-University_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Nazca-lines_petroglyphs_AI-analysis_credit-Yamagata-University_1s.webp" alt="Fifteen of a total of 303 newly discovered relief-type figurative geoglyphs from the AI-assisted survey. Drone images taken during the field survey that confirmed the geoglyphs as authentic. The scale bars are 5 m. Outlines have been added as a guide to the eye. Versions of the images without the outlines and archaeological interpretations of the relief can be found in SI Appendix, Fig. S1. The figurative geoglyphs depict humanoids, head, domesticated animal (camelid), killer whales, birds, feline, ceremonial scene, and human/animal interaction. Credit: Yamagata University" class="wp-image-1967878"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Fifteen of a total of 303 newly discovered relief-type figurative geoglyphs from the AI-assisted survey. Drone images taken during the field survey that confirmed the geoglyphs as authentic. The scale bars are 5 m. Outlines have been added as a guide to the eye. Versions of the images without the outlines and archaeological interpretations of the relief can be found in SI Appendix, Fig. S1. The figurative geoglyphs depict humanoids, head, domesticated animal (camelid), killer whales, birds, feline, ceremonial scene, and human/animal interaction. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Yamagata University</figcaption></figure>



That fresh haul pushes the confirmed total to 430 pieces, 318 of which Yamagata University has logged since it began work in 2004.



Instead of boxing objects the usual way, the model treated the desert as a grid of tiny image tiles and scored each one for geoglyph likelihood. 



The researchers split every confirmed figure into smaller patches to give the algorithm extra training material, a trick that compensated for the limited dataset.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-the-nazca-geoglyphs-telling-us">What are the Nazca geoglyphs telling us?</h2>



Many newly spotted icons cluster within 141 feet of ancient trails. They show human torsos, stylized livestock, and eerie isolated heads. 



“The human heads depict human sacrifices to the gods,” Sakai explained. The pathway setting hints that small groups used these pictures as teaching aids or spiritual prompts during routine travel.



Pottery shards nearby suggest such relief-type figures may predate the grander line drawings. Their subjects lean toward domestic life, a contrast to the wild creatures often celebrated in the larger images.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ritual-routes-and-roadside-lessons">Ritual routes and roadside lessons</h2>



Line-type glyphs anchor the start and finish of broader pilgrimage routes, typically lying about 112 feet from ceremonial lines scored into the ground. 



Archaeologists think processions moved along these corridors, stopping at the vast bird, monkey, or whale outlines for communal rites. 



“At that time, there was no written language. People learned about the roles of humans and animals by looking at pictures and used them as places for rituals,” he said.



That spoken insight, paired with the spatial data, supports the idea that the Nazca culture wove its belief system straight into the landscape. 



Travelers likely rehearsed myths, seasonal duties, or social roles by pacing past images tailored to each lesson.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-behind-the-numbers">Behind the numbers</h2>



The 303 fresh finds are all surface-type, yet they vary in design and age. Roughly half depict human or animal heads, many with eyes or mouths exaggerated for emphasis. 



The rest show full figures, including camelids and felines that were vital to everyday survival. Their average length is about 20 yards. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/nazca-lines_location-map_credit-University-of-Michigan_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/nazca-lines_location-map_credit-University-of-Michigan_1s.webp" alt="Field survey confirms 303 new relief-type figurative Nazca geoglyphs. Map of 303 newly confirmed and 380 previously known (black) figurative relief-type geoglyphs. Newly confirmed geoglyphs are individually AI predicted (yellow), part of an AI-predicted geoglyph group (rose), or identified in the field survey without AI predicting that location (green). Inset: Histogram of ranked AI candidates (blue), visited AI candidates (red), new geoglyphs in AI groups (rose), individually confirmed AI geoglyphs (yellow), and extrapolated new geoglyphs (light yellow) as a function of rank. Credit: University of Michigan" class="wp-image-1967876"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Field survey confirms 303 new relief-type figurative Nazca geoglyphs. Map of 303 newly confirmed and 380 previously known (black) figurative relief-type geoglyphs. Newly confirmed geoglyphs are individually AI predicted (yellow), part of an AI-predicted geoglyph group (rose), or identified in the field survey without AI predicting that location (green). Inset: Histogram of ranked AI candidates (blue), visited AI candidates (red), new geoglyphs in AI groups (rose), individually confirmed AI geoglyphs (yellow), and extrapolated new geoglyphs (light yellow) as a function of rank. Click image to enlarge. Credit: University of Michigan</figcaption></figure>



The AI’s accuracy jumped once researchers applied transfer learning - starting with a vision model trained on everyday photographs before fine-tuning it for desert imagery.



Such efficiency matters because the Nazca Pampa spans more than 190 square miles. Manual surveys would take years, but AI can flag probable sites in days, letting field crews focus on verification and conservation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-and-the-future-of-archaeology">AI and the future of archaeology</h2>



The success in Peru demonstrates how machine learning can spotlight hidden heritage without disturbing the ground. 



Similar techniques already aid shipwreck hunts in the Mediterranean and temple searches in Cambodia’s jungles. As satellite coverage improves, smaller teams will parse vast regions for subtle traces of ancient life.



For the Nazca Lines, the next step is protection. Mining, unregulated tourism, and modern roads nibble at the fragile crust. 



Digital maps built from AI detections give local authorities a clearer picture of what needs fencing, signage, or rerouting. 



Sharing these maps online also invites global scholars to test fresh hypotheses about how the drawings fit with climate shifts, trade, and social change over fifteen centuries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-the-nazca-geoglyphs">What's next for the Nazca geoglyphs?</h2>



What began as a curiosity spotted by pilot Toribio Mejía Xesspe in 1927 now stands as proof - yes, proof - of cooperation between traditional fieldwork and cutting-edge tech. 



The Nazca people left no written chronicles, but they etched stories big enough to survive millennia of wind and sun. 



With new eyes in the sky and smarter algorithms on the ground, today’s researchers are finally starting to read those stories in full.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.2407652121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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One of Earth's oldest and biggest mysteries is partially solved by Artificial Intelligence

The sun-baked flats of southern Peru hold a secret bigger...

Acne, eczema, and other skin conditions are issues that manifest on the surface, but they’re closely tied to what’s living just beneath. Bacteria on our faces aren’t just passive passengers. They interact, compete, and sometimes even fuel disease.



Two major bacterial species - Cutibacterium acnes and Staphylococcus epidermidis - dominate most people’s facial microbiome. Yet, figuring out how they behave and change over time has long been a challenge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shaping-the-skin-s-future-health">Shaping the skin's future health</h2>



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> have now mapped out the behavior of skin bacteria in more detail than ever before.



Their work offers a clearer picture of when new strains appear, how long they stick around, and how this timing could shape future acne treatments. 



The research also points to a crucial discovery: the early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-teen-girls-struggle-more-with-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">teen</a> years may be a key time in which to shape the skin’s future health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teenage-skin-and-the-rise-of-acne-bacteria">Teenage skin and the rise of acne bacteria</h2>



The team found that most new C. acnes strains - the ones commonly linked to outbreaks of acne - appear during the early teenage years.



But after that, the bacterial community on the face becomes incredibly stable. Even when people come into contact with new strains, they rarely take hold.



That insight has major implications. “We found that there are some surprising dynamics, and these dynamics provide insights for how to design probiotic therapy,” said Tami Lieberman, senior author of the study.



“If we had a strain that we knew could prevent acne, these results would suggest we should make sure we apply them early during the transition to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/feeling-loved-as-a-teen-linked-to-healthier-adulthood/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adulthood</a>, to really get them to engraft.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-skin-bacteria-and-acne">Tracking skin bacteria and acne</h2>



To understand these microbial patterns, the researchers studied the skin of 30 children and 27 of their parents, all from the same Boston-area school community. 



Sampling family members helped the team to see how strains pass between people and how stable - or unstable - those strains really are.



Some participants were sampled more than once, allowing the scientists to track bacterial changes over time. 



From each skin swab, they grew bacterial colonies and sequenced the DNA of individual cells. This helped them measure the number of different lineages in each person, how long each had been around, and how they changed over time.



They found 89 lineages of C. acnes and 78 of S. epidermidis. Up to 11 of each could be found on a single person. The findings surprised the team, as earlier studies had suggested these communities remained mostly unchanged over time.



“We wanted to know if these communities were truly stable, and if there could be times where they weren’t stable,” Lieberman explained. “In particular, if the transition to an adult skin-like microbiome would have a higher rate of acquisition of new lineages.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-ideal-environment-for-skin-bacteria">An ideal environment for skin bacteria </h2>



Teenage years come with a spike in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-refined-carbs-can-make-you-less-attractive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oil production</a> on the face, which provides an ideal environment for bacteria. 



Previous studies have shown a 10,000-fold increase in bacterial density during this period. The current study confirmed that while adult facial microbiomes are largely stable, the early teen years offer an opportunity for new strains of skin bacteria - particularly of C. acnes - to establish themselves.



“For C. acnes, what we were able to show was that people do get strains throughout life, but very rarely,” said Lieberman. “We see the highest rate of influx when teenagers are transitioning to a more adult-like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-aging-have-been-found-in-the-skin-microbiome/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">skin microbiome</a>.”



This supports the idea that acne-related probiotics might be most effective when used early, during the teenage transition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-bacteria-different-timelines">Different bacteria, different timelines</h2>



The team also found that S. epidermidis is far more volatile than C. acnes. On average, each strain of S. epidermidis sticks around for less than two years. 



However, even family members living together often didn’t share the same lineages. This implies that bacteria aren’t constantly passed back and forth, and that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-does-skin-become-leathery-after-too-much-uv-light-from-sun-exposure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">skin</a> might be more selective than expected.



“That suggests that something is preventing homogenization between people,” said Lieberman. “It could be host genetics or host behavior, or people using different topicals or different moisturizers, or it could be active restriction of new migrants from the bacteria that are already there at that moment.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



The researchers now want to know whether the immune system reacts differently depending on when a person first acquires a new strain of C. acnes. They also hope to understand why individual microbiomes remain so distinct, even when people are exposed to each other’s bacteria daily.



“We want to understand why we each have unique strain communities despite the fact that there is this constant accessibility and high turnover, specifically for S. epidermidis,” said Lieberman. “What’s driving this constant turnover in S. epidermidis, and what are the implications of these new colonizations for acne during adolescence?”



While there’s still a lot to learn, one thing is clear: the story of skin bacteria starts early. And the choices we make - or don’t make - during our teenage years might leave a lasting mark.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S193131282500143X?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell Host &amp; Microbe</a>.



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Teen skin bacteria could hold the secret to acne prevention

Acne, eczema, and other skin conditions are issues that manifest...

Bearded,Father,Playing,Guitar,To,His,Little,Child.,Baby,Looking

Music, movement, and the soothing hum of a lullaby are often seen as cornerstones of humanity. From bustling cities to remote villages, we expect every culture to dance in joy and sing to its children. 



But the Northern Aché of Paraguay challenge that belief. These acts seem deeply human - automatic, perhaps even biological. But what if they aren’t?



A study published in the journal Current Biology by anthropologists Manvir Singh and Kim Hill asks us to reconsider this belief.



Drawing on over four decades of immersive research among the Northern Aché of Paraguay, the authors report a striking absence. This Indigenous group sings, yes - but they do not dance. And they do not sing to their babies.



This revelation disrupts long-standing theories about music as an evolutionary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-takes-a-major-toll-on-childrens-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universal</a>. Instead, it points to a more fragile reality: these traditions may be cultural inventions, and may be vulnerable to loss.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-northern-ache-don-t-dance-or-sing-lullabies">Northern Aché don’t dance or sing lullabies</h2>



The Northern Aché, a once-isolated hunter-gatherer society in eastern Paraguay, have lived outside the influence of global norms for much of modern history. 



Hill, a professor at <a href="https://www.asu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arizona State University</a>, first began working with them in 1977. He would go on to spend 122 months - more than ten years - living alongside Aché families in forest camps and settlements.



During these years, Hill documented their daily life in extraordinary detail. He observed songs sung around campfires, flutes played in solitude, and expressions of grief and celebration. But never once did he witness coordinated dance. Nor did he hear an infant-directed song.



“Aside from church singing introduced by missionaries, Northern Aché adults sing alone and in a limited number of contexts,” Singh explained. “As far as we can tell, anthropologists have never observed dancing or infant-directed song among the Northern Aché.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-every-culture-sings-but-not-to-infants">Every culture sings, but not to infants?</h2>



The Northern Aché’s musical life is real, but restrained. Men sing short bursts of melody about hunting and communal affairs. 



Women sing more rarely, almost always about lost relatives. Children may imitate these songs, but there is no singing aimed at babies - none of the structured soothing sounds that we associate with lullabies.



This lack isn’t due to neglect. Parents calm fussy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/talking-to-kids-about-puberty-why-sooner-may-be-better-than-later/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">babies</a> with smiles, tickles, and playful talk. Yet even during long forest treks - where infants remain close to their mothers nearly all day - Hill and fellow researchers never encountered lullabies.



“It’s not that the Northern Aché don’t have any need for lullabies,” Singh said. “Aché parents still calm fussy infants. They use playful speech, funny faces, smiling and giggling.”



This distinction matters. It shows that caregiving persists even in the absence of what many view as essential, universal tools.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-loss-not-natural-absence">Cultural loss, not natural absence</h2>



Why are dance and infant-directed song missing from this society? The answer lies not in biology but in history.



The Northern Aché endured significant upheaval in the twentieth century. Their population plummeted due to disease and forced migration. 



By 1970, only 338 individuals remained. With that decline came a shrinking of cultural practices. Alongside dance and lullabies, they lost other cultural practices, such as fire-making, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-dogs-replacing-children-how-modern-society-is-changing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">puberty</a> ceremonies, hunting magic, and more.



“It does mean, however, that cultural transmission matters much more for maintaining those behaviors than many researchers, including myself, have suspected,” Singh said.



Unlike smiling, which appears across cultures without instruction, these behaviors vanish without teaching and memory. They are not spontaneous instincts. They are carefully maintained traditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-singing-and-dancing-are-cultural-creations">Singing and dancing are cultural creations </h2>



The Northern Aché belong to a wider language family - Tupi - which includes other groups with robust musical and ritual traditions.



Southern Aché communities, for example, have been seen dancing and singing in synchrony after contact. Tupi-speaking Araweté and Guarani peoples also have lullabies and dance music. This suggests that the ancestors of the Northern Aché once shared these practices.



But over generations, population bottlenecks and isolation stripped away many layers of cultural complexity. 



They no longer make fire. They do not play stringed instruments. Their musical styles have narrowed. What remains is deeply individual, and hauntingly sparse.



Genetic studies support this story. The Northern Aché have less genetic diversity than their linguistic relatives, pointing to one or more historic population collapses. Such bottlenecks reduce not just biological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-impacts-brain-development-in-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">variation</a> but cultural content as well.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-behavior-shaped-by-culture">Human behavior shaped by culture</h2>



Theories about music’s origin often assume a biological basis. Dance and lullabies are believed to build bonds - between groups, and between mothers and babies. Many researchers have treated them as evolutionary adaptations.



“Dance and infant-related song are widely considered universal, a view that has been supported by cross-cultural research, including my own,” Singh noted.



But this study suggests a different picture. It argues that these behaviors are more like fire-making than smiling. They are useful but not inevitable. They must be invented, preserved, and passed on. When communities shrink or break, those transmissions can fail.



This idea doesn’t disprove genetic readiness. Instead, it highlights that readiness alone isn’t enough. Cultural continuity sustains human behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-northern-ache">Significance of the Northern Aché</h2>



The absence of dance and lullabies in the Northern Aché people doesn't mean these behaviors are unimportant. It means we must reconsider what makes them possible. We need to look beyond cross-cultural surveys and explore histories of loss, isolation, and transformation.



Singh and Hill’s work shows the value of deep, long-term ethnography. Their observations emerged not from brief visits but from living as neighbors, sharing fires, and listening over decades.



“I found his observations totally fascinating and hugely important and urged him to publish them,” Singh said of Hill's work. “He wasn’t sure how to report them, so we ended up writing the manuscript together.”



In an increasingly globalized world, such quiet exceptions are rare. But they carry powerful messages. They remind us that humanity’s most cherished expressions - music, dance, the lullaby - are not just natural responses. 



Singing and dancing are cultural creations that are fragile and resilient, shaped by memory and community. And when they fall silent, they speak volumes.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00447-6">Current Biology</a>.



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Social dancing and singing lullabies to babies are not innate human behaviors

Music, movement, and the soothing hum of a lullaby are...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Once it was accepted by the group, the spy gorilla got to work filming. After beating its chest, for example, it was able to observe some young apes during playtime! Photo credit: BBC / YouTube

Playtime

The dominant male accepted the gesture. The spy gorilla was in! Before long, the rest of the troop crowded around the camera, vying to check out their strange, new visitor. Photo credit: BBC / YouTube

Playtime

News coming your way