Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features Abell S1063, a massive galaxy cluster located about 4.5 billion light-years from Earth. The galaxy cluster was captured by the Webb telescope in stunning detail.



According to <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images/2025/05/Webb_glimpses_the_distant_past" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>, the image is what’s known as a deep field - a long exposure of a single area of the sky, collecting as much light as possible to draw out the most faint and distant galaxies that don’t appear in ordinary images.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxies-of-the-early-universe">Galaxies of the early universe </h2>



Composed of nine separate snapshots taken at different near-infrared wavelengths over roughly 120 hours, this image represents Webb’s most detailed and deepest view of a single target so far.&nbsp;



Thanks to the gravitational lensing effect of Abell S1063, astronomers can peer deeper into the past than ever before - possibly viewing some of the universe’s very <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-galaxies-formed-from-the-earliest-elements-in-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">first galaxies</a>.



“The eye is first drawn, in this new NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope Picture of the Month, to the central mega-monster that is galaxy cluster Abell S1063. This behemoth collection of galaxies, lying 4.5 billion light-years from Earth in the constellation Grus (the Crane), dominates the scene,” noted ESA.



“Looking more closely, this dense collection of heavy galaxies is surrounded by glowing streaks of light, and these warped arcs are the true object of scientists’ interest: faint galaxies from the universe’s distant past.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-a-galaxy-cluster">What is a galaxy cluster?</h2>



Galaxy clusters are the largest known gravitationally bound systems and include not just galaxies, but also vast amounts of hot, X-ray-emitting gas and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-true-nature-of-dark-matter-may-be-revealed-in-a-supernova/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark matter</a>.&nbsp;



The galaxies within a cluster move through this hot intracluster medium, and their interactions can lead to phenomena like galaxy mergers or the stripping of gas from galaxies.&nbsp;



Galaxy clusters are important for studying the large-scale structure of the universe, the behavior of dark matter, and the evolution of galaxies over cosmic time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hundreds-of-galaxies-bound-together-nbsp">Hundreds of galaxies bound together&nbsp;</h2>



As one of the most densely populated clusters known, Abell S1063 contains hundreds of galaxies bound together by gravity.&nbsp;



Its immense mass makes it an excellent example of a gravitational lens - a cosmic phenomenon where the cluster’s gravity bends and magnifies the light from galaxies far behind it.&nbsp;



This effect allows astronomers to observe incredibly faint and distant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-way-like-galaxies-were-present-in-the-early-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> that would otherwise be beyond our detection limits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-galaxy-evolution">Studying galaxy evolution</h2>



The cluster has been the focus of several major observational campaigns. It was prominently featured in the Hubble Space Telescope’s Frontier Fields program, which used its gravitational lensing power to study the early universe.&nbsp;



“The new imagery from Webb’s Near-Infrared Camera (NIRCam) takes this quest even further back in time,” said ESA.



“This image showcases an incredible forest of lensing arcs around Abell S1063, which reveal distorted background galaxies at a range of cosmic distances, along with a multitude of faint galaxies and previously unseen features.”



These observations are helping scientists probe the Cosmic Dawn era - the period shortly after the Big Bang.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-the-cosmic-dawn-nbsp">Exploring the Cosmic Dawn&nbsp;</h2>



The Cosmic Dawn refers to a time in the history of the universe when the first stars and galaxies began to form and shine. This pivotal era occurred roughly between 100 million and 1 billion years after the Big Bang.&nbsp;



During the Dark Ages, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fastest-feeding-black-hole-found-in-the-early-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universe</a> had cooled enough for neutral hydrogen to form, but no luminous objects yet existed to light it up.&nbsp;



The birth of the first stars - often massive and short-lived - marked the beginning of the Cosmic Dawn. These stars emitted intense ultraviolet radiation, which gradually ionized the surrounding hydrogen gas in a process known as reionization.&nbsp;



This transformed the universe from a cold, opaque environment into one that was transparent to light, enabling the large-scale structure of the cosmos to take shape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-constellation-grus">The constellation Grus</h2>



Grus is a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/super-jupiter-discovered-in-the-great-bear-constellation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">constellation</a> in the southern sky, its name derived from the Latin word for "crane," a type of large, graceful bird.&nbsp;



It was introduced in the late 16th century by the Dutch navigators Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman, during an era of celestial charting tied to European exploration of the southern hemisphere.&nbsp;



Grus is part of a group of constellations known as the "Southern Birds," which also includes Phoenix, Tucana, and Pavo.



This constellation lies near the celestial south pole and is best seen from the Southern Hemisphere during the months of August through October.&nbsp;



Image Credit: ESA/Webb, NASA &amp; CSA, H. Atek, M. Zamani



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Hundreds of galaxies illuminate the early universe 

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Today's Image of the Day from the <a href="https://www.eso.org/public/">European Southern Observatory</a> (ESO) features a stunning view of the Sculptor Galaxy, one of the brightest spiral galaxies visible from Earth.



The ultra-detailed image, which was captured using ESO’s Very Large Telescope, reveals features in the Sculptor Galaxy that have never been seen before.&nbsp;



ESO researcher Enrico Congiu led a new study on the Sculptor Galaxy that is published in the journal Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-galaxy-wide-view-of-sculptor-nbsp">A galaxy-wide view of Sculptor&nbsp;</h2>



The team observed the galaxy in thousands of wavelengths at once, collecting an immense amount of data from every point across its structure. This allowed them to build a comprehensive, galaxy-wide view of how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/white-dwarf-stars-may-be-billions-of-years-older-than-estimated/">stars</a> live and evolve within Sculptor.



"Galaxies are incredibly complex systems that we are still struggling to understand," said Congiu.



“The Sculptor Galaxy is in a sweet spot. It is close enough that we can resolve its internal structure and study its building blocks with incredible detail, but at the same time, big enough that we can still see it as a whole system.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-thousands-of-distinct-colors-nbsp">Thousands of distinct colors&nbsp;</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oxygen-detected-in-the-most-distant-and-primitive-galaxy-ever-analyzed/">Galaxies</a> span hundreds of thousands of light-years, yet their evolution is shaped by processes unfolding on much smaller scales.&nbsp;



The fundamental components of a galaxy - stars, gas, and dust - each emit light in distinct colors. The more shades of color captured in an image, the deeper the insight into a galaxy’s internal structure.&nbsp;



Traditional images typically contain only a few colors, but the new map of the Sculptor Galaxy includes thousands.&nbsp;



This rich spectrum provides astronomers with detailed information about the galaxy’s stars, gas, and dust - from their ages and chemical makeup to how they’re moving through space.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-the-sculptor-galaxy-nbsp">Mapping the Sculptor Galaxy&nbsp;</h2>



The research team spent more than 50 hours observing the Sculptor Galaxy using the Multi Unit Spectroscopic Explorer (MUSE) on the Very Large Telescope.&nbsp;



To capture the full view - spanning roughly 65,000 light-years - they combined over 100 separate exposures into a single, detailed mosaic.&nbsp;



According to study co-author Kathryn Kreckel from Heidelberg University, Germany, this makes the map a potent tool.&nbsp;



“We can zoom in to study individual regions where stars form at nearly the scale of individual stars, but we can also zoom out to study the galaxy as a whole,” said Kreckel.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hundreds-of-planetary-nebulae-nbsp">Hundreds of planetary nebulae&nbsp;</h2>



In their initial analysis of the data, the team identified around 500 planetary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orion-nebula-destroys-an-oceans-worth-of-water-every-month/">nebulae</a> scattered throughout the Sculptor Galaxy.



Study co-author Fabian Scheuermann, a doctoral student at Heidelberg University, emphasized the significance of the discovery.&nbsp;



Scheuermann noted that when astronomers study galaxies outside of our own cosmic neighborhood, they normally detect fewer than 100 planetary nebulae in each one.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-galaxy-of-extremes">A galaxy of extremes</h2>



The Sculptor Galaxy, also known as NGC 253, is located about 11.4 million light-years away in the constellation Sculptor. It’s classified as a starburst galaxy, meaning it’s undergoing an exceptionally high rate of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fluffy-molecular-clouds-may-change-our-understanding-of-star-formation/">star formation</a>.&nbsp;



This vigorous star-making activity is especially intense in its central regions, where dense clouds of gas and dust feed the birth of new stars.&nbsp;



The galaxy is tilted at a steep angle from our perspective, which gives it a striking, elongated appearance when viewed through telescopes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-notable-features-of-the-sculptor-galaxy-nbsp">Notable features of the Sculptor Galaxy&nbsp;</h2>



Discovered in 1783 by Caroline Herschel, the Sculptor Galaxy has become a popular target for both professional astronomers and amateur skywatchers due to its brightness and relative proximity.&nbsp;



It’s part of the Sculptor Group, one of the nearest groups of galaxies to our Local Group. Despite being rich in star-forming regions, much of its inner structure is veiled by thick dust lanes.&nbsp;



However, infrared and X-ray observations have helped scientists peer through the obscuring material to study the galaxy’s core, revealing a wealth of activity including supernova remnants and a possible central <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-ultramassive-black-hole-ever-seen-cosmic-horseshoe-lrg-3-757/">black hole</a>.



The Sculptor Galaxy is also notable for its extended halo of stars and gas, which suggests past interactions or mergers with smaller galaxies.&nbsp;



This halo, along with its active central region, makes NGC 253 a valuable subject for understanding how galaxies evolve, form stars, and recycle gas over time. Its combination of beauty and scientific richness continues to make it a focus of galactic studies.



Image Credit: European Southern Observatory&nbsp;



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Thousands of colors in the Sculptor Galaxy

Today's Image of the Day from the European Southern Observatory...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features Messier 82, a starburst galaxy located in the constellation Ursa Major. This galaxy is actively forming new stars at a rate ten times that of the Milky Way.



In a study using the <a href="https://webb.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Webb Space Telescope</a> (JWST), an international team of astronomers has taken an unprecedented look at Messier 82 (M82), revealing intricate details about its frenzied star formation.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-power-of-nircam">The power of NIRCam</h2>



The study, led by Alberto Bolatto, utilized Webb’s Near-Infrared Camera (NIRCam) to penetrate the thick dust and gas covering the galaxy's core, a region critical to understanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-stars-release-sneezes-of-gas-and-dust-as-they-develop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a>.&nbsp;



"M82 has garnered a variety of observations over the years because it can be considered as the prototypical starburst galaxy," noted Bolatto. “With Webb’s size and resolution, we can look at this star-forming galaxy and see all of this beautiful new detail.”



Webb's NIRCam has proven crucial for observing areas like M82’s center, where layers of dust typically obscure the view in other wavelengths. The camera's ability to capture infrared light allows it to reveal the galaxy's core and its dynamic processes.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-messier-82-image">Messier 82 image </h2>



“This image shows the power of Webb. Every single white dot in this image is either a star or a star cluster. We can start to distinguish all of these tiny point sources, which enables us to acquire an accurate count of all the star clusters in this galaxy,” noted study co-author Rebecca Levy from the University of Arizona.



One of the NIRCam's innovative features is its mode that prevents bright sources from overwhelming the detector, which was particularly useful in studying the intensely active center of Messier 82.&nbsp;



In the image, dark brown tendrils of dust weave through the galaxy's glowing white core, interspersed with small green specks that represent concentrated areas of iron from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernova</a> remnants. Red patches highlight regions where molecular hydrogen is illuminated by the radiation from nearby young stars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-into-galactic-winds">Insights into galactic winds</h2>



The study also focused on understanding how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spin-of-a-new-black-hole-is-unlocking-galactic-mysteries/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galactic wind</a>, driven by the rapid rate of star formation and subsequent supernovae, influences M82’s environment. 



The NIRCam images showed clumpy streams of gas, appearing in red, which extend above and below the galaxy's plane, marking the path of this wind rushing out from the starburst's core.



A key revelation came from the NIRCam’s tracing of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), sooty chemical molecules that map out the structure of the galactic wind. 



To the surprise of researchers, the PAH emissions closely resembled the patterns of the hot, ionized gas, suggesting a more complex interaction within the wind than previously understood. 



"It was unexpected to see the PAH emission resemble ionised gas," said Bolatto. "PAHs are not supposed to live very long when exposed to such a strong radiation field, so perhaps they are being replenished all the time. It challenges our theories and shows us that further investigation is required."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-observations-of-messier-82">Future observations of Messier 82</h2>



The findings from Webb are just the beginning. The team plans to further analyze Messier 82 with additional data, including spectroscopic observations, to determine the ages of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxy-collisions-hubble-spots-a-string-of-pearls-star-cluster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star clusters</a> and the duration of each star formation phase within the starburst environment.&nbsp;



These observations will also assist in a broader understanding of similar processes in early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ceers-2112-ancient-galaxy-looks-strikingly-similar-to-ours/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a>, which were common in the young universe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study">Broader implications of the study</h2>



Study co-author Torsten Böker of the <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Space Agency</a> emphasized the broader implications of these findings.&nbsp;



“With these amazing Webb images, and our upcoming spectra, we can study how exactly the strong winds and shock fronts from young stars and supernovae can remove the very gas and dust from which new stars are forming,” explained Böker.&nbsp;



“A detailed understanding of this ‘feedback’ cycle is important for theories of how the early universe evolved, because compact starbursts such as the one in M82 were very common at high redshift.”



Image Credit: ESA/Webb, NASA &amp; CSA



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Messier 82: Unlocking the mysteries of star formation

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features a blanket of dust over the Tarim Basin - a vast, arid region in northwestern China. 



Mountain peaks are visible through a break in the dust. These peaks are part of Tekilik Shan, a subrange of the Kunlun Mountains.



Though not as widely known as some other mountain ranges in the area, Tekilik Shan plays a significant role in shaping local <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-weather-is-pushing-nature-toward-a-breaking-point/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weather</a> patterns and geography.



Its snow-covered peaks can rise above 13,000 feet, contributing to the dramatic elevation differences that define the basin’s borders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dust-storms-in-the-tarim-basin-nbsp">Dust storms in the Tarim Basin&nbsp;</h2>



Spring marks the height of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sahara-desert-dust-storms-carry-harmful-bacteria-and-fungi-around-the-globe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dust storm</a> activity in the Tarim Basin, particularly in its southern region.&nbsp;



“It’s a time of year when regional wind patterns shift in ways that cause winds and storm systems to sweep in from the northwest,” noted <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/154126/a-curtain-of-dust-over-the-tarim-basin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



“In early spring, when landscapes in this region are especially dry and have minimal vegetation, land surfaces warm rapidly under the Sun’s heat every morning, fueling convection that can help loft dust upward by the afternoon.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fingerlike-dust-formations-nbsp">Fingerlike dust formations&nbsp;</h2>



Satellite images revealed dust formations with fingerlike shapes that mirrored the landscape below. These projections aligned with valleys, which channeled and directed the airborne dust.&nbsp;



Ralph Kahn is an atmospheric scientist at the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics at the University of Colorado Boulder and scientist emeritus at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center.



According to Kahn, the dust may have been “self-lofting.” In this process, sunlight heats recently stirred-up surface dust, creating pockets of convection that lift it even higher into the air.



This interpretation is supported by hourly observations from Japan’s Himawari-9 geostationary satellite, which showed dust gradually rising into the Tekilik Shan throughout the day. By late afternoon, the storm had grown dense enough to obscure the mountains.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decline-in-atmospheric-dust">Decline in atmospheric dust</h2>



Long-term satellite data from MODIS suggest that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dust-storms-in-the-gulf-of-alaska-help-shape-the-global-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmospheric dust</a> levels in this region have declined by about 1.5 percent each year since the early 2000s.&nbsp;



NASA researcher Hongbin Yu attributes this trend mainly to springtime changes - such as altered wind speeds, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-soil-moisture-can-predict-severe-storms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil moisture</a>, or vegetation cover - rather than shifts in other seasons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rainfall-in-the-tarim-basin-nbsp">Rainfall in the Tarim Basin&nbsp;</h2>



“The <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Takla-Makan-Desert" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Takla Makan Desert</a> is one of the driest, most barren expanses on Earth. Flanked by mountain ranges on three sides and parched by the resulting <a href="https://glossary.ametsoc.org/wiki/Rain_shadow" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rain shadow</a>, parts of the Tarim Basin receive no more than 10 millimeters (0.4 inches) of rain per year,” noted NASA.



“Dust storms can lead to public health problems in populated areas downwind by transporting small particles, bacteria, and viruses that infiltrate human respiratory systems.”&nbsp;



NASA added that dust storms can also affect Earth’s climate by scattering and absorbing incoming solar radiation and changing the properties of clouds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-landscape-of-the-tarim-basin-nbsp">Landscape of the Tarim Basin&nbsp;</h2>



The Tarim Basin is one of the largest endorheic basins in the world, meaning that its rivers do not drain into the sea but instead flow into interior lakes or evaporate.&nbsp;



The basin is encircled by three mountain ranges: the Tien Shan to the north, the Kunlun Mountains to the south, and the Pamirs to the west. These ranges create a powerful rain shadow effect, making the region exceptionally dry.



At the heart of the Tarim Basin lies the Taklamakan Desert, one of the most extreme deserts on Earth. The desert is known for its high dunes, intense temperature swings, and minimal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-rainfall-will-wreak-havoc-on-mountain-ranges-as-warming-climate-turns-snow-to-rain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainfall</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-history-and-geology">History and geology</h2>



Despite its harsh environment, the basin has been historically significant. It was a key section of the ancient Silk Road, with several oases such as Kashgar, Khotan, and Loulan serving as vital trading and cultural centers for centuries.



Geologically, the basin is rich in natural resources, particularly oil and natural gas, and has become a focal point for China's energy exploration and development.&nbsp;



The region’s challenging climate and remote location, however, make infrastructure development and human habitation difficult.&nbsp;



The image was captured on March 27, 2025 by the Operational Land Imager instrument on Landsat 8.



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Blanket of dust covers China’s Tarim Basin

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features Messier 78 (M78), a reflection nebula located in the constellation Orion about 1,350 light-years away from Earth.&nbsp;



This image was released as part of the initial series of observations from ESA's <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Euclid" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Euclid space mission</a>.&nbsp;



All data collected during these early observations, including a series of incredible <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Euclid/Euclid_s_first_images_the_dazzling_edge_of_darkness" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new views</a> of the nearby universe, is available to the public.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-image-of-messier-78">Image of Messier 78</h2>



Messier 78 is a dynamic region of star formation that is obscured by cosmic dust in this high-resolution image captured by the Euclid space telescope.



This specific view highlights how young stars generate winds of charged particles, carving out “cavities” in the molecular clouds around them.&nbsp;



The blue hues in the image represent ionized atomic hydrogen, which is a primary component of the cloud, while the red indicates the absorption and scattering of light by dust particles.



The image captures hundreds of stars varying in brightness, illuminating their nebulous, purple surroundings. A dark, arch-like structure stretches from the upper left to the bottom right of the frame, merging into the densest, darkest clouds at the image’s base.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-active-site-of-star-formation-nbsp">Active site of star formation&nbsp;</h2>



Messier 78 is not just a single nebula but part of a larger complex of stars and nebulous regions in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orion-nebula-destroys-an-oceans-worth-of-water-every-month/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Orion</a>, which includes various other objects like dark nebulae that are visible as patches blocking light from behind.



This region is an active site of star formation, featuring many young stars and protostars, which are stars in the early stages of formation.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-viewing-messier-78">Viewing Messier 78</h2>



M78 is easily observable with small telescopes, and it appears as a hazy patch of light with two prominent stars near its center, which illuminate the surrounding dust.&nbsp;



The nebula is also a favorite among amateur astronomers for its beauty and relatively bright appearance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-subject-of-scientific-interest-nbsp">Subject of scientific interest&nbsp;</h2>



Messier 78 is fascinating not only for its visual beauty but also for its scientific interest, particularly in the study of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-stars-release-sneezes-of-gas-and-dust-as-they-develop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> and interstellar matter.&nbsp;



The nebula consists of dense, cold gas and dust, which are essential ingredients for the birth of new stars.&nbsp;



The intense blue light that characterizes M78 is due to the reflection of starlight off these dust particles - a process known as scattering.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-region-surrounding-messier-78-nbsp">Region surrounding Messier 78&nbsp;</h2>



The region surrounding M78 includes several other interesting features. For instance, there are Herbig-Haro objects within it, which are small patches of nebulosity associated with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-molecule-detected-in-space-where-stars-are-born/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">newly born stars</a>.&nbsp;



These objects are formed when gas ejected by young stars collides with clouds of gas and dust at high speeds, creating shock waves that glow brightly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earliest-stages-of-star-development-nbsp">Earliest stages of star development&nbsp;</h2>



Additionally, infrared observations of M78 have revealed much about the dust and colder objects in the area, which are not visible in optical light.&nbsp;



The observations have helped astronomers identify numerous young stars and brown dwarfs (objects that are too large to be planets and too small to be stars) within the nebula.&nbsp;



This makes M78 a critical area for studying the earliest stages of star development and the properties of the interstellar medium.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-euclid-space-mission-nbsp">Euclid space mission&nbsp;</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-batch-of-brilliant-images-from-the-euclid-mission-live-up-to-the-hype/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Euclid space mission</a> is designed to study the dark universe, particularly focusing on dark energy and dark matter. These components are believed to drive the accelerating expansion of the universe and shape its large-scale structure. 



The mission aims to map the geometry of the dark universe and better understand the physics of the cosmos.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observing-billions-of-galaxies-nbsp">Observing billions of galaxies&nbsp;</h3>



Euclid uses two primary scientific instruments: a visible light camera (VIS) and a near-infrared spectrometer and photometer (NISP).&nbsp;



These instruments will allow Euclid to measure the shapes and redshifts of galaxies at distances of up to 10 billion light-years. By surveying more than a third of the sky, the mission is expected to observe several billion galaxies.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-the-dark-universe-nbsp">Studying the dark universe&nbsp;</h3>



The data collected will help astronomers in studying the effects of dark matter and dark energy in depth, testing cosmological models, and exploring new theories about the nature of the universe.&nbsp;



The mission, named after the ancient Greek mathematician Euclid, seeks to address key questions related to the structure of the universe and the fundamental laws of physics governing its evolution and expansion.



Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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Young stars shine through dense dust

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the star-forming region NGC 604. The nebula is located 2.73 million light-years away from Earth in the Triangulum Galaxy (M33). 



By studying regions like NGC 604, astronomers can gain insights into the complex interactions between stars and the interstellar medium, as well as the conditions that lead to the birth of stars. This, in turn, helps in understanding the evolution of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-like-our-own-milky-way-are-not-unique/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> and the universe as a whole.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-massive-stars-of-ngc-604">Massive stars of NGC 604</h2>



"Sheltered among NGC 604’s dusty envelopes of gas are more than 200 of the hottest, most massive kinds of stars, all in the early stages of their lives," said <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"These types of stars are known as B-types and O-types, the latter of which can be more than 100 times the mass of our own Sun. It’s quite rare to find this concentration of them in the nearby universe. In fact, there’s no similar region within our own Milky Way galaxy."



According to ESA, this concentration of massive stars, combined with its relatively close distance, means that NGC 604 gives astronomers an opportunity to study these objects at a fascinating time early in their life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gigantic-region-of-ionized-hydrogen">Gigantic region of ionized hydrogen</h2>



NGC 604 is one of the largest known regions of ionized hydrogen, also known as an H II region. This nebula is significantly larger than the Orion Nebula, which is one of the most well-known H II regions in our own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-amount-of-dark-matter-may-be-missing-from-the-milky-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way galaxy</a>.&nbsp;



NGC 604 spans about 1,500 light-years across, making it one of the largest H II regions in the Local Group of galaxies. This group includes the Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy, and about 54 other smaller galaxies.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ngc-604-starburst-phenomenon">NGC 604 starburst phenomenon </h2>



Within NGC 604, there are hundreds of young, hot, massive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stars-at-the-edge-of-our-milky-way-galaxy-travel-more-slowly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a>. These stars have ionized the surrounding gas, causing it to glow and creating the nebula. The region is a prime example of a starburst phenomenon, where stars form at a much higher rate than in typical galactic conditions.



“The bright orange streaks in this image signify the presence of carbon-based molecules known as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, or PAHs," explained ESA.



"As you travel further from the immediate cavities of dust where the star is forming, the deeper red signifies molecular hydrogen. This cooler gas is a prime environment for star formation. Ionized hydrogen from ultraviolet radiation appears as a white and blue ghostly glow."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-star-formation">More about star formation </h2>



Star formation is crucial for the evolution of galaxies and the synthesis of heavy elements. In the cores of stars, elements heavier than helium are created.



The elements are spread throughout the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-stars-shakti-shiva-shaped-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> when stars reach the end of their lives and expel their material - either gently through winds or violently via supernova explosions. 



This enriching process allows for the formation of new stars and planets, and ultimately, the potential for life.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Cloud collapse</h3>



The process begins when part of a molecular cloud becomes unstable and starts to collapse under its own gravity. This can be triggered by events like shock waves from nearby <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernovae</a>, galactic collisions, or the influence of other massive stars.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Formation of a protostar</h3>



As the cloud collapses, it fragments into smaller clumps. Each clump will eventually form one or more stars. 



The material within these clumps continues to fall inward, heating up as it does so, eventually forming a warm core called a protostar. At this stage, the protostar is not yet hot enough for nuclear fusion (the process that powers stars) to occur.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Accretion disk</h3>



Around the protostar, material from the surrounding cloud continues to fall inward, forming a rotating disk. This material slowly accretes onto the protostar, increasing its mass.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Nuclear fusion begins</h3>



Once the core of the protostar reaches a high enough temperature and pressure, hydrogen atoms begin to fuse into helium, releasing energy in the process. This marks the transition from a protostar to a main sequence star, like our sun.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Main sequence and beyond</h3>



The star will spend the majority of its life in the main sequence stage, where it balances the gravitational forces trying to collapse it and the outward pressure from nuclear fusion. 



Eventually, the star will exhaust its hydrogen fuel. Its subsequent evolution will depend on its initial mass, leading to various end stages such as red giants, supernovae, neutron stars, or black holes.



Image Credit: NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope



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Young, massive stars in the Triangulum Galaxy

Tropical Cyclone Hikaa reaches the Arabian Peninsula Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features Tropical Cyclone Hikaa, which brought damaging winds and rain into the Arabian Peninsula.

When the storm made landfall over Oman on September 24, it had maximum wind speeds of up to 80 miles per hour. Tropical Cyclone Hikaa reaches the Arabian Peninsula

It is not very common for cyclones to reach the Arabian Sea in the North Indian Ocean. However, in 2018, three significant cyclones pushed all the way up to the Arabian <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula">Peninsula</a>. 

The image was captured by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA’s <a href="http://www.earth.com/image/sunglint-on-the-mediterranean-sea/">Terra</a> satellite as the outer bands of Hikaa moved over Oman.

Arabian Peninsula is the largest peninsula in the world, at 3,237,500 km2 (1,250,000 sq mi). The Peninsula consists of six countries: Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. The peninsula formed as a result of the rifting of the Red Sea between 56 and 23 million years ago, and is bordered by the Red Sea to the west and southwest, the Persian Gulf to the northeast, the Levant to the north and the Indian Ocean to the southeast. The peninsula plays a critical geopolitical role in the Arab world due to its vast reserves of oil and natural gas.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory 

&nbsp;

Tropical Cyclone Hikaa reaches the Arabian Peninsula

3d,Rendering,X,And,Y,Chromosome,With,Telomeres

Flip open a high-school biology textbook, and the rule seems tidy: two X chromosomes mean girl, and an X paired with a Y means boy. That much smaller Y chromosome carries the SRY gene, which is the switch for testis development. 



For the last 300 million years or so, this system has been working very well. Now, however, chatter in genetics circles hints that something is amiss. 



Over time, the Y chromosome has been losing pieces of itself, and computer models suggest the last scraps could vanish in roughly 11 million years. 



Y chromosome loss (<a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6996334/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LOY</a>) no trivial matter, because what it holds - or drops - can sway everything from cancer risk to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mouse-with-two-dads-survives-to-adulthood-major-implications-for-same-sex-human-couples/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">how future humans reproduce</a>.



Would that erase men from the planet, or would life simply shrug and invent a new plan? Rodents on remote islands and subtle changes inside aging human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blood-stem-cells-grown-in-the-lab-for-first-time-ever-leukemia-treatment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bone marrow</a> are now providing clues. 



One story shows how a mammal kept producing males after its LOY disappeared entirely. The other warns how men already pay a price when some of their cells drift away from the chromosome during middle age.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-y-chromosome-fade-away">Y chromosome fade away</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mothers-pass-down-x-chromosomes-that-accelerate-brain-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The X chromosome</a> carries about 900 genes that do everything from wiring nerves to repairing DNA. Its partner, the Y, keeps only about 55. 



Comparative work across mammals shows that, once our lineage split from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-animals-balance-their-sex-chromosomes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">platypus</a> some 166 million years ago, the Y began dropping about five genes every million years. Run that line forward, and the ledger hits zero in 11 million years - a geological heartbeat.



Most biologists once chalked that outcome up to hype. After all, many species never shed their sex chromosomes. 



But the idea gained traction when researchers found the Japanese spiny rat and a few mole vole species thriving today without any Y chromosome at all. Somehow, they had rewired the traditional circuit for making testes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rodents-changed-the-rules">Rodents changed the rules</h2>



In 2022, scientists found a duplicated piece of DNA near a gene called <a href="https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/gene/sox9/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SOX9</a> in the spiny rat. Usually, another gene (SRY) turns SOX9 on to make male traits develop. 



But in this rat, the new DNA copy does that job on its own - even without a Y chromosome - so a genetically female animal (XX) can still develop as male.



Drop the fragment into lab mice and testes still form. Evolution, it seems, can lay a new cable when the old one burns out.



That discovery hints that, should the human Y fizzle out one distant day, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lifes-rules-natural-selection-change-significantly-often-daphnia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural selection</a> could promote an alternative trigger. 



Different populations might even settle on different triggers, eventually splitting into separate species that cannot interbreed. The idea sounds like science fiction, but the rodent reality shows it is genetically feasible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-y-chromosomes-and-men-s-health">Y chromosomes and men's health</h2>



Long before any species-wide overhaul, countless men are already losing the Y chromosome cell by cell. Starting in their fifties, bone-marrow <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/living-mouse-created-with-stem-cells-that-predate-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stem cells</a> sometimes mis-segregate it during division. 



The resulting white-blood-cell lineages, missing their Y, multiply quietly. By 80 years old, more than 40 percent of men carry sizable pockets of this “mosaic loss of Y” in their blood.



Tracking 1,153 Swedish men in their seventies and eighties, researchers found that those with the loss died 5.5 years earlier, suffered more solid tumors and heart disease, and faced a seven-fold rise in Alzheimer’s. 



Kenneth Walsh of the <a href="https://www.virginia.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Virginia</a> then bred mouse blood stem cells without the Y chromosome and transplanted them. The recipients developed fibrosis, failing hearts, and early death, showing the loss is the culprit, not a bystander.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enhanced-cancer-risk">Enhanced cancer risk</h2>



<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09071-2#Sec8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">In another study</a> released in June 2025, researchers mapped LOY across thousands of individual cells from human cancers and matched mouse models. 



They found that Y-negative cells were not limited to the tumors themselves; they also dominated the surrounding immune landscape. 



CD4⁺ helper T cells shifted toward a regulatory identity that dampens attack signals, while CD8⁺ killer T cells lost much of their punch.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/y-chromosome-disappearance-study-finds-direct-link-to-much-greater-cancer-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The degree of LOY in the bloodstream</a> mirrored what the team saw inside the tumor. Patients whose blood showed a high percentage of Y-negative white cells tended to harbor tumors rich in LOY and faced poorer outcomes. 



Those correlations held across lung, bladder, and head-and-neck cancers, hinting at a common mechanism rather than a disease-specific quirk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-direct-link-to-the-immune-system">Direct link to the immune system</h2>



A gene on the Y chromosome called <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/7404" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UTY</a> helps control the immune system. Without it, some immune cells stop working properly - one kind makes more scar tissue, and another becomes weaker, which helps cancer grow and spread. 



In mice, tumors grow twice as fast without the Y. In men, bladder cancers missing the Y chromosome are more dangerous - except they respond better to a certain kind of cancer treatment called checkpoint inhibitors.



The picture is complicated: a chromosome that underpins male development also tames inflammation and restrains tumors, yet its selective absence can make some drugs shine. 



Medicine and evolution rarely share the same bottom line. Natural selection prizes reproductive success over a lifetime, while clinicians care about the here and now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-offsetting-y-chromosome-loss">Offsetting Y chromosome loss</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/does-vaping-help-people-quit-smoking-cigarettes-new-study-breaks-it-down/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cigarette smoke</a>, air pollution, and certain industrial chemicals add extra DNA damage and accelerate the Y chromosome loss. Kicking tobacco, breathing cleaner air, and limiting exposure to mutagens therefore rank as simple defenses - all it takes is willpower.



General habits that slow genomic wear - regular exercise, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mediterranean-diet-may-be-a-fountain-of-youth-for-women/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mediterranean-style</a> meals, and solid sleep - may also keep the Y chromosome in more cells for longer.



Antifibrotic drugs cleared for lung disease are being tested to blunt heart damage from the loss. Oncologists already use chromosome status in bladder tumors to steer checkpoint therapy. 



As single-cell sequencing gets cheaper, your physical exam might soon include a “Y-loss score” beside cholesterol.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-do-we-go-from-here">Where do we go from here?</h2>



The Japanese spiny rat proves that mammals can reinvent the rulebook after the ‘puny little chromosome’ disappears. That prospect keeps evolutionary biologists buzzing. 



Yet the rodent’s triumph offers little comfort to a 60-year-old man whose marrow has already shed Y in a third of his white-blood-cell army. 



Species-level salvation and individual-level hazard can coexist. That dichotomy - long-term adaptability versus immediate personal cost - will likely guide both medical practice and evolutionary debate in the years ahead.



The Y chromosome is quirky but crucial. It shapes male development, steadies immunity, and may also be plotting its own disappearance. 



However, the good news is that the practical advice is simple: dodge mutagens, stub out cigarettes, consider a mid-life test for loss, and keep an eye on new research as this chromosome writes its final chapters.



Let's go, men, you got this!



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(23)00646-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell</a>.



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The Y chromosome is disappearing, a fact that is already causing problems for men

Flip open a high-school biology textbook, and the rule seems...

NASA’s Perseverance rover has rolled across a bright carpet of dust and bedrock for more than four years, but few sights have stopped the team in its tracks quite like a charcoal‑colored boulder perched on Witch Hazel Hill. 



<a href="https://assets.science.nasa.gov/dynamicimage/assets/science/missions/mars2020/2025/perseverance-rover-updates/Mars_Perseverance_ZR0_1472_0797612737_331EBY_N0711018ZCAM04115_1100LMJ.png" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The oddity</a>, dubbed “Skull Hill,” sits alone against tan sandstone, pocked with shallow pits and angled facets.



The rover first photographed the stone on April 11 while crossing a contact where light and dark units meet along the rim of Jezero Crater. 



<a href="https://science.jpl.nasa.gov/people/stackmorgan/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Katie Morgan</a> of NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (<a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JPL</a>) says that every fresh turn in the rim campaign has produced surprises, and Skull Hill is “all we had hoped for and more.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-skull-hill-interrupts-the-crater-rim">Skull Hill interrupts the crater rim</h2>



Skull Hill is no pebble; <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/mars-2020-perseverance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Perseverance</a> rover's Mastcam‑Z images show a block roughly 1 ft tall and 1.6 ft wide that casts a sharp shadow at noon. 



Its basalt‑black skin contrasts so strongly with the surrounding deposits that researchers immediately tagged it as a foreigner to the site.



<a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasas-perseverance-rover-reaches-top-of-jezero-crater-rim/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Jezero rim</a> preserves a cross‑section of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-water-reservoir-discovered-medusae-fossae-formation-two-miles-deep/">Mars’s crust</a>, making it an ideal place to inventory rock types carried in by <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abl4051" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rivers</a>, glaciers, or impacts. Each stray clast offers clues to terrains now eroded or buried elsewhere on the planet.



“We’ve found a few of these dark‑toned floats in the Port Anson region,” the mission blog reports. 



Mission scientists call such wanderers “floats” because they lie loose on the surface, having been transported far from their birthplace by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-has-a-water-reservoir-two-miles-deep-enough-to-fill-earths-red-sea/">water</a>, wind, or blast waves. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-rocks-like-skull-hill-float">How rocks like Skull Hill "float"</h2>



Three billion years ago <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/perseverance-rover-samples-bunsen-peak-rock-jezero-crater-martian-lake/">Jezero held a lake</a> nearly 28 miles across, fed by rivers that spilled over its rim and left a fan‑shaped delta now famous in orbital photos. 



Floods likely moved cobbles from the crater’s southern highlands into the basin before water vanished.



Later impacts churned up deeper layers and hurled projectiles across the landscape, peppering the delta with foreign stones. 



Models show that a 0.6‑mi‑wide crater can scatter ejecta more than 12 mi downrange, easily reaching Witch Hazel Hill.



After the water was gone, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128182345700290" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aeolian abrasion</a> took over. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0169555X08004340" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ventifacts</a> identified elsewhere on Mars develop when sand‑laden winds grind rock faces, sculpting facets and shallow pits. Skull Hill’s dimples could record the same relentless sandblasting.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meteorite-or-volcanic-fragment">Meteorite or volcanic fragment?</h2>



At first glance the boulder’s metallic sheen suggested it might be an iron meteorite like “<a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/curiosity-mars-rover-checks-odd-looking-iron-meteorite/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Egg Rock</a>,” which <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/curiosity-mars-rover-checks-odd-looking-iron-meteorite/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Curiosity</a> zapped in <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/resource/a-guide-to-gale-crater/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gale Crater</a> in 2016. Meteorites are rich in nickel‑iron alloys and often survive entry as glossy, fist‑size lumps.



Perseverance tested the idea within hours using its turret‑mounted <a href="https://an.rsl.wustl.edu/help/Content/About%20the%20mission/M20/Instruments/M20%20SuperCam.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SuperCam laser</a>. Early spectra showed scant nickel, pushing investigators toward an igneous origin instead.



Dark‑toned units elsewhere in Jezero, such as the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-025-02329-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Máaz formation</a>, carry abundant <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/msa/elements/article/19/3/138/627700/Olivine-The-Little-Green-Science-Machine" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">olivine</a> and <a href="https://uwaterloo.ca/earth-sciences-museum/resources/detailed-rocks-and-minerals-articles/pyroxenes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pyroxene</a>, minerals that crystallize from cooling magma. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/Mars-Perseverance_rock_spherules_closeup_NASA_1s.webp" alt="This image from NASA’s Mars Perseverance rover shows part of the “St. Pauls Bay” target, acquired from the lower Witch Hazel Hill area of the Jezero crater rim. The image reveals hundreds of strange, spherical-shaped objects comprising the rock. Perseverance acquired this image on March 11, 2025, or sol 1442 — Martian day 1,442 of the Mars 2020 mission. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/LANL/CNES/IRAP" class="wp-image-1974527"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"> This image from NASA’s Mars Perseverance rover shows part of the “St. Pauls Bay” target, acquired from the lower Witch Hazel Hill area of the Jezero crater rim. The image reveals hundreds of strange, spherical-shaped objects comprising the rock. Perseverance acquired this image on March 11, 2025, or sol 1442 - Martian day 1,442 of the Mars 2020 mission. Click image to enlarge. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/LANL/CNES/IRAP</figcaption></figure>



If Skull Hill is a chipped piece of that volcanic crust, it may have been excavated by impacts or fractured during ancient quakes.



Still, the team has not ruled out a stony meteorite made of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/physics-and-astronomy/chondrite" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chondritic material</a>, which contains far less nickel than iron meteorites. 



Ongoing <a href="https://www.spectroscopyonline.com/view/new-study-reveals-how-nasa-s-perseverance-rover-uses-libs-for-precise-mars-rock-analysis" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LIBS measurements</a> will refine elemental ratios to better than 5 percent, a precision demonstrated in recent instrument tests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tools-that-read-martian-rocks-dna">Tools that read Martian rocks' DNA</h2>



SuperCam fires a five‑nanosecond pulse that heats surface grains to plasma, and detectors then parse the glow to identify elements. 



Combined with the rover’s LIBS capability, the system can analyze spots smaller than a pencil eraser from up to 23 ft away.



Chemistry is married to context by <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0584854721003049" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mastcam‑Z stereo imaging</a>, panoramic mosaics, and microscopic color close‑ups that reveal textures as fine as 0.05 in. That detail lets geologists match mineralogy to grain size and erosional features.



“Luckily for us, the rover has instruments that can measure the chemical composition of rocks on Mars,” the operations team wrote. 



Perseverance has so far probed 83 targets with its laser on Witch Hazel Hill alone, a record pace for the mission. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-skull-hill-rock-matter">Why does Skull Hill rock matter?</h2>



Floats like Skull Hill extend the rover’s reach beyond its wheels. A single exotic sample can point to rock layers tens of miles away, offering a geologic telegram from terrains the rover will never visit.



If the boulder proves volcanic, it could anchor the age of eruptions <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abo2196" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">suggested</a> by orbital mapping of the crater floor. In situ dating with returned samples might then calibrate crater‑count chronologies used across the Red Planet.



A meteorite identification would be equally valuable. Weathered fusion crust, corrosion rinds, and impact pits would reveal how metals rust under Martian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predicting-how-climate-change-will-alter-plant-growth-cycles/">climate cycles</a>, information vital for future human hardware.



The pits themselves chronicle present‑day <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1801.04222" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wind power</a>. Models of crater‑slope circulation predict gusts exceeding 40 mph at midday, fast enough to loft sand and abrade exposed rocks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mars-sample-return-in-doubt">Mars sample return in doubt</h2>



Skull Hill lies only yards from a planned cache site where the rover could seal core samples in titanium tubes for a future pickup. 



Yet the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-sets-path-to-return-mars-samples-seeks-innovative-designs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars Sample Return</a> program faces a shrinking budget and an $11 billion cost cap that Administrator <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/people/nasa-administrator-bill-nelson/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bill Nelson</a> called “too expensive” in 2023.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-gold-mission-unexpectedly-finds-x-shaped-structures-in-earths-upper-atmosphere/">NASA</a> has asked industry teams to redesign the mission for launch later this decade while trimming billions from the price tag. 



If the schedule holds, tubes dropped in Jezero could reach Earth in the mid‑2030s. Until then, Perseverance will keep trundling along the crater rim, zapping floats and drilling cores. 



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-025-02329-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



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NASA rover finds a rock on Mars named 'Skull Hill' that doesn't belong where it was found

NASA’s Perseverance rover has rolled across a bright carpet of...

Anthropomorphism, or seeing animals as human-like, has long helped shape conservation efforts. From cartoons to fundraising campaigns, giving animals human emotions and faces makes them more relatable. But this seemingly harmless trick has deeper consequences. 



A new study in the journal iScience&nbsp;explores how cultural, personal, and social factors shape our willingness to see animals like ourselves. This impacts which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-and-possibly-even-insects-have-emotions/">species</a> we choose to protect.



“Unfortunately, anthropomorphism significantly influences conservation efforts... Species that appear more human-like or exhibit human-like behaviors usually tend to receive more attention, funding, and public support,” said Federica Amici of <a href="https://www.uni-leipzig.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leipzig University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emotional-responses-to-animals">Emotional responses to animals</h2>



The research team surveyed 741 adults from Brazil, Indonesia, Malaysia, Mexico, and Spain. Each participant rated how much they agreed with statements about animals’ emotions, minds, intentions, and even their ability to distinguish good from evil. 



Respondents also reported their religious beliefs, education level, social networks, and personal experiences with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-emotions-can-be-decoded-through-voice-recognition/">animals</a>.



Participants with less education tended to assign more human-like free will to animals. In contrast, those with more structured scientific learning were more cautious. 



Interestingly, urban experiences like owning pets or seeing animals in media predicted more emotional connections. These people were more likely to believe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chick-emotions-shed-new-light-on-animal-welfare/">animals</a> had minds, emotions, and intent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lonely-humans-humanize-animals">Lonely humans humanize animals</h2>



Social isolation played a powerful role. People with weaker social ties were more likely to see animals as emotionally complex and similar to humans. 



This tendency was even more pronounced in allocentric individuals, who see themselves as part of a group rather than independent. 



These individuals often attributed more free will and emotions to animals, perhaps to meet their own need for companionship



“People who feel lonely or aren’t well connected to others often try to meet their need for social <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-emotions-evoke-different-responses-in-dogs-and-pigs/">connection</a> by seeing human-like qualities in animals or other non-human things,” noted Amici. 



This helps explain why pet owners or animal lovers may assign deeper personalities to their pets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-anthropomorphism">Understanding anthropomorphism</h2>



The attribution of human characteristics, emotions, or behaviors to non-human entities, including animals, objects, deities, or abstract concepts, is known as anthropomorphism. 



This tendency is deeply ingrained in human cognition and language, often used to make the unfamiliar more relatable or comprehensible. 



From ancient myths where gods possess <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/facial-expressions-arent-enough-to-understand-human-emotions/">human emotions</a> to modern cartoons where animals talk and act like people, anthropomorphism plays a key role in storytelling, religious belief, and even scientific interpretation. 



It serves as a cognitive shortcut, allowing individuals to empathize with and interpret the actions of non-human entities through a human lens.



In scientific and philosophical contexts, anthropomorphism can be both a useful heuristic and a source of bias. For instance, in animal behavior studies, attributing intentions or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lost-in-translation-how-we-misread-our-dogs-emotions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emotions to animals</a> can aid observational insight, but it also risks oversimplifying or misrepresenting their true nature. 



Similarly, in technology and artificial intelligence, people often perceive machines as having intentions or feelings, a phenomenon that shapes user experience and ethical concerns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-religion-shapes-human-view-of-animals">Religion shapes human view of animals</h2>



Religious belief had a noticeable effect. Participants from monotheistic traditions like Islam and Christianity were less likely to attribute free will, emotions, and pain to animals. 



In contrast, those from non-monotheistic faiths such as Hinduism and Buddhism were more open to the idea that animals could feel, think, and even deceive.



“Non-monotheistic religions appear to contribute more strongly to envisioning a space of coexistence between humans and other species,” said Amici. This supports the idea that religions emphasizing interconnection nurture deeper empathy toward non-human life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seeing-monkeys-as-moral-agents">Seeing monkeys as moral agents</h2>



The study included special focus on monkeys. People with greater exposure to monkeys were more likely to believe monkeys could deceive, plan, or act with intent but paradoxically, less likely to think monkeys felt pain.



Why the contradiction? The researchers suggest a possible reason. When animals are seen as threats, such as crop raiding monkeys, humans may still judge their behavior but downplay their suffering. 



This type of moral distancing may help humans justify their actions when conflicts arise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feeling-and-understanding-emotions">Feeling and understanding emotions</h2>



The survey measured traits like the ability to feel primary emotions such as anger or fear, secondary emotions like guilt or shame, and understand others’ intentions. 



Most people saw monkeys as capable of feeling basic emotions and having minds of their own.



However, beliefs about more complex traits like distinguishing good from evil were more variable. These attributions often reflected a blend of religion, social closeness, and urban experience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-assigning-human-traits-to-animals">Assigning human traits to animals</h2>



Assigning human traits to animals can help conservation efforts. It can boost empathy, raise funds, and build support. 



But it can also skew public concern toward cute or familiar species. That may leave less attractive yet ecologically vital creatures out of focus.



“I think anthropomorphizing species can be an effective approach, but it should be used with caution,” said Amici.



This study shows that conservationists must consider social context. Campaigns that resonate in one culture may fall flat in another. 



Customizing messaging based on local beliefs, education, and exposure to animals can make programs more effective.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-sympathy-to-strategy">From sympathy to strategy</h2>



This research uncovers how deeply our personal lives shape what we see in animals. By recognizing those patterns, conservation can become more inclusive and impactful. 



Instead of relying only on emotion or charisma, strategies can balance human connection with ecological urgency. When we see animals clearly, through both empathy and science, we might finally protect them wisely.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(25)00954-X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iScience</a>.



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Why we see some animals as more human than others

Anthropomorphism, or seeing animals as human-like, has long helped shape...

Most of us know our birthday, but our brains may not follow the same calendar. Scientists now compare a scan-based brain age with our actual age to find what’s called a “brain age gap.” A larger gap can hint at slower thinking and weaker memory.



The study included 1,437 Southeast Asian adults, all without dementia, with an average age of 66. Of this group, 60 percent showed no signs of cognitive impairment.



Each participant provided medical history through interviews, questionnaires, and medication reviews. They also underwent physical exams, lab tests, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-imaging-method-will-unravel-mysteries-of-neural-processes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain imaging</a>.



“As we get older, our brains change," said study co-author Dr. Saima Hilal of the <a href="https://nus.edu.sg/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National University of Singapore</a>. 



"With less brain volume and fewer blood vessels that support brain tissue, diseases can worsen these changes, profoundly affecting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-health-may-literally-be-a-state-of-mind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain health</a>.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-brain-age-is-calculated">How brain age is calculated</h2>



Using modern MRI scans, scientists fed data into a machine-learning model trained to estimate the biological age of a person’s brain. 



The experts then subtracted the individual’s real age from this predicted age to find the brain age gap. A positive number meant the brain appeared older than the person’s actual age. 



The research team also looked at each person’s brain scans for tiny signs of cerebrovascular disease - such as microbleeds or areas of dead tissue - caused by reduced blood supply.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-risk-factors-and-cognitive-performance">Risk factors and cognitive performance</h2>



To understand the likelihood of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/even-mild-covid-can-cause-prolonged-cognitive-impairment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive impairment</a>, the researchers assigned each participant a risk score.



This score factored in age, ethnicity, education level, past and current smoking, body mass index, depressive symptoms, high blood pressure, diabetes, high cholesterol, and any history of stroke. A higher score indicated a greater risk of impaired thinking and memory.



The participants then completed a series of cognitive tests. These measured various mental skills including executive function, attention, language, and memory. 



The experts also assessed <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10265306/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">visuoconstruction</a> (such as the ability to copy a drawing) and visuomotor speed, which involves processing visual information and responding with movement.



The researchers found that higher risk scores consistently aligned with lower scores on these tests -especially in tasks involving visuoconstruction and visuomotor speed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-links-brain-age-and-risk">AI links brain age and risk</h2>



Once the researchers had each participant’s brain age, they explored whether the brain age gap played a role in how health risks affected thinking and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/memory-clutter-speeds-up-aging-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory</a>. In many cases, it did.



Among participants with more signs of cerebrovascular disease, the brain age gap had a stronger influence. It appeared to magnify how much health risks affected areas like executive function and language. 



Researchers calculated how much of the connection between risk factors and cognition could be explained by the brain age gap. They found that it accounted for 20 percent of the overall link.



It explained 34 percent of the link to executive function and 27 percent of the link to language skills.



“The brain age gap may be a helpful biomarker in determining a person’s risk of cognitive decline,” said Hilal. 



“Our findings suggest that accelerated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-can-detect-if-your-brain-is-aging-too-quickly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain aging</a> may serve as an important factor linking cognitive impairment risk factors to thinking and memory skills in adults with cerebrovascular conditions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-brain-age-to-guide-treatment">Using brain age to guide treatment</h2>



This research could help doctors spot early warning signs of cognitive decline, especially in people with known health risks. 



A simple scan that shows the brain is aging faster than it should could encourage earlier treatment or lifestyle changes. It may also help identify individuals who are more vulnerable to rapid cognitive decline, even if they currently show no outward symptoms. 



Over time, brain age analysis could become a useful tool alongside traditional checkups, offering a more complete picture of neurological health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-few-limits-to-consider">A few limits to consider</h2>



It’s worth noting that the study focused only on Southeast Asian participants, so the results may not apply to all populations. 



Also, data on diet, exercise, and certain genes tied to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-benefits-alzheimers/">Alzheimer’s disease</a> were not available for all individuals, limiting some of the analysis.



Longer studies will be needed to see how brain age gaps change over time and whether they can help predict future memory decline.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.neurology.org/doi/10.1212/WNL.0000000000213815" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neurology</a>.



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Your brain’s age might be older than your body, creating a "brain age gap"

Most of us know our birthday, but our brains may...

Hydrogen,Power,Plant.,Gas,Storage,Equipment.,Spherical,Tanks,For,H2

Hydrogen carries about 120 megajoules of energy per kilogram, roughly triple the punch of gasoline. Yet producing it without carbon emissions still hinges on squeezing every last electron through water.



Global electrolyzer capacity doubled to 1.4 gigawatts in 2023, but the <a href="https://www.iea.org/energy-system/low-emission-fuels/electrolysers" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Energy Agency</a> says the world needs 560 gigawatts by 2030 to meet net‑zero goals. 



That gap keeps chemists awake at night. <a href="https://www.wpi-aimr.tohoku.ac.jp/en/research/researcher/liu_h.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Heng Liu</a> of <a href="https://www.wpi-aimr.tohoku.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tohoku University</a> just gave them a reason to sleep better. His team reports a cobalt–molybdenum catalyst that turns nearly every electron into hydrogen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-precatalysts-set-the-stage">Precatalysts set the stage</h2>



Many industrial catalysts begin life as a precatalyst that reshapes under voltage. That makeover, called reconstruction, can raise or wreck performance.



“It’s hard to design a catalyst that works well when that catalyst itself can change,” explained Liu, noting the challenge of hitting a moving target. His group decided to steer the change rather than fight it.



When an electrode drives <a href="https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/hydrogen-production-electrolysis" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electrolysis</a>, water molecules split into hydrogen and oxygen. The half‑reaction that releases hydrogen is the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/physics-and-astronomy/hydrogen-evolution-reaction" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hydrogen evolution reaction</a>.



During that reaction Liu’s cobalt‑rich <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsami.0c20271" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Co2Mo3O8</a> precursor sheds molybdenum into the liquid. The exposed cobalt atoms then bind hydroxide ions and reorganize into a nanoscale shell of Co(OH)₂.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cobalt-and-clean-hydrogen">Cobalt and clean hydrogen</h2>



Cobalt holds a sweet spot on the periodic table when it comes to catalytic activity. It has just the right balance of electron density to attract and release protons during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-star-forming-hydrogen-cloud-discovered-surprisingly-close-to-earth-eos/">hydrogen</a> production.



When combined with <a href="https://periodic-table.rsc.org/element/42/molybdenum" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">molybdenum</a>, the alloy forms a conductive and stable surface that resists corrosion in alkaline solutions. That durability is essential for keeping large-scale electrolysis running without constant maintenance.



Voltage control lets the shell wrap the crystal core evenly, creating a tidy <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780122341243500069" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heterostructure</a>. Laboratory tests show the interface speeds the step in which water donates its first proton.



Meanwhile the dissolved molybdate anions drift back and perch on the shell. At slightly more negative potentials they pair up as Mo₂O₇²⁻, loosening hydrogen’s grip and letting bubbles escape faster.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-molybdate-ions-and-clean-hydrogen">Molybdate ions and clean hydrogen</h2>



The presence of MoO₄²⁻ (molybdate anion) and Mo₂O₇²⁻ ions isn't just a side effect of the reconstruction process, it plays a direct role in performance. 



These ions alter the way <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clean-hydrogen-source-could-power-earth-for-170000-years/">hydrogen</a> sticks to and leaves the surface, which is key to keeping the reaction fast and efficient.



When Mo₂O₇²⁻ forms under slightly more negative voltage, it encourages weaker <a href="https://css.umich.edu/publications/factsheets/energy/hydrogen-factsheet" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hydrogen binding</a>. This makes it easier for hydrogen atoms to pair up and detach as gas, rather than staying stuck on the surface.



Faradaic efficiency measures what fraction of current produces the desired product. The new catalyst reaches 99.9 percent at –0.4 volts versus the reversible hydrogen electrode, with a hydrogen output of 1.85 moles per hour.



Those numbers hold for more than a month at about 100 milli‑amps per square centimeter, a current density relevant to alkaline industrial cells. 



Commercial <a href="https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/product/aldrich/205958?srsltid=AfmBOor7Ndg-C1bxkj2_PhvkoRgvM6UjC_VVeid6RB8KrshpsZmhdHau" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">platinum‑on‑carbon</a> electrodes in the same test lost three‑quarters of their activity within a day.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-lab-bench-to-factory-floor">From lab bench to factory floor</h2>



The study showed the material keeps working after sitting on the shelf for weeks. That stability lowers shipping and storage costs for large‑scale projects. 



Cobalt and molybdenum are already mined for batteries and steel, so supply chains exist. Even so, recycling plans will be needed to prevent price spikes if demand climbs sharply.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-57056-6/figures/4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/clean-hydrogen-production_efficiency-model_graphic_credit-Nature_1s.webp" alt="Theoretical calculation of clean hydrogen energy production at 99% efficiency. Credit: Nature" class="wp-image-1974516"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Theoretical calculation of clean hydrogen energy production at 99% efficiency. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Nature</figcaption></figure>



<a href="https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2025/05/22/3086846/0/en/Hydrogen-Electrolyzer-Market-Projected-to-Hit-USD-40-12-Billion-by-2032-Amid-Surging-Demand-for-Clean-Energy.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Analysts</a> expect the hydrogen‑electrolyzer market to jump from $1.75 billion in 2025 to $40 billion by 2032, a 56 percent annual growth rate. Near‑perfect catalysts like Liu’s could help those projections stick.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-difficulty-of-clean-hydrogen-scaling">Difficulty of clean hydrogen scaling</h2>



Scale‑up still faces hurdles such as heat management and electrode fouling. The Tohoku group plans pilot studies that pair their catalyst with intermittent wind power on Japan’s Pacific coast.



A separate challenge lies in sourcing alkaline electrolytes at the volumes gigawatt systems demand. Recycling potassium hydroxide and capturing stray molybdenum will be part of the engineering brief.



Researchers outside the project welcome the mechanistic insights. By tracking both the solid surface and the changing liquid, the team underscored that chemistry never happens in isolation.



Every efficiency gain cuts electricity bills, the biggest cost in green <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-hydrogen-reserves-discovered-beneath-earths-mountains/">hydrogen</a>. That is why a single decimal point (99.9 instead of 99.0) echoes far beyond the laboratory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-hydrogen-infrastructure">Changing hydrogen infrastructure</h2>



If scaled successfully, this catalyst could lower the cost of producing hydrogen by cutting energy waste and extending equipment life. 



That kind of savings makes on-site <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-largest-natural-hydrogen-deposit-discovery-is-worth-a-staggering-184-billion/">hydrogen</a> generation more practical for industries like shipping, steelmaking, and fertilizer.



It also opens the door for smaller, distributed electrolyzer units that could plug directly into local solar or wind farms. 



More localized production would mean less reliance on pipelines or cryogenic transport, simplifying the hydrogen supply chain.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-57056-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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New catalyst improves clean hydrogen production to 99.9% efficiency

Hydrogen carries about 120 megajoules of energy per kilogram, roughly triple...

Everyone’s tried a diet at some point - counting calories, skipping dessert, cutting carbs. But here’s the catch: most of it doesn’t last. That’s where intermittent fasting comes in. Instead of limiting what you eat, it focuses on when you eat.



Now, scientists have tested whether it really works. A huge review published in&nbsp;The BMJ&nbsp;looked at 99 trials. Over 6,500 adults took part. Most had health issues. Most were women. Their average body mass index was 31, which falls under <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-a-popular-weight-loss-drug-are-finally-revealed/">obesity</a>.



This wasn’t a small review. It compared different types of fasting with standard calorie-cutting diets and unrestricted eating. And the results? Pretty interesting.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-these-diets-work">How these diets work</h2>



Let’s break down the main strategies. Time-restricted eating (TRE) means eating during a set time window each day, like 8 hours on, 16 off.



Alternate-day fasting (ADF) is exactly what it sounds like: you fast one day, eat the next. Whole-day fasting (WDF) usually follows a 5:2 plan - five days of regular eating, two days of fasting.



These were compared with daily calorie restriction and completely unrestricted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weight-loss-drugs-unexpectedly-help-people-drink-less-alcohol/">diets</a> (called ad-libitum). 



Participants followed these plans for anywhere from three weeks to a year. Most trials lasted about three months. Some were high quality. Others, less so. But together, they gave us a clearer picture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alternate-day-fasting-works-best">Alternate-day fasting works best</h2>



Among all the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weight-loss-drugs-could-save-an-enormous-number-of-lives/">diets</a>, alternate-day fasting came out on top. People following ADF lost around 3.4 kg more than those who ate freely. Compared to daily calorie restriction, ADF showed an extra 1.29 kg drop in weight. That’s not a huge difference, but it’s something.



ADF also did better than the other fasting types. It beat TRE by 1.69 kg and WDF by 1.05 kg. But here’s the twist: none of these differences reached 2 kg. That’s the threshold researchers say matters for people that are above weight.



Still, ADF had some extra perks. It helped lower triglycerides and “bad” cholesterol more than the other diets. Blood sugar? No changes there. Same for “good” cholesterol. But weight and lipids did shift a bit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-result-fades-over-time">Result fades over time</h2>



For the first few months, all fasting plans helped people lose <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-based-foods-promote-weight-loss-regardless-of-processing/">weight</a>. But after six months, those differences faded. Only people eating without restrictions kept showing a clear gap.



Longer trials also showed another pattern: people dropped out. ADF had the highest dropout rate. In one year-long trial, only 22% stuck with it. The rest gave up.



Were there side effects? Yes. Mild ones. Hunger, constipation, maybe some dizziness. Nothing dangerous, but not exactly fun either.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-quality-matters">Food quality matters</h2>



Here’s what the team from Colombia pointed out. A diet isn’t just a plan. It’s also the support, the structure, the advice, and what you eat on non-fasting days.



“The current evidence provides some indication that intermittent fasting diets have similar benefits to continuous energy restriction for weight loss and cardiometabolic risk factors. Longer-duration trials are needed to further substantiate these findings,” noted the study authors.



“Intermittent fasting does not aim to replace other dietary strategies but to integrate and complement them within a comprehensive, patient centered nutritional care model.”



In other words, it’s not about picking sides. Intermittent fasting isn’t better or worse by itself. It can work - if it fits the person.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-reality-of-alternate-day-fasting">The reality of alternate-day fasting</h2>



Intermittent fasting works. So does <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spicy-foods-can-slow-down-eating-and-cut-calorie-intake/">calorie</a> restriction. ADF may give you a slight edge. But none of these are magic. And none of them guarantee long-term success without real change and support.



The numbers aren’t mind-blowing, but they tell us something. If you can stick with fasting, especially ADF, you may lose a little more weight and lower some risk markers. If you can’t, you’re not alone.



In the end, the most effective diet isn’t the trendiest or the one that shows the biggest weight drop in studies. It’s the one you can keep doing without burning out. 



If you can follow a plan for a week, then a month, then maybe a year - without feeling miserable or deprived - then that’s a good sign.



The meals you eat should feel normal, not like a punishment. Your routine should fit around your life, not take it over. When your eating habits make sense, and you don’t dread sticking to them, that’s when real, lasting change has a chance to happen.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.bmj.com/content/389/bmj-2024-082007" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The BMJ</a>.



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Alternate day fasting might be worth trying for weight loss

Everyone’s tried a diet at some point - counting calories,...

Men inherit their Y chromosome much the way families pass down a favorite pocketknife - practically unchanged from father to son. For decades, biologists treated this tiny stretch of DNA as little more than a switch for making testes. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/y-chromosome-is-disappearing-may-already-be-causing-problems-for-men/">Recent work flips that idea on its head</a>. The Y chromosome turns out to influence immune function, cancer risk, and even how long a man might live.



Scientists once assumed its limited gene set made it a genetic lightweight. The X chromosome carries more than a thousand genes, yet the Y chromosome contains only about fifty to seventy protein-coding genes. 



Size, however, doesn’t tell the whole story. By following the Y’s trail through aging blood cells, researchers are charting an unexpected route from missing DNA to stubborn tumors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-y-chromosome-matters">Why the Y chromosome matters</h2>



The Y chromosome sprang into the spotlight a century ago when geneticists linked it to male sex determination. 



Its <a href="https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/gene/sry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SRY gene</a> directs an embryo’s early tissues to form testes, setting off a hormonal cascade that produces typical male anatomy. 



Beyond that first task, the Y shoulders other jobs - guiding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-testicles-created-in-a-lab-will-eventually-produce-sperm/">sperm formation</a>, shaping certain brain circuits, and engaging with immune genes on the X chromosome.



Because the Y is passed down intact, it serves as a molecular time capsule. Anthropologists trace paternal lineages back tens of thousands of years by decoding tiny changes in its sequence. 



Clinicians, meanwhile, focus on what happens when the Y goes missing altogether in some cells - a phenomenon called loss of Y, or LOY.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-loss-of-y-loy">Loss of Y (LOY)</h2>



LOY rises steeply after middle age. Surveys of European and American blood banks show that fewer than 2 percent of men under forty carry Y-negative blood cells, but the figure balloons past 40 percent by the late seventies. 



Smokers hit those levels even sooner. Despite its frequency, LOY often flies under the radar because routine blood panels do not look for mosaic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dna-changes-supercharged-the-human-brain-but-at-a-cost/">chromosomal loss</a>.



The disappearing Y appears to chip away at healthy aging. Population studies link LOY to higher mortality from cardiovascular disease and Alzheimer’s-like dementia. 



One Swedish project calculated that men with heavy LOY lived, on average, 5.5 years less than peers whose cells kept their Y. 



The chromosome’s dwindling presence seems to impair immune surveillance, setting the stage for rogue cells to thrive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-link-between-cancer-and-y-chromosome-loss">Link between cancer and Y chromosome loss</h2>



In the new study co-authored by <a href="https://cancercenter.arizona.edu/person/dan-theodorescu-md-phd" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Dan Theodorescu</a>, director of the Cancer Center at the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a>, researchers mapped Y chromosome loss across thousands of individual cells from human cancers and matched mouse models.



They found that Y-negative cells were not limited to the tumors themselves; they also dominated the surrounding immune landscape. 



CD4⁺ helper <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-learns-how-cancer-cells-highjack-the-immune-system-t-cells/">T cells</a> shifted toward a regulatory identity that dampens attack signals, while CD8⁺ killer T cells lost much of their punch.



The degree of LOY in the bloodstream mirrored what the team saw inside the tumor. Patients whose blood showed a high percentage of Y-negative white cells tended to harbor tumors rich in LOY and faced poorer outcomes.



Those correlations held across lung, bladder, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-use-directly-linked-to-head-and-neck-cancer/">head-and-neck cancers</a>, hinting at a common mechanism rather than a disease-specific quirk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-watching-loy-in-the-cancer-ecosystem">Watching LOY in the cancer ecosystem</h2>



The work was led by <a href="https://www.uu.se/en/contact-and-organisation/staff?query=N9-750" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lars A. Forsberg</a> at Uppsala University’s Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, with collaborators at <a href="https://ki.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Karolinska Institute</a> and the <a href="https://www.broadinstitute.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Broad Institute</a> of MIT and Harvard. 



His group has spent the last decade cataloging how the vanishing Y shapes male health beyond reproduction. 



By combining single-cell RNA sequencing with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crispr-used-to-remove-extra-chromosomes-in-down-syndrome-and-restore-cell-function/">CRISPR-engineered</a> mouse tumors, the researchers could watch LOY spread through the cancer ecosystem in real time.



Forsberg’s earlier epidemiological studies set the stage, but the present findings move from pattern spotting to mechanistic insight. 



The team now proposes that Y-negative tumor cells may release vesicles carrying factors that nudge nearby immune cells toward the same chromosomal loss, blunting the body’s response on multiple fronts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cancer-care-and-the-lost-y-chromosome">Cancer care and the lost Y chromosome</h2>



Immune-based therapies such as CAR-T cells rely on harvesting a patient’s own T cells, engineering them to recognize cancer, and then infusing them back. 



If those starting cancer cells already lack the Y chromosome, their fighting spirit may be compromised before treatment even begins. 



Routine LOY screening could help oncologists decide whether to enrich for Y-positive cells or explore alternative strategies.



The study also raises the possibility of a simple blood test that flags men at higher risk years before a tumor forms. 



By tracking LOY alongside traditional markers like PSA or C-reactive protein, clinicians might refine screening schedules and lifestyle advice, especially for heavy smokers or men with family histories of cancer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-open-questions-that-need-answers">Open questions that need answers</h2>



Although the association between LOY and worse survival is strong, causality still needs proof. Lab groups are now using gene-editing tools to delete the Y in naïve T cells and watch how tumor control changes in animal models. 



Others are probing whether antioxidants, exercise, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/does-vaping-help-people-quit-smoking-cigarettes-new-study-breaks-it-down/">smoking cessation</a> can slow the march of LOY in circulating blood cells.



Another unknown is why certain chromosomes - particularly the Y - drop out more readily than others. 



One theory points to its structure: lacking a second copy for recombination, the Y may struggle to repair damage from oxidative stress or environmental toxins. 



Pinning down the exact triggers could open doors to interventions that keep the chromosome intact longer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-y-chromosomes-cancer-and-the-future">Y chromosomes, cancer, and the future</h2>



The Y chromosome may be small, but its absence echoes throughout a man’s biology. Loss of Y tampers with immune cells, helps tumors dodge attack, and shortens healthy years. 



As laboratories refine single-cell tools and clinicians adopt more personalized cancer therapies, checking whether the Y is present or missing could become as routine as measuring blood pressure. 



From sex determination in the womb to survival in old age, this pint-sized chromosome punches well above its weight, reminding us that in genetics, size isn’t everything.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09071-2#Sec8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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New study on Y chromosome disappearance finds direct link to much greater cancer risk

Men inherit their Y chromosome much the way families pass...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Proglacial lake borders the Humboldt Glacier Today&#8217;s Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features a proglacial lake that has formed on the edge of the Humboldt Glacier in northwest Greenland.
The water is also bordered by Washington Land, a deglaciated peninsula that appears reddish-brown.
NASA scientist John Sonntag captured this photograph on September 4, 2019 during an airborne campaign for NASA’s Operation IceBridge. Proglacial lake borders the Humboldt Glacier
“We get to observe the ice surface along the margin without last winter’s snowfall on top, as is usually the case during our spring campaigns,” wrote IceBridge project scientist Joe MacGregor. “That’s both scientifically valuable and &#8211; admittedly &#8211; often more visually compelling.&#8221;
The Humboldt Glacier borders the Kane Basin in North West Greenland. Its front is 110 km (68 mi) wide. It has been retreating in the period of observation spanning 1975–2010. 
Humboldt Glacier fringes the coast of Peabody Bay from north to south. The McGary Islands lie off the glacier at the southern end of the bay.
Humboldt Glacier (Danish: Humboldt Gletscher) is one of the major glaciers in northern Greenland. 
The glacier is named after German naturalist Alexander von Humboldt and is the widest tidewater glacier in the Northern Hemisphere.
&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer
Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory 
&nbsp;

Proglacial lake borders the Humboldt Glacier

The population of Quito has exploded in size Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> shows Quito, the capital of Ecuador, which is located in the foothills of the active volcano Pichincha.

Quito is a modern city that was once a crossroads for trade routes through the Andes, the capital of the Incan empire, and a 16th century Spanish colony.

The city now has about two million residents, and exploded in size annually by 3.8 percent from 2000 to 2013.

In 2008, the city was designated as the headquarters of the Union of South American Nations.
The historic centre of Quito is one of the largest, least-altered and best-preserved in the Americas.[ Quito and Kraków, Poland, were the first World Cultural Heritage Sites declared by UNESCO, in 1978. The central square of Quito is located about 25 kilometres (16 mi) south of the equator; the city itself extends to within about 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) of zero latitude. A monument and museum marking the general location of the equator is known locally as la mitad del mundo (the middle of the world), to avoid confusion, as the word Ecuador is Spanish for equator

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory 

&nbsp;

Proglacial lake borders the Humboldt Glacier

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