In the wild mountain ranges of Morocco and northeast Algeria, there’s a small, shimmering butterfly that most people have never heard of. It flutters through cedar forests and scrubby hillsides, unnoticed by nearly everyone. But deep inside its cells, this insect is doing something no other animal has ever been seen to do.



This butterfly, called the Atlas blue, just set a world record. And scientists are paying attention - not just because it’s rare, but because its strange biology could help us understand one of the most complex problems in science: how species evolve, and even how cancer works.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-butterfly-with-chopped-up-chromosomes">Butterfly with chopped up chromosomes </h2>



Inside every living thing, from a mushroom to a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-whale-species-is-already-threatened-with-extinction/">whale</a>, there’s DNA - the instruction manual of life. That DNA is packaged into structures called chromosomes. Humans have 23 pairs, and most butterflies have 23 or 24 pairs.



The Atlas blue butterfly carries 229 pairs of chromosomes - more than any other multicellular animal. Scientists had long suspected it held the record, and new genome sequencing has now confirmed it.



And here’s what’s even more surprising: the butterfly's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dna-analysis-can-predict-which-animals-are-at-risk-of-extinction/">DNA</a> hasn’t been duplicated. Instead, the chromosomes have been chopped up into smaller pieces - like taking 24 books and ripping them into 229 booklets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-peek-into-evolution-s-toolbox">A peek into evolution’s toolbox</h2>



The researchers behind the new study came from the <a href="https://www.sanger.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wellcome Sanger Institute</a> in the UK and the Institute of Evolutionary Biology in Barcelona. They produced the first-ever high-quality genome for the Atlas blue and discovered that its extra chromosomes were not caused by copying, but by splitting.



This process happened fast in evolutionary terms. In about three million years, the butterfly went from 24 to 229 chromosomes. That’s like a blink of an eye for species development.



The cuts happened in parts of the DNA that were loosely packed. That means the total genetic information didn’t really change, it was just reorganized. All of the chromosomes, except for sex chromosomes, were broken up.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-rapidly-evolving-butterfly">A rapidly evolving butterfly </h2>



Changes in chromosome number are one way that species evolve. They can affect how genes are turned on or off, how traits are passed down, and how well an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genomics-can-help-farm-animals-adapt-to-climate-change/">animal adapts</a> to its environment. The Atlas blue butterfly belongs to a group that evolved rapidly, creating lots of closely related species.



This new research helps explain how that might have happened. The split chromosomes may have allowed more mixing and matching of DNA, possibly helping the species survive in tough environments.



But that same complexity could also come with risks. Too many chromosomes might make a species more vulnerable over time. And unfortunately, the Atlas blue is already in trouble. Climate change, overgrazing, and destruction of cedar forests are putting pressure on its populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-butterfly-chromosomes-and-cancer">Butterfly chromosomes and cancer</h2>



The implications go far beyond butterflies. Professor Mark Blaxter noted that genomes hold the key to how a creature came to be, but also, where it might go in the future.



“To be able to tell the story of our planet, we must have the story of each species and see where they overlap and interact with each other. It also allows us to apply learnings from one genome to another."



"For example, rearranging <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-chromosomes-have-conserved-specific-elements-for-600-million-years/">chromosomes</a> is also seen in human cancer cells, and understanding this process in the Atlas blue butterfly could help find ways to limit or stop this in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-scientist-discovers-that-common-non-cancer-drugs-when-combined-can-kill-cancer-cells/">cancer cells</a> in the future.”



That might seem like a stretch - a tiny insect helping us battle a major disease - but it’s happened before. From bacteria to mice and worms, scientists have used all kinds of living things to understand human health. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-extreme-atlas-blue-butterfly">The extreme Atlas blue butterfly</h2>



There are still big questions to answer. What benefits, if any, come from having so many chromosomes? Are there specific genes that make this butterfly more adaptable? Could this give clues about how life responds to a changing planet?



“When we set out to start to understand <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-the-story-of-early-animal-evolution/">evolution</a> in butterflies, we knew we had to sequence the most extreme, and somewhat mysterious, Atlas blue butterfly,” said Dr. Charlotte Wright, first author of the study. 



She noted that it was thanks to Dr. Roger Vila, who had previously worked with his colleague to find and identify this elusive butterfly, that the team was able to sequence this species.



"Being able to see, in detail, how the Atlas blue butterfly chromosomes have been split over time in specific places, we can start to investigate what benefits this might have, how it impacts their ability to adapt to their environment, and whether there are any lessons we can learn from their DNA that might aid conservation in the future.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-species-evolution">Understanding species evolution</h2>



This kind of research is just the beginning. The team now has a “gold-standard” genome to compare with other butterflies and moths, opening the door to understanding more about how species split, adapt, or vanish.



“Breaking down chromosomes has been seen in other species of butterflies, but not on this level, suggesting that there are important reasons for this process which we can now start to explore," said Dr. Vila, senior author of the study. 



"Additionally, as chromosomes hold all the secrets of a species, investigating whether these changes impact a butterfly’s behavior could help form a full picture of how and why new species occur."



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)01098-X?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS096098222501098X%3Fshowall%3Dtrue">Current Biology</a>.



Image Credit: Roger Vila



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Butterfly sets an astonishing  chromosome record

In the wild mountain ranges of Morocco and northeast Algeria, there’s a small, shimmering butterfly that most people have never heard of. It flutters through cedar forests and scrubby hillsides, unnoticed by nearly everyone. But deep inside its cells, this insect is doing something no other animal has ever been seen to do. This butterfly, called the Atlas blue, just set a world record. And scientists are paying attention - not just because it’s rare, but because its strange biology could help us understand one of the...

Ever felt curious about the roles that tiny leaf-eating insects play in forest ecosystems? Recent research might just have some answers for the question. As it turns out, these creatures could be influencing the world's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-are-still-fighting-climate-change-against-all-odds/">forests and our climate</a> more than we had ever imagined.



At the forefront of this fascinating study is Bernice Hwang, the paper’s lead author and a former technician at the U.S. Forest Service.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insect-and-forest-dynamics">Insect and forest dynamics</h2>



"The findings of this study provide an improved understanding of the intricate relationship between&nbsp;herbivorous insects&nbsp;and&nbsp;forest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-day-of-forests-2024-new-solutions-for-a-better-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a>," Hwang stated.



Hwang, alongside other dedicated researchers, already had a substantial understanding of how large herbivores impacted nutrient cycles in forests.&nbsp;



However, the effects of leaf-eating insects on forest carbon and nutrient cycling remained relatively unknown.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-global-quest">A global quest</h2>



The initial step taken by the research team involved the establishment of a global network of 74 test plots, all within 40 mature, undisturbed broadleaved forests.&nbsp;



Green leaves and leaf litters in these forests were analyzed for concentrations of elements such as carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and silica.&nbsp;



The team also took into account leaf production, insect feeding habits, and other shifts in nutrient levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insects-role-in-forests">Insects’ role in forests</h2>



Christian Giardina and other researchers discovered that insects play a significant part in releasing and circulating essential nutrients in forest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-play-an-overlooked-role-in-the-climate-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a>. This trend was especially prominent in warmer climates, like those experienced in tropical forests.



The findings unveiled a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-boost-plant-evolution-in-surprising-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">profound link</a>; a warming climate directly impacts how plants and herbivores interact.&nbsp;



The alteration in these relationships could potentially have deep-seated consequences for carbon and nutrient cycling in broadleaved forests on a global scale. This discovery is crucial in a world dealing with the ever-looming threat of climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-our-forests">Protecting our forests</h2>



This study not only broadens our understanding of the hidden intricacies within forest ecosystems but also throws light on areas that might need conservation efforts.&nbsp;



Nels Johnson of the Pacific Southwest Research Station emphasized the importance of this research in ecological studies. "I believe this analysis will be a benchmark to compare against for its field."



Many questions remain unanswered. What specific actions can we take based on these findings? How can this knowledge be applied to protect our forests and therefore, our planet? 



As we step into an uncertain future, the importance of understanding these minute details of our ecosystem has never been more important.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-forest-management">Implications for forest management</h2>



The insights gained from this study have significant implications for forest management practices worldwide. Understanding the role of herbivorous insects in nutrient cycling can help forest managers develop more effective conservation strategies.&nbsp;



For instance, practices that promote biodiversity can enhance the resilience of forest ecosystems to climate change.&nbsp;



By recognizing the interplay between insects and plants, forest managers can make informed decisions about pest management and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shock-study-insects-are-also-declining-in-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">restoration efforts</a>, ultimately fostering healthier forests that can better withstand environmental pressures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



This enlightening exploration into the intricate relationship between plants, insects, and their shared ecosystem underscores the profound interconnectedness and delicate balance of nature.&nbsp;



As we emerge armed with this new knowledge, we must reflect on our roles as stewards of these forests. How will we respond to this challenge and what steps will we take to ensure the survival and prosperity of our planet's forests?



Moreover, the integration of such ecological findings into public policy can foster a more sustainable approach to land use and conservational practices.&nbsp;



By actively engaging communities in forest protection initiatives, we can cultivate a deeper appreciation for our natural resources, ensuring their longevity for future generations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-forests-and-insects">Future research on forests and insects</h2>



In light of the findings, it becomes imperative to explore several avenues for future research that could deepen our understanding of the interactions within forest ecosystems.



One potential direction is to conduct long-term observational studies that track changes in insect populations and their corresponding effects on nutrient cycling across various climatic zones. 



Additionally, investigating the specific mechanisms through which insects facilitate nutrient availability could provide insights into optimizing forest health and productivity. 



This research could extend to studying the impact of biodiversity loss on insect function within the ecosystem, as well as examining how different forest management practices can enhance or impede these critical processes. 



Ultimately, such inquiries will contribute not only to scientific knowledge but also to crafting actionable strategies for sustainable forest stewardship in an era of rapid environmental change.



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-50245-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Tiny leaf-eating insects have a huge impact on forests

Ever felt curious about the roles that tiny leaf-eating insects...

In the fascinating field of genetic regulation, recent discoveries have shed light on the fundamental processes that differentiate males from females: sex chromosomes.



A new study conducted by the <a href="https://www.unsw.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of New South Wales</a> focusing on the platypus and chicken has revealed crucial insights into how these species manage genetic imbalances, offering a deeper understanding of evolutionary biology. 



The findings could pave the way for groundbreaking advancements in the field, enhancing our knowledge of genetic mechanisms and their implications for various species, including humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-balance-in-sex-chromosomes">Genetic balance in sex chromosomes</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genomes-from-240-mammals-show-what-makes-humans-unique/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mammals</a>, including humans, carry a distinct genetic structure where females possess two X chromosomes, and males have one X and one Y chromosome. This setup results in an inherent imbalance.



To correct this, a significant process, termed "sex chromosome dosage compensation," comes into play.



“Animals have systems in place to balance sex chromosome variations and facilitate ‘normal' operation,” explained lead author Dr. Nicholas Lister.



According to the prevailing comprehension among scientists, one of the X chromosomes in females becomes inactive to equate this difference. 



This mechanism prevents females from producing twice the amount of proteins from the X compared to males.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crucial-players-for-sex-chromosomes">Crucial players for sex chromosomes</h2>



Proteins, the workhorse molecules of every cell in our body, carry out specific functions. Instructions for creating these proteins are provided by mRNA, which is affected by the individual’s sex and subsequently influences protein production.



In a surprising development, Professor Paul Waters noted that a balance of proteins occurs between the sexes, even when mRNA levels aren’t balanced.



"Our study indicates that dosage compensation is an essential process across all vertebrate species, not just placental and marsupial mammals,” said Professor Waters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-insights-from-platypus-and-chicken">Genetic insights from platypus and chicken</h2>



The research focused on two species with contrasting sex chromosome systems - the platypus and the chicken - to provide valuable insights into dosage compensation evolution and mechanisms.



The platypus, a monotreme mammal, is equipped with five pairs of X chromosomes in females and five Xs and five Ys in males. On the other hand, the chicken has a ZW system - males with two Z chromosomes and females with a Z and a W chromosome.



Professor Waters explained that although they had observed near-perfect sex chromosome dosage compensation of RNA in placental and marsupial mammals, an mRNA discrepancy exists between the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-sex-differences-in-sleep-disorders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sexes</a> in birds and monotremes.



“We are now seeing that the dosage compensation of sex chromosomes between males and females is observed at the protein level,” said Professor Waters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gene-control-and-dosage-compensation">Gene control and dosage compensation</h2>



In the world of genetic regulation, it's considered that the control of dosage compensation occurs at the level of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rna-junk-is-crucial-for-human-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">RNA</a>. 



The imbalance of mRNA levels in the platypus and the chicken challenges the presumption that dosage compensation is vital for life.



However, due to technological advancements, protein levels can now be accurately measured. Technology reveals that despite discrepancies in mRNA quantities, similar amounts of proteins are produced in males and females of these species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-and-future-directions">Implications and future directions</h2>



The study offers an enlightening perspective on genetic regulation, providing a platform for a profound understanding of genetic control.



“Studying unique species like the platypus provides us with new insights that could regulate various aspects of human physiology or implicate in disease states,” noted co-author Dr. Shafagh Waters.



These findings may not directly pertain to human dosage compensation, but they shed light on our bodies' management of gene expression and protein production, potentially paving a path for innovative therapies in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/landmark-study-reveals-275-million-new-genetic-variants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">medical genetics</a>.



Future research will focus on the mechanisms contributing to dosage compensation. According to Dr. Lister, understanding these processes in other species can enhance our grasp of gene regulation at a fundamental level.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-significance-and-broader-implications">Evolutionary significance and broader implications</h2>



The discoveries in this study have broader implications beyond dosage compensation. By examining the unique sex chromosome systems in the platypus and chicken, scientists can better understand the evolution of genetic regulation across species.



This research shows how different organisms have independently developed ways to balance <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/determining-sex-of-ants-possess-unique-genetics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sex</a> chromosomes, highlighting the adaptability of genetic systems.



Studying non-model organisms like the platypus offers unexpected insights into fundamental biological processes. These findings may influence various fields, from conservation biology to medical research. 



Understanding how different species achieve dosage compensation could inform strategies for preserving endangered species and lead to new approaches for diagnosing and treating genetic disorders in humans.



Ultimately, the study of platypus and chicken genetics enriches our understanding of sex chromosome regulation and its evolutionary and medical significance.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2322360121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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How do animals balance their sex chromosomes?

In the fascinating field of genetic regulation, recent discoveries have...

Mountain hikes serve as a rejuvenating escape from the mundane - the clear views and crisp air acting as a tonic for the soul. But when it comes to vultures, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-birds-brains-evolved-to-enable-them-to-fly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flying</a> at high-altitudes present a unique challenge. 



The thin air gracing the mountain highs can reduce the lift that bird wings generate, as Jonathan Rader from the University of North Carolina (<a href="https://www.unc.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNC</a>) at Chapel Hill, USA, underlines. This naturally makes it more complex for them to remain afloat. But ever wondered why this doesn't douse their spirits?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vultures-flying-at-high-altitudes">Vultures flying at high altitudes</h2>



From bar-headed geese and cranes to bar-tailed godwits, birds have marked altitude records of 6,000 m and beyond. The question is - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-migratory-birds-navigate-with-such-accuracy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">how do they pull this off</a> when thin air barely provides any lift?



A plausible theory points to high-altitude birds flying faster to counterbalance lower air density. However, this theory hadn't been tested on birds that inhabit a vast range of altitudes - right from sea level to towering summits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turkey-vultures-high-flying-experts">Turkey vultures: High-flying experts</h2>



"Turkey vultures are common through North America and inhabit an elevation range of more than 3,000&nbsp;m," says Rader.



Their mission? To confirm if turkey vultures (Cathartes aura) living at different heights fly at varying speeds subject to their altitude. The findings agreed with the hypothesis - turkey vultures certainly fly faster at altitude, offsetting the lower lift due to the thin air.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-s-flight-plan">Study's flight plan</h2>



The team began by filming vultures flying at a local refuse site in Orange County (80 m above sea level). They then shifted their base to Wyoming, observing birds at Alcova (1,600 m) and finally, the University of Wyoming campus in Laramie (2,200 m). 



Armed with three synchronized cameras at each location, they captured the vultures' end-of-day flights in 3D.



After returning to North Carolina, Rader analyzed the flight data from 2,458 recorded flights, calculating their airspeed which ranged between 8.7 and 13.24 m/s. The air density at each location, derived from local air pressure readings, showed a 27% change from 0.89 kg/m3 at Laramie to 1.227 kg/m3 at Chapel Hill.



When the recorded air densities were plotted against the birds' airspeeds on a graph, data suggested that the vultures flying at 2,200m in Laramie were generally flying approximately 1m/s faster than their counterparts in Chapel Hill.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation">Implications for conservation</h2>



Understanding the flight dynamics of turkey vultures at high altitudes can yield significant insights for conservation efforts. 



As these birds are often viewed as scavengers - playing a critical role in ecosystems by cleaning up carrion - a deeper comprehension of their adaptability to varying altitudes may help inform habitat preservation strategies.



By identifying specific elevation preferences and flight behaviors, conservationists can create targeted measures to protect their nesting sites and ensure the sustainability of their populations in an ever-changing environment.



This knowledge is particularly crucial in light of climate change, as shifting weather patterns may alter their available habitats and food sources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-avian-context">Broader avian context</h2>



While the turkey vulture serves as a model for understanding high-altitude avian flight, it opens a broader inquiry into the adaptations of other bird species that thrive in mountainous terrains. 



The study encourages further examination of physiological and behavioural traits that enable birds like the Tibetan snowcock and the Andean condor to navigate the challenges posed by their environments. 



Whether through specialized wing structures, metabolic adaptations, or unique migratory behaviours, such investigations not only enhance our knowledge of avian biology but also contribute to the preservation of biodiversity in high-altitude ecosystems worldwide. 



By fostering this comprehensive approach, researchers can better articulate the interconnectedness of species and the importance of the environments they inhabit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mystery-of-vulture-s-flying-speeds">Mystery of vulture's flying speeds</h2>



Delving deeper into the flight recordings, Rader was searching for signs of increased flapping which could explain the higher flying speeds. 



But interestingly, the high-altitude vultures were not flapping their wings any more than the sea-level birds. Instead, it seems that the vultures at 2,200 m were <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/island-bird-communities-are-changing-in-unexpected-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flying</a> faster merely because of the reduced drag in thin air, allowing them to maintain their speeds and stay aloft despite generating less lift in the low-density air.



In the world of avian aerodynamics, it seems the turkey vultures have cracked the altitude code, adapting perfectly to their high-flying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vultures-consume-enormous-amount-of-plastic-waste/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lifestyle</a>. And who knows? Perhaps, understanding this natural phenomenon could inspire new heights in human aviation technology too!



The study is published in the <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/227/15/jeb246828/361246/Turkey-vultures-tune-their-airspeed-to-changing" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Experimental Biology</a>.



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How vultures fly faster in thin air at high altitudes

Mountain hikes serve as a rejuvenating escape from the mundane...

A recent study led by the Smithsonian proposes a unique plan to preserve Earth's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-biodiversity-crisis-is-actually-worse-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> by cryogenically storing biological materials on the moon.&nbsp;



The moon's permanently shadowed craters are cold enough to maintain these materials without electricity or liquid nitrogen.&nbsp;



The research, published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/advance-article/doi/10.1093/biosci/biae058/7715645" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BioScience</a>, involves multiple Smithsonian institutions and outlines a comprehensive plan for a lunar biorepository.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-lunar-biorepository-nbsp">The lunar biorepository&nbsp;</h2>



The idea is inspired by the <a href="https://www.croptrust.org/work/svalbard-global-seed-vault/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Seed Vault</a> in Svalbard, Norway, which serves as a backup for global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/enormous-loss-of-crop-diversity-found-in-recent-decades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crop diversity</a>. However, the lunar biorepository would store animal cells, which require much colder temperatures than seeds for preservation.



The research team, including members from the <a href="https://nationalzoo.si.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Smithsonian’s National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute</a> (NZCBI), Smithsonian’s National Museum of Natural History, and Smithsonian’s National Air and Space Museum, suggests that the moon's environment offers a unique solution to the challenges of cryopreservation on Earth.&nbsp;



“Initially, a lunar biorepository would target the most at-risk species on Earth today, but our ultimate goal would be to cryopreserve <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-biodiversity-crisis-is-actually-worse-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">most species on Earth</a>,” said Mary Hagedorn, a research cryobiologist at NZCBI and lead author of the paper. 



The team's vision includes a public entity that would involve international cooperation and governance, akin to the structure of the Svalbard Global Seed Bank.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biodiversity-storage-on-the-moon">Biodiversity storage on the moon</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/man-in-the-moon-craters-are-200-million-years-older-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon</a>'s polar craters, which never receive sunlight, maintain temperatures as low as -410°F (-246°C). These conditions are perfect for cryogenic storage without the need for additional cooling resources.&nbsp;



The study emphasizes that this passive cooling method could mitigate risks associated with the potential failure of electrical systems, which is a concern for Earth-based repositories.&nbsp;



Samples could be stored in lunar caves or structures with thick walls made of moon rocks to protect them from space radiation, which can damage DNA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cryopreservation-of-skin-cells">Cryopreservation of skin cells</h2>



As a proof of concept, the team successfully cryopreserved skin samples from a reef fish known as the starry goby. The choice of fibroblasts - skin cells - over other cells like sperm or eggs is due to the ease of preservation and collection.&nbsp;



Fibroblasts can be harvested from an animal's skin, making them more accessible for a wide range of species. For animals without skin, such as certain invertebrates, the researchers propose using other biological materials, like larvae or reproductive cells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-the-research-nbsp">Expanding the research&nbsp;</h2>



The next phase of the project involves rigorous testing on Earth and aboard the International Space Station to simulate the lunar environment.&nbsp;



These tests aim to determine the best packaging methods for protecting the samples from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/magnetic-field-solar-radiation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">radiation</a> and microgravity during transport and storage on the moon. The team is actively seeking collaborators and funding to expand their research and develop practical solutions for the biorepository.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conserving-earth-s-biodiversity-on-the-moon">Conserving Earth's biodiversity on the moon</h2>



The proposal is not merely a contingency plan for catastrophic events on Earth but also has potential implications for future space exploration. “We aren’t saying what if the Earth fails - if the Earth is biologically destroyed this biorepository won’t matter,” Hagedon said.&nbsp;



“This is meant to help offset natural disasters and, potentially, to augment space travel. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-much-life-has-inhabited-earth-since-the-very-first-cell-scientists-found-out/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Life</a> is precious and, as far as we know, rare in the universe. This biorepository provides another, parallel approach to conserving Earth’s precious biodiversity.”



The researchers' vision for a lunar biorepository offers a novel and potentially revolutionary method for preserving Earth's biodiversity.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-cooperation-is-needed">Global cooperation is needed </h2>



By leveraging the unique environmental conditions of the moon, they aim to create a fail-safe repository that could protect countless species from extinction due to natural disasters or other threats.&nbsp;



The initiative calls for global cooperation and further research to make this ambitious project a reality.



“Realizing a lunar biorepository will require collaboration by a broad array of nations, cultural groups, agencies, and international stakeholders to develop acceptable sample holding, governance, and long-term plans,” said the researchers.&nbsp;



“Protecting Earth's life must be a top priority in the rush on the Moon sites for industries and many types of science.”



According to the experts, the next steps include expanding our partnership base, especially to include laboratories and agencies who work in space research.&nbsp;



The team also plans to extract and cryopreserve fibroblast cells from the fins of fishes and test their packaging under space-like conditions on Earth.



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Proverbial "Noah's Ark" built on the moon will preserve Earth's biodiversity

A recent study led by the Smithsonian proposes a unique...

Coral,Bleaching,Under,Water,Okinawa,japan

A team of international marine biologists has provided unprecedented insights into coral bleaching responses to stress using cutting-edge imaging technology. 



Their study, published on July 31 in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0303779" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLoS ONE</a>, details the survival rates of coral colonies following multiple bleaching events around the island of Maui.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-patterns-of-coral-growth-during-bleaching">Patterns of coral growth during bleaching</h2>



The research, led by <a href="https://scripps.ucsd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scripps Oceanography's Smith Lab</a>, involved tracking 1,832 coral colonies using a time series of 3D coral reef models from Maui, collected between 2014 and 2021. 



This seven-year dataset offered a detailed annual view of the reefs, allowing the team to observe patterns of coral growth and survival through significant bleaching events in 2015 and 2019.



The study aimed to differentiate between natural selection, where only the hardiest corals survive, and acclimatization, where individual corals develop increased heat tolerance over time due to repeated exposure to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/corals-can-be-trained-to-endure-heat-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heat stress</a>.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-corals-are-more-resilient-nbsp">Some corals are more resilient&nbsp;</h2>



Despite some corals bleaching and dying, others showed promising resilience, surviving both bleaching events without showing significant changes in growth over time. This resilience offers new hope for coral conservation and restoration strategies.



“This is one of the first studies to use this type of time series to look at multiple coral bleaching events and how the processes of acclimatization and selection play out,” said lead author Orion McCarthy, a recent graduate of Scripps Oceanography who conducted the research as a PhD student.&nbsp;



“We found that older corals, which are more likely to have survived multiple bleaching events, could be a good source of outplants for coral restoration.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-corals-are-increasingly-threatened-nbsp">Corals are increasingly threatened&nbsp;</h2>



As ocean temperatures rise due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-study-provides-answers-to-how-coral-reefs-can-survive-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>, coral reefs are increasingly threatened by bleaching events. These events occur when corals, stressed by prolonged warming, expel the symbiotic algae living within their tissues.&nbsp;



This expulsion causes the corals to turn white, or “bleach,” as they lose their primary source of food. If the elevated water temperatures persist, the affected corals may die.&nbsp;



However, some corals can survive low- to moderate-strength <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/60-percent-global-coral-reefs-face-bleaching-rising-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bleaching</a> events, reshaping the reef's composition and its future responses to similar stressors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coral-responses-varied-across-bleaching-events">Coral responses varied across bleaching events</h2>



In this study, the two measured bleaching events were of moderate strength, characterized by a sustained increase in sea-surface temperatures of more than one degree Celsius (1.8 degrees Fahrenheit) over several months.&nbsp;



Despite experiencing similar thermal stress in both 2015 and 2019, coral responses varied. Some corals bleached and died after the first event, others did not bleach at all, some bleached during both events but survived, and others only bleached the first time.&nbsp;



Interestingly, resilient corals were often found adjacent to more sensitive ones, despite being the same species and facing identical environmental conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-acclimatization-capabilities-of-some-coral-species">Acclimatization capabilities of some coral species</h2>



The research highlighted the acclimatization capabilities of certain coral species, particularly Porites lobata, which showed resilience to bleaching. Conversely, Pocillopora corals exhibited the lowest levels of survivorship.&nbsp;



“Based on our observations, we recommend that restoration practitioners in Hawaii should focus on colonies of Porites and Montipora with a proven track-record of growth and survival,” advised McCarthy, who now works as a science lead for <a href="https://www.sustainablesurf.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sustainable Surf</a>, a nonprofit focused on marine ecosystem restoration.



The team credited the innovative use of 3D imaging technology for their ability to detect and analyze acclimatization and selection processes. 



The technology enabled detailed tracking of coral colonies that traditional in-water surveys would have missed. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comprehensive-3d-representation-of-reefs">Comprehensive 3D representation of reefs</h2>



The 3D time series project, initiated by Scripps Oceanography marine biologist Jennifer Smith and her former PhD student Emily Kelly, employs photogrammetry to create detailed models of coral reefs.&nbsp;



This technique involves capturing thousands of overlapping underwater images, which are then stitched together using advanced software to produce a comprehensive 3D representation of the reefs.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/coral-bleaching_3D-model_timelapse_credit-Smith-Lab_1s.webp" alt="Researchers use a timeseries of coral reef 3D models to study coral bleaching in Maui. Credit: Smith Lab, 100 Island Challenge" class="wp-image-1940457"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Researchers use a timeseries of coral reef 3D models to study coral bleaching in Maui. Credit: Smith Lab, 100 Island Challenge</figcaption></figure>



For the past decade, Smith and her team have used this technology to monitor fixed sites off Maui, as part of the <a href="https://100islandchallenge.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">100 Island Challenge</a> - a global initiative aimed at documenting coral reef changes over time using large-area imagery.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-watching-coral-response-to-bleaching-nbsp">Watching coral response to bleaching&nbsp;</h2>



“This approach has revolutionized our ability to study long-term changes in coral reef communities at very fine scales,” said Smith, a professor of marine biology at Scripps Oceanography.&nbsp;



“We can literally watch these systems change in 3D; we can watch corals grow and shrink and visualize how they respond to global stressors. We can use the knowledge gained from using this approach for education and outreach and our results can help to inform management and conservation action.”



McCarthy likened the study of coral responses to bleaching events to examining human health outcomes after successive pandemic-like events.&nbsp;



By observing individual responses during a single event - such as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-death-toll-of-covid-19-pandemic-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">COVID-19 pandemic</a> - researchers can identify traits associated with better or worse outcomes.&nbsp;



A subsequent event provides further data on survivors' resilience, similar to how researchers study coral responses to successive bleaching events.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-valuable-foundation-for-coral-conservation-nbsp">Valuable foundation for coral conservation&nbsp;</h2>



The study underscores the importance of addressing climate change, the primary driver of ocean warming and coral bleaching. Severe bleaching events pose a significant threat to coral reefs, potentially leading to widespread mortality.&nbsp;



“Coral reefs are dynamic and bleaching isn't necessarily going to kill every coral - at least not in the short term - so there is still cause for hope for these reefs and a need for active conservation,” said McCarthy.&nbsp;



“Tools like 3D modeling are allowing us to get a more specific understanding of which corals are living and which ones aren't, and we can use that information to help guide coral restoration efforts.”



Overall, this research represents a significant advancement in understanding coral resilience and provides a valuable foundation for developing effective coral conservation and restoration strategies in the face of climate change.



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Coral response to bleaching captured in unprecedented detail 

A team of international marine biologists has provided unprecedented insights...

Have you ever heard the old wives' tale claiming goldfish only possess a 3-second memory? If you answered yes, then you're in the company of many. This widespread belief, however, is an outright myth. 



Our little water- dwelling friends can remember things way longer than a fleeting three seconds. This might come as a surprise, but brace yourself for an enlightening journey debunking this popular misconception.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-astonishing-reality-of-goldfish-memory">Astonishing reality of goldfish memory</h2>



The man dispelling this myth hails all the way from Australia. The research was led by Culum Brown, the myth-buster, who is an established scholar in fish cognition at the prestigious <a href="https://www.mq.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Macquarie University</a>. 



So, how long can goldfish remember something? Weeks, months, or even years, according to Brown. He points to decades-old research that confirms this. 



As it turns out, our common presumption about our aquatic friends is miles off from the truth. Brown's work on fish intelligence over the past 25 years helps shed light on this misconception, which he suspects is influenced by general ignorance about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-engage-physical-punishment-of-offspring-for-discipline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish intelligence</a> and pet owners' guilt.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-goldfish-memory-experiment">Goldfish memory experiment</h2>



Let's dive into some interesting experiments that reveal these little creatures' impressive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clownfish-count-stripes-on-other-fish-to-defend-their-territory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory capacity</a>.



If a goldfish is regularly fed on one side of its tank, it quickly learns and remembers to congregate on that side during feeding times. 



And it doesn't stop there. If the goldfish learns that pushing a red paddle brings food but a blue one doesn't, it will recall this distinction and show a preference for the red paddle long after the experiment ends. 



"If you break it down, most of the behaviors that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-songbirds-are-masters-of-memory-and-adaptation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">most animals</a> do are adapted and fine tuned by learning a memory," Professor Brown says.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-problem-solving-recognition-and-more">Problem-solving, recognition, and more</h2>



But there's more than just memory to our scaly friends. Brown’s studies show that goldfish are adept problem solvers. 



For instance, they've been trained to escape nets and navigate mazes, and they can recall and repeat these skills weeks or even months later. 



They can also recognize and remember fellow goldfish after long periods apart. Even anecdotally, many goldfish owners report that their pets can identify them – setting them apart from other humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-difficult-time-span-in-goldfish-memory">Difficult time span in goldfish memory</h2>



Although it's difficult to pin down an exact duration for goldfish memory, it’s clear that it lasts much longer than the widely accepted "3-second" myth. 



Some memories, such as a frightening event, could be more impactful and long-lasting than mundane events. Regardless, the message is clear – the 3-second rumor is certainly a fish tale.



So why does the myth persist despite piles of research? Brown believes that fish have a serious PR issue, and misconceptions thrive because most people don't interact with fish in the same way they do with other pets. 



However, the tide may be changing. As more organizations disseminate information about fish intelligence, public opinion may shift, albeit slowly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wider-implications-of-fish-intelligence">Wider implications of fish intelligence</h2>



Understanding the cognitive abilities of goldfish extends beyond mere curiosity; it invites us to reconsider the ways in which we interact with aquatic life. 



Brown’s findings prompt a deeper investigation into the cognitive and emotional lives of all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/319-million-year-old-fish-holds-clues-about-brain-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish species</a>.



As we come to recognize that fish are not just passive inhabitants of their aquatic environments but are active learners and social creatures, we must reassess our responsibilities as pet owners and aquarists. 



Just as with dogs and cats, providing stimulation through varied environments and interactive toys can enhance their overall well-being.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-educational-outreach-and-the-future">Educational outreach and the future</h2>



To combat the entrenched myths surrounding fish intelligence, it is crucial to promote educational initiatives that highlight the findings of scholars like Culum Brown. 



Schools, aquariums, and community programs can play pivotal roles in disseminating this knowledge, fostering a more informed public that values fish beyond their ornamental charm. 



Future research and outreach efforts can elevate our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-20-minute-conversation-with-a-humpback-whale-named-twain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">understanding of aquatic animals</a>, bridging the gap between public perception and scientific reality.



By embracing a more nuanced view of fish cognition, we pave the way for better practices in aquaculture and conservation, ensuring that these fascinating creatures receive the respect and understanding they deserve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-guilt-factor">The guilt factor</h2>



But there's another aspect to consider -- the guilt factor. Brown speculates that understating goldfish memory may stem from pet owners' guilt about confining them in small tanks. 



This theory is thought-provoking, suggesting that the myth might reflect more on us than on the goldfish.



"It kind of gives us an excuse to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-fleets-hidden-industrial-fishing-activity-exposed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">treat them poorly</a>, because if we have a low opinion of their intelligence, then perhaps we can abuse them and get away with it," Professor Brown concludes.&nbsp;



Next time you pass by your pet or a fish tank, remember to appreciate these creatures for what they are—intelligent beings with a memory span defying popular belief. 



And, if you own a goldfish, you might want to consider upgrading their home to a larger tank with fellow fish and objects for enrichment. After all, as Brown suggests, they probably remember their experiences longer than you think.



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Goldfish have much better memory skills than previously believed

Have you ever heard the old wives' tale claiming goldfish...

Delving into the fascinating world of evolution, we uncover the tale of rapid bird evolution that traces its origins to an event of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-predict-a-new-mass-extinction-that-will-wipe-out-humans-and-all-mammals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mass extinction</a>, some 66 million years ago. 



Just as non-avian dinosaurs drew their last breath, the avian ancestors saw the dawn of their evolutionary journey.



Interestingly, the aftermath of the mass extinction, known as the end-Cretaceous mass extinction event, was a pivotal milestone in avian history. 



It incited shifts in bird genomes, a phenomenon recently unveiled in a study conducted by the renowned <a href="https://umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan</a>. 



These genomic fluctuations contributed significantly to the expansive diversity of existing bird species, a fact now echoed in the "genomic fossils" nestled within the DNA of birds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-genetic-imprints-from-a-bygone-era">Decoding genetic imprints from a bygone era</h2>



The study, published in Science Advances, holds the key to a deeper understanding of avian genome evolution. 



"By studying the DNA of living birds, we can try to detect patterns of genetic sequences that changed just after one of the most important events in Earth's history," noted Jake Berv, the lead author of the study.



The research team succeeded in highlighting the lasting genomic imprints etched by this critical event in Earth's timeline.



Life's blueprint is determined by an organism's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-primate-genome-project-reveals-hidden-evolutionary-secrets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genome</a>, comprising four nucleotides: A, T, G, and C. 



Changes in nucleotide composition across the genome can shape the evolutionary potential of an organism, lending it the ability to evolve. 



The researchers discovered that the mass extinction event ignited shifts in nucleotide composition, influencing bird development, adult size, and metabolism.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-extinction-to-bird-evolution">From extinction to bird evolution</h2>



Following the mass extinction, surviving bird lineages underwent a dramatic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snake-evolution-legless-lizards-into-slithering-snakes-100-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">transformation</a>. 



Within just 3 million to 5 million years, birds developed smaller body sizes and evolved patterns of pre-hatching development. More species started hatching in a delicate embryonic state, also known as "altricial."



These hatchlings, dependent on parental feeding and taking weeks to fledge, are a stark contrast to "precocial" birds that hatch ready to fend for themselves, such as chickens and turkeys.



The study also revealed intriguing links between changes in bird biology and the detected genetic shifts. "We found that adult body size and patterns of pre-hatching development are two important features of bird biology we can link to the genetic changes we're detecting," the authors noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-leaps-in-avian-research">Leaps in avian research</h2>



Understanding the relationships between major bird groups has been a long-standing challenge in ornithology and evolutionary biology. 



Traditionally, genomic data was examined using models that assumed DNA composition, or the proportion of A, T, G, and C nucleotides, remained constant across evolutionary history.



However, the researchers developed a software tool to track DNA composition over time, allowing for a more fluid model of DNA evolution.



The use of this tool led to exciting discoveries; crucial shifts in DNA composition closely followed the end-Cretaceous mass extinction. 



This novel approach allowed the experts to infer which bird traits were tightly linked with these DNA composition shifts, providing unprecedented insights into the impact of mass extinctions on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/for-the-first-time-climate-change-adaptation-is-discovered-at-the-genetic-level/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic evolution</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mass-extinctions-and-bird-genomic-evolution">Mass extinctions and bird genomic evolution</h2>



Concluding on an exciting note, the findings of this study anchor mass extinction events as critical players in not just altering biodiversity and ecology but also reshaping the course of genomic evolution. 



In the world of science, the ripple effects of the mass extinction that wiped out giant dinosaurs continue to fascinate researchers, offering profound insights into the intricacies of biological evolution.



As we explore the early narratives of birds through these groundbreaking insights into genomic evolution, we are led to a more nuanced understanding of their history. 



"This study illustrates that we have probably been missing something," said the researchers, encouraging a fresh perspective in the future of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wood-frogs-achieved-significant-biological-evolution-25-years-salt-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary biology</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-avian-genomics">Future of avian genomics</h2>



As we stand on the brink of a new era in avian research, the implications of these findings extend far beyond understanding bird <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/untold-story-of-bird-evolution-revealed-through-genetics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a>.



The insights gained from studying genomic changes following mass extinctions can inform conservation strategies aimed at preserving our planet’s avian diversity. 



By recognizing the genetic factors that contribute to resilience and adaptability in birds, scientists can better equip conservation efforts to address the challenges posed by climate change and habitat loss.



Moreover, this research lays the groundwork for exploring how other species have adapted and evolved in response to similar catastrophic events throughout Earth’s history. 



As we continue to decode the genetic imprints left by these pivotal moments, we gain not only a clearer picture of avian history but also the potential to safeguard the future of countless species facing extinction today. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adp0114" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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How a mass extinction triggered bird evolution

Delving into the fascinating world of evolution, we uncover the...

Humans may be partially responsible for the reduction in brain size observed in domestic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-humans-close/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a>. Researchers in Hungary have discovered that domestic dogs possess significantly smaller brains compared to their wild ancestor, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-return-of-the-gray-wolf-triumph-or-tragedy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gray wolf</a>. 



This change is attributed to domestic dogs living in less complex environments, which require less cognitive effort than the wild environments gray wolves inhabit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dog-domestication-occurred-passively-nbsp">Dog domestication occurred passively&nbsp;</h2>



Genetic analyses of the oldest known dog remains indicate that dogs were domesticated in a single event by humans living in Eurasia approximately 20,000 to 40,000 years ago.&nbsp;



According to Krishna Veeramah, an assistant professor of evolution at <a href="https://www.stonybrook.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stony Brook University</a>, this process has probably been very complex, involving many generations where distinctive dog traits evolved gradually.



“The current hypothesis suggests that dog domestication likely occurred passively. A population of wolves likely lived on the outskirts of hunter-gatherer camps, feeding on human refuse. Tamer and less aggressive wolves would have been more successful in this environment,” explained Professor Veeramah.



“While humans initially did not gain any direct benefit, over time, a symbiotic [mutually beneficial] relationship developed between the humans and these animals, eventually leading to the dogs we see today.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-size-in-domestic-dogs-nbsp">Brain size in domestic dogs&nbsp;</h2>



The new study, led by László Zsolt Garamszegi from the Institute of Ecology and Botany at the <a href="https://ecolres.hun-ren.hu/en/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for Ecological Research</a> in Hungary, suggests that other factors might also influence the reduction in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-dogs-have-larger-brains-than-ancient-dog-breeds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain size</a> in domestic dogs, although these factors are not clearly identified. 



The researchers noted that in the wild, phenomena like hibernation could contribute to brain size reduction in other canid species.



“The dog is a canid species that was domesticated from its ancestral species the gray wolf at least 15,000 years ago,” the experts wrote.&nbsp;



“Over 400 breeds of dogs exist today, and the overall pattern is that relative brain size is dramatically reduced in dogs as compared with the ancestral species, the gray wolf.”&nbsp;



This idea, that domestication has led to smaller brains in dogs, is widely accepted among veterinarians and researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-domestic-dogs-require-less-brain-capacity">Domestic dogs require less brain capacity</h2>



Domestic dogs face fewer cognitive challenges, such as foraging for food, avoiding predators, and finding mates, compared to their wild counterparts. This reduced need for brain capacity is believed to have led to a gradual decrease in brain size.&nbsp;



According to the researchers, this phenomenon is thought to be a result of the decreased necessity for metabolically costly brain tissue in a domesticated environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dog-brain-and-body-size">Dog brain and body size</h2>



To investigate whether the brain size of domestic dogs is particularly small relative to their body size when compared to wild canids, the researchers analyzed the brain and body sizes of 25 canid species, including the domestic dog (Canis familiaris), the gray wolf (Canis lupus), and the common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/raccoon-dogs-may-be-a-growing-threat-to-waterbirds-in-finland/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">raccoon dog</a> (Nyctereutes procyonoides). 



The experts found that domestic dogs have experienced a significant reduction in brain size compared to gray wolves. However, the domestic dog's brain is still relatively large compared to some other canid species studied.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-hibernation-nbsp">The role of hibernation&nbsp;</h2>



An interesting finding of the study is that the common raccoon dog stands out as a “more pronounced outlier” in terms of brain size reduction, having an unusually small brain for its body size. The researchers believe this is due to the raccoon dog's hibernation habits.&nbsp;



“Prolonged periods of food shortage, such as during hibernation, prevents the evolution of large brains due to their constantly high energy demands,” explained the study authors.&nbsp;



The experts conclude that while domestication plays a role in the reduction of brain size in dogs, hibernation also contributes to this phenomenon in wild canids.&nbsp;



The authors caution against viewing domestication as a “uniquely powerful evolutionary force” responsible for shrinking dog brains.&nbsp;



The research has been published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2024.0336" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology Letters</a>.



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Dogs’ shrinking brain size was partially caused by humans 

Humans may be partially responsible for the reduction in brain...

A recent study has shown that North Sea <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/living-near-oil-and-gas-sites-linked-to-hidden-health-issues/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oil and gas</a> extraction can lead to a dramatic increase in pollution levels, with contaminants like hydrocarbons rising by more than 10,000% within half a kilometer of offshore platforms.&nbsp;



The collaborative research, conducted by the<a href="https://www.essex.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> University of Essex</a>, the <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural History Museum</a>, and the Center for Environment, Fisheries, and Aquaculture Science (<a href="https://www.cefas.co.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CEFAS</a>), found a significant decline in the number of species around offshore platforms, with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-climate-change-and-biodiversity-loss-are-one-indivisible-global-health-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> dropping nearly 30 percent. 



This new data provides a clearer picture of the environmental impact of fossil fuel extraction, particularly on Britain's seabed life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollution-near-offshore-platforms-nbsp">Pollution near offshore platforms&nbsp;</h2>



The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.172536" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science of The Total Environment</a>, focused on pollutants such as hydrocarbons and heavy metals, including lead, copper, and nickel.&nbsp;



The findings revealed that hydrocarbon levels were up to 10,613% higher and heavy metal concentrations were 455% higher within 500 meters of the platforms compared to areas further away.&nbsp;



The study highlights how these pollutants accumulate around platforms, significantly affecting marine invertebrates, which are crucial for underwater ecosystems as they serve as prey for larger animals like fish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biodiversity-loss-from-oil-and-gas-production-nbsp">Biodiversity loss from oil and gas production&nbsp;</h2>



Zelin Chen, a PhD student who led the research, explained the extensive impact of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/living-near-oil-and-gas-sites-linked-to-hidden-health-issues/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hydrocarbon extraction</a> on biodiversity. 



“We’ve known for a while that hydrocarbon extraction can impact biodiversity, but this is the first-time consistent trends have been found across several platforms,” said Chen.&nbsp;



“There were clear changes in community diversity and composition, with a general decrease in the number and type of species near the platforms after oil and gas production began.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-webs-near-offshore-platforms">Food webs near offshore platforms </h2>



The study authors analyzed data for 4,216 species collected from 1981 to 2012 at nine oil and gas platforms off the coasts of Scotland and England.&nbsp;



The results showed a reduction in species richness and a simplification of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-restructures-marine-food-webs-in-unexpected-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food webs</a> within 500 meters of the platforms.&nbsp;



These food webs, which describe the feeding interactions among species, became simpler and smaller in the impacted sediments.&nbsp;



Large predators like starfish were notably absent near the platforms, while smaller organisms like worms thrived in the contaminated environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significant-declines-in-species-richness-nbsp">Significant declines in species richness&nbsp;</h2>



The experts used chemical data to define an impact zone within 500m of a platform, a buffer zone within 500-1500m, as&nbsp; well as unimpacted areas beyond that. 



This approach allowed the team to compare biological samples from different zones taken before and after oil and gas production commenced.&nbsp;



The findings showed a significant 28% decline in species richness in the impacted sites and fewer connections within the food webs closer to the platforms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study-nbsp">Significance of the study&nbsp;</h2>



The implications of these findings are concerning, especially as many of these platforms are approaching the end of their operational life.&nbsp;



“This is important because simpler food webs with shorter food chains are highly indicative of less productive areas under environmental stress,” said Eoin O’Gorman from the University of Essex, emphasizing the environmental significance of the study's findings.



Dr. Natalie Hicks, also from Essex, stressed the need for careful decommissioning of these platforms. She said they are leaving a potentially concerning legacy, particularly as many are reaching the end of life.&nbsp;



“Many of these sites will be decommissioned in the coming decade and we need to collaborate closely with industry and the Government to ensure decommissioning practice is led by science and done safely,” said Dr. Hicks.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-impacts-of-offshore-platforms-nbsp">Long-term impacts of offshore platforms&nbsp;</h2>



The study underscores the critical need for informed decommissioning practices to mitigate the potential long-term environmental impacts of these offshore platforms.&nbsp;



“Our collaborative study between the NHM, University of Essex, and CEFAS, which spans 30 years of field data, demonstrates that oil and gas operations simplify complex ocean ecosystems, favoring small, hardy species and causing the disappearance of more delicate marine life,” said Gareth Thomas, a scientist at the Natural History Museum.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study-nbsp">Broader implications of the study&nbsp;</h2>



As the world continues to explore and extract <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-from-fossil-fuels-kills-5-million-people-each-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil fuels</a>, this study provides essential insights into the environmental costs of such activities.&nbsp;



The researchers call for further investigation and more sustainable practices to protect marine ecosystems, especially as the decommissioning of many North Sea platforms looms on the horizon.&nbsp;



The study's findings serve as a reminder of the urgent need for a comprehensive approach to ocean conservation, balancing resource extraction with the preservation of marine biodiversity.



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10,000% pollution increase from offshore oil and gas platforms decimates ocean life

A recent study has shown that North Sea oil and...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-forecast-the-future-of-monarch-butterflies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monarch butterflies</a>, easily identifiable by their vivid orange and black wings, are facing a serious threat due to the disappearance of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/restoring-milkweed-could-save-the-eastern-monarch-butterfly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">milkweed</a>, their sole food source as caterpillars.&nbsp;



The reduction of milkweed has put monarch populations at risk of extinction.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urban-milkweed-gardens-for-monarchs">Urban milkweed gardens for monarchs</h2>



Recent research published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/ecology-and-evolution/articles/10.3389/fevo.2024.1444460/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution</a> indicates that urban milkweed gardens can play a crucial role in providing habitat for monarchs.&nbsp;



Study lead author Karen Klinger is a geographic information systems analyst in the Keller Science Action Center at the <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Field Museum</a>.



“In this study, we found that monarchs can find the milkweed, wherever the milkweed is, even if it’s in planters on balconies and rooftops,” said Klinger.&nbsp;



“Milkweed gardens can be in all shapes and sizes, and any milkweed garden can contribute habitat for monarchs.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monarch-migration-relies-on-milkweed">Monarch migration relies on milkweed</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-butterfly-migration-sparked-by-a-surge-in-vegetation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migration</a> of monarchs is one of the most extraordinary among insects, involving a multi-generational journey from Mexico to Canada and back.&nbsp;



The eastern monarch population starts in Mexico and travels northward, laying eggs on milkweed plants along the way. Each generation moves further north until they reach southern Canada.&nbsp;



At the end of summer, a special “super generation” of butterflies makes the long trip back to Mexico to overwinter.



This migration pattern heavily relies on the availability of milkweed, which has drastically decreased due to the use of pesticides in agriculture, particularly in the Midwest.&nbsp;



As a result, monarch populations have plummeted, leading to their consideration for endangered species status by the <a href="https://www.iucn.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Union for Conservation of Nature</a> and the <a href="https://www.fws.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">US Fish and Wildlife Service</a>.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decline-in-urban-milkweed">Decline in urban milkweed </h2>



“If we don’t do anything soon, monarchs are going to be in serious trouble,” warned Aster Hasle, a lead conservation ecologist at the Field Museum’s Keller Science Action Center and co-author of the paper.



Given the decline in rural milkweed, scientists have explored the potential of urban milkweed gardens to fill the gap.&nbsp;



“There was a call for all hands on deck, to plant milkweed across all sectors of the landscape, but people discounted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-nature-affect-human-health-in-urban-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban areas</a>, because if you look at some mapping of urban areas, it looks like it’s completely developed, with no availability for milkweed plants,” Klinger explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-milkweed-plants-in-urban-settings-nbsp">Milkweed plants in urban settings&nbsp;</h2>



Klinger was involved in a 2019 study by Field Museum scientists, which demonstrated that urban areas could support milkweed in various locations, such as yards, alleyways, and rooftops.&nbsp;



The recent follow-up study engaged over 400 community scientists who monitored milkweed plants in their urban settings for monarch eggs and caterpillars.



The team collected extensive data over four years, totaling 5,905 observations from 810 milkweed patches.&nbsp;



The results showed that monarchs are attracted to gardens with common milkweed and a diversity of blooming plants, which provide necessary nectar. Moreover, mature milkweed plants were more effective in supporting monarch reproduction.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urban-gardens-and-monarch-conservation-nbsp">Urban gardens and monarch conservation&nbsp;</h2>



“We encouraged participants who had planters on balconies, who had planters on rooftop decks, and we saw some of the most amazing things,” Klinger recalls, noting one instance where a rooftop planter housed five large caterpillars.



These findings underscore the importance of urban gardens in monarch conservation. While larger gardens with a variety of plants are ideal, even small contributions can make a significant difference. “Plant the species that works the best for you and your garden,” Klinger advised.&nbsp;



In support of these efforts, Illinois Governor JB Pritzker signed the MONARCH Act, which restricts homeowners associations from prohibiting native plantings and provides assistance for creating native and pollinator-friendly gardens.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study">Broader implications of the study</h2>



Monarchs serve as indicators of broader <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-ecosystems-are-needed-to-prevent-future-pandemics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecological health</a>, as their extensive migration covers a vast area.&nbsp;



“Monarchs need a lot of the things that other insects need, like blooming flowers, so what’s good for monarchs is good for other pollinators too. And we’re in the midst of a global insect decline, so it’s important to help,” Hasle said.&nbsp;



Supporting urban milkweed planting not only aids monarchs but also benefits the broader ecosystem, highlighting the critical role of these efforts in conservation.



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Milkweed gardens are needed to save monarch butterflies

Monarch butterflies, easily identifiable by their vivid orange and black...

A recent study has uncovered a unique breeding behavior in the Andamanese Charles Darwin's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-frog-day-addressing-environmental-threats-to-frogs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frog</a> (Minervarya charlesdarwini), endemic to the Andaman Islands. 



The research was led by a team of biologists from the <a href="https://www.du.ac.in/%C3%B9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Delhi</a>, the Zoological Survey of India, <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard University</a>, and the University of Minnesota.



Published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.3099/0006-9698-577.1.1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Breviora</a> of the Harvard Museum of Comparative Zoology, the research describes how this frog species exhibits a combination of unusual reproductive traits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-reproductive-strategy-of-darwin-s-frog-nbsp">Unique reproductive strategy of Darwin's frog&nbsp;</h2>



The Andamanese Charles Darwin's frog, part of the Dicroglossidae family, displays a distinctive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-frogs-live-in-trees-but-lay-eggs-on-the-ground/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reproductive strategy</a>. 



Unlike many frogs, these frogs lay terrestrial eggs inside tree cavities or root buttresses above the water surface. The eggs hatch into tadpoles, which then drop into the water below to continue their development.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-upside-down-spawning-a-highly-specialized-trait-nbsp">Upside-down spawning: A highly specialized trait&nbsp;</h2>



During egg-laying, the mating pair adopts an unusual upside-down posture, clinging to the vertical walls of the tree cavity, completely out of the water. This behavior is unprecedented among frogs.



“Upside-down spawning is the most remarkable behavior in this frog,” said study lead author Professor S. D. Biju. “No other frog is known to lay terrestrial eggs inside tree holes in an upside-down position.”



Professor Biju noted that this discovery is fundamental for understanding how the species interacts with its environments and which habitats are essential for its survival.&nbsp;



“Such specialized traits also yield insights into the evolution of reproductive modes and behaviors among anuran amphibians.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-vocalizations-used-to-find-mates-nbsp">Complex vocalizations used to find mates&nbsp;</h2>



Additionally, the male frogs exhibit complex vocal behaviors, producing three different types of advertisement calls to attract females, along with an aggressive call used during male-male competition.&nbsp;



When vocal displays fail to deter rival males, physical combat ensues, involving kicking, boxing, and biting. During these altercations, the defending male and the female often move higher up the tree cavity walls to avoid interference from rival males.



Professor James Hanken is curator of herpetology at the Museum of Comparative Zoology and a professor of biology in the Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology at Harvard.



“This finding is an example of the remarkable diversity of amphibians and reproductive behaviors that are still unknown to science, especially from unexplored regions in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-dictates-biodiversity-hotspots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity hotspots</a> of tropical Asia,” said Professor Hanken.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unusual-breeding-sites-of-darwin-s-frog-nbsp">Unusual breeding sites of Darwin's frog&nbsp;</h2>



Despite their specialized breeding behavior, these frogs have adapted to breed in a variety of unusual and unnatural sites, especially in disturbed forest areas.&nbsp;



The researchers observed them breeding in places like artificially watered plastic sapling bags and discarded containers, such as plastic and metal vessels, left at the forest's edge.&nbsp;



The adaptation to these suboptimal breeding sites is likely a response to habitat loss and competition for limited resources, posing a threat to the species' survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-efforts-to-protect-darwin-s-frog-nbsp">Conservation efforts to protect Darwin's frog&nbsp;</h2>



The study emphasizes the urgent need for conservation efforts to protect the natural breeding habitats of Minervarya charlesdarwini. The species is currently listed as “Vulnerable” on the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN Red List of Threatened Species</a>, and the degradation of its natural habitat could severely impact its population.



“The frogs’ use of trash for breeding is both surprising and worrying. We now need to know its causes and long-term consequences, and devise ways to protect the natural breeding sites that are critical for the survival of the species,” said co-lead author Sonali Garg.



The research was conducted over three years on the remote islands of the Andaman archipelago, requiring over 55 nights of fieldwork during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sonoran-monsoon-blaming-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">monsoon season</a>. 



The findings are detailed in a paper titled “Tree holes to trash: unique upside-down terrestrial spawning, agonistic interactions, complex mating calls, and unnatural breeding alteration in Minervarya charlesdarwini (Anura, Dicroglossidae),” published in the July 2024 issue of Breviora.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study-nbsp">Broader implications of the study&nbsp;</h2>



The research underscores the unique ecological adaptations of Darwin's frog and the pressing conservation needs of this endemic species.&nbsp;



The study also highlights the critical role of natural microhabitats and the potential threats posed by human-induced environmental changes.



“Our findings call for conservation attention to this habitat specialist, which, although locally abundant, is an endemic and threatened species of the Andaman Islands,” concluded the study authors.



Image Credit: S.D. Biju



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Darwin’s frogs are breeding in highly unusual places

A recent study has uncovered a unique breeding behavior in...

Monarch butterflies in Northern California are adapting to climate change by shifting their breeding season to winter, according to a new study published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.18473/lepi.78i2.a6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of the Lepidopterists’ Society</a>. 



This adaptation, observed particularly in the urban San Francisco Bay Area, could be crucial for the species' survival. 



The study, led by David James, an associate professor of entomology at <a href="https://wsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington State University</a>, found that monarch pupae developing in the winter of 2021/2022 had a survival rate of about 50 percent.&nbsp;



This finding builds on previous research documenting winter breeding in the region during 2020/2021, a phenomenon likely driven by warmer winters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monarchs-evolving-for-survival">Monarchs evolving for survival</h2>



“We are witnessing monarchs evolving and adapting to new environmental circumstances,” James stated. “We can learn a lot from what they are doing, and this will inform our strategies for providing the resources they need to be successful.”&nbsp;



This observation is crucial as it indicates the monarchs' potential to adapt to changing climatic conditions, ensuring their continued survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monarch-pupae-viability-nbsp">Monarch pupae viability&nbsp;</h2>



Over the past five years, the population of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monarch-butterflies-winter-locations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">overwintering</a> monarchs along the California coast has fluctuated dramatically, dropping from 192,624 in 2017 to an all-time low of 1,899 in 2020. However, numbers rebounded to 247,246 in 2021 and 335,479 in 2022.&nbsp;



Concurrently, there has been a noticeable rise in winter-breeding monarchs feeding on non-native <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/restoring-milkweed-could-save-the-eastern-monarch-butterfly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">milkweeds</a> in urban areas. The recent study is the first to assess the viability of monarch pupae during winter, providing vital data for understanding this new breeding behavior.



The research involved monitoring more than 100 wild monarch pupae at the Googleplex campus near Palo Alto during the winter of 2021/2022. Citizen scientist Maria Schaefer, who has collaborated with Professor James since 2020, led the monitoring efforts.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monarch-survival-rates-in-winter">Monarch survival rates in winter</h2>



Despite some losses due to landscaping activities, the study found a 49.4% success rate in pupal eclosion - the process of emerging as adult butterflies.&nbsp;



Notably, the researchers observed that winter pupae can survive and produce adults over a period of up to seven weeks, compared to just 10 days in summer conditions. “Given that winter is a sub-optimal environment for breeding, these results are promising,” James noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-parasites-and-winter-breeding">Parasites and winter breeding</h2>



The study also examined the prevalence of the parasite Ophryocystis elektroscirrha in the winter-breeding population, using the shed-skin of the pupae (exuviae) for detection.&nbsp;



The analysis suggested that approximately 70% of the population was likely infected with the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/millions-of-monarch-butterflies-are-killed-by-parasites-yearly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parasite</a>, highlighting the need for further research into its impact on the monarchs, particularly in the context of their new winter breeding behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modifying-monarch-conservation-nbsp-strategies">Modifying monarch conservation&nbsp;strategies </h2>



The emergence of winter-breeding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-forecast-the-future-of-monarch-butterflies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">monarchs</a> presents an adaptation to warmer winters, providing an alternative to the traditional overwintering in non-breeding colonies at sites like Pacific Grove, Santa Cruz, and Pismo Beach. To support this new behavior, conservation practices may need to be updated.&nbsp;



“Currently, conservation guidelines dictate that ornamental milkweeds, the ones that winter-breeding monarchs primarily use, should be cut down during winter to minimize parasite infection,” noted Professor James.&nbsp;



“This is clearly bad for winter-breeding. We suggest that these guidelines should be modified to have milkweed cut back during late summer instead of late fall which should still minimize parasite infection while ensuring availability of plants for monarch winter-breeding.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study">Broader implications of the study</h2>



The researchers plan to continue monitoring the winter-breeding monarch populations in the South Bay Area to gather more data.&nbsp;



Their ongoing research aims to understand the role these winter-breeding monarchs may play in sustaining the overall population of western monarchs, which face numerous challenges due to climate change and habitat loss.&nbsp;



The findings from this study not only provide valuable insights into the adaptability of monarch butterflies but also underscore the need for flexible and updated conservation strategies to support their survival in a changing world.



“The developing importance of winter breeding in western monarch ecology necessitates modifications to conservation guidelines that enhance the survival of immature stages, acknowledging the role of non-native milkweeds while minimizing parasite infection,” the authors concluded.



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Monarch butterflies shift to winter breeding for survival

Monarch butterflies in Northern California are adapting to climate change...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



-----



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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