<p>A team in central China has done something simple and bold, they directly dated dinosaur eggs instead of the rocks around them. The eggshell calcite from the Qinglongshan site yielded an age of 85.91 ± 1.74 million years.</p>



<p>This matters because it turns eggs from interesting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-did-dinosaurs-come-from-missing-fossils-hold-the-secret/">fossils</a> into reliable timestamps for life on land during the Late Cretaceous, a time of shifting climates and ecosystems.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-eggshells-dated">Dinosaur eggshells dated</h2>



<p>The fossils come from Qinglongshan in the Yunyang Basin of Hubei Province, where thousands of intact eggs rest in stacked layers with little distortion.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“We show that these dinosaur eggs were deposited roughly 85 million years ago, in the Late Cretaceous period,” said <a href="https://loop.frontiersin.org/people/3140051/overview" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Bi Zhao</a>, from the Hubei Institute of Geosciences (<a href="https://en.cug.edu.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HIG</a>).</p>



<p>The group used carbonate <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/zircon-u-pb-dating" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U-Pb dating</a> on eggshell material, measuring uranium and lead atoms to calculate time since the shell formed. </p>



<p>In their tests, the radiogenic signal sits in biogenic calcite, the carbonate built by the egg-laying animal, which behaved as a semi-closed system for uranium uptake after burial.</p>



<p>The <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/earth-science/articles/10.3389/feart.2025.1638838/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">analysis</a> relied on <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/laser-ablation" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">laser ablation</a>, a micro laser that vaporizes pinpoint spots of carbonate which are then analyzed by a mass spectrometer for uranium and lead ratios.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The resulting age is not from ash fall or nearby minerals, it is from the eggshell itself, which frees researchers from indirect age constraints that can mislead if volcanic layers formed earlier or later than the nest horizon.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-carbonate-u-pb-works">How carbonate U-Pb works</h2>



<p>Uranium isotopes in carbonates decay into lead at known, constant rates, and the proportion of parent to daughter isotopes reveals elapsed time. </p>



<p>Cross checks, like repeated spots in different shell areas and agreement between fragments, keep the numbers honest, and the reported uncertainty of ± 1.74 million years reflects instrument precision and sample scatter, not guesswork.</p>



<p>Indirect <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1367912012005019" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">approaches</a> have anchored many Asian egg sites by dating interbedded tuffs, for example zircon based SIMS ages from the Tiantai Basin that bracket egg layers in the Laijia and Chichengshan formations at roughly 96 to 99 million years and 91 to 94 million years. </p>



<p>That prior dating set a framework that eggshell ages can now refine where ash is missing.</p>



<p>Carbonate geochronology has matured fast, with careful comparisons between uranium thorium and U-Pb techniques on the same samples showing strong consistency over wide timescales. </p>



<p>That broader look at geochronology <a href="https://gchron.copernicus.org/articles/7/335/2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">methods</a> helps explain why a tiny eggshell can carry a credible age.</p>



<p>The study team also separated signals, finding consistent ages from biogenic carbonates, and noisy or unusable signals from late pore filling calcite, a reminder that not all carbonates are equal for keeping time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-eggshell-site">Dinosaur eggshell site</h2>



<p>The Qinglongshan reserve preserves egg clutches in red siltstones and sandstones, with many eggs still three dimensional and minimally deformed, a rare condition that helps both taphonomy and dating. </p>



<p>The sampled clutch belonged to an oblate style of egg typical of the family <a href="https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Dendrobatidae/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Dendroolithidae</em></a>, which is known for highly porous shells.</p>



<p>Those Yunyang eggs have been assigned to <em>Placoolithus tumiaolingensis</em> by <a href="https://www.app.pan.pl/archive/published/app63/app005232018.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> that cleaned up the taxonomy and emphasized the diagnostic shell microstructure. That classification anchors the site in a broader Chinese record of <em>dendroolithid</em> eggs.</p>



<p>Porous eggshell architecture affects gas exchange and incubation, and the microstructure varies in ways that may reflect nesting style in a semi arid fluvial landscape. </p>



<p>The new age puts those choices in a tight slice of time, late Coniacian to early Santonian, rather than a vague Late Cretaceous window.</p>



<p>Thousands of eggs across stacked horizons also open the door to building a basin scale timeline where shell ages from different levels track local ecological change, sedimentation rates, and any shifts in the nesting fauna.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/dinosaur-eggs_dating-method_china_credit-Bi-Zhao_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/dinosaur-eggs_dating-method_china_credit-Bi-Zhao_1s.webp" alt="Egg clutch sampled for chronological studies. Credit Dr. Bi Zhao" class="wp-image-1985991"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>Egg clutch sampled for chronological studies. Click image to enlarge. Credit Dr. Bi Zhao</em></figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-climate-context">Dinosaur climate context</h2>



<p>Marine records indicate the Late Cretaceous did not stay uniformly hot. </p>



<p>One North Atlantic sea surface temperature <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24937202/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">record</a> shows a drop of about 7 degrees Celsius (12.6 degrees Fahrenheit), from around 35 degrees to below 28 degrees, between the earliest Campanian and the Maastrichtian.</p>



<p>Independent <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18187651/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence</a> from oxygen isotopes suggests brief glaciation episodes punctuated parts of the mid Cretaceous greenhouse, showing that climate could swing even when the world was generally warm. </p>



<p>Inland Asia would have felt those shifts in precipitation, seasonality, and vegetation.</p>



<p>Pinned ages on terrestrial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-extinction-theories-are-challenged-by-new-research/">fossils</a> let scientists ask tighter questions about whether nesting density changed across cooler intervals or whether certain egg types rose or fell with climate. </p>



<p>The eggshell ages at Qinglongshan now give one fixed point for such tests, and more layers can add the sequence needed to see patterns.</p>



<p>Cause and effect claims are premature at a single site, but a direct eggshell chronology makes it practical to compare neighboring basins and see whether bird and non avian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-sized-baby-dinosaur-unearthed-after-166-million-years/">dinosaur</a> nesting moved, paused, or persisted during regional climate transitions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-comes-next">What comes next</h2>



<p>The team plans to sample eggs from additional horizons at Qinglongshan, then from basins to the north and south, to build a regional timeline that can be compared with dated marine and volcanic records. </p>



<p>That will clarify which changes are local quirks and which ones reflect broader environmental forcing across East Asia.</p>



<p>Applying the same protocol to eggs in the Xixia, Jiaolai, and Nanxiong basins would close large age gaps where ash beds are absent. </p>



<p>Those basins have different egg assemblages, so a uniform clock could test migration ideas and turnover hypotheses without assuming rock ages transfer cleanly between sites.</p>



<p>Direct dinosaur eggshell dating also complements existing zircon frameworks rather than replacing them, since both tools answer different parts of the age question. </p>



<p>Zircons pin eruptive or depositional moments for ash, while eggshells date the biological event of nesting, and together they can resolve the tempo of life on land.</p>



<p>With better <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammals-ground-dwellers-survived-the-asteroid-impact-that-killed-the-dinosaurs/">timescales</a>, small details like pore geometry, clutch spacing, and shell thickness will be tied to environmental context, not guesswork. </p>



<p>That is how a few careful ages can turn a crowded egg hillside into a precise chronicle of Late Cretaceous life in central China.</p>



<p>The study is published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/earth-science/articles/10.3389/feart.2025.1638838/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Frontiers in Earth Science</em></a>.</p>



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These dinosaur eggs tell an incredible story from 85 million years ago

A team in central China has done something simple and bold, they directly dated dinosaur eggs instead of the rocks around them. The eggshell calcite from the Qinglongshan site yielded an age of 85.91 ± 1.74 million years. This matters because it turns eggs from interesting fossils into reliable timestamps for life on land during the Late Cretaceous, a time of shifting climates and ecosystems. Dinosaur eggshells dated The fossils come from Qinglongshan in the Yunyang Basin of Hubei Province, where thousands of intact eggs rest in...

<p>In the realm of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-seabird-audio-recordings-show-they-have-a-very-active-nightlife/">avian behavior</a>, a study led by the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a> has illuminated the crucial role of bird's social networks. The research reveals a fascinating link: birds ingrained in more social circles exhibit a higher propensity for exploring and utilizing novel food sources.</p>



<p>This revelation significantly enriches our understanding of animal behavior. It highlights the intricate interplay between social structures and survival strategies in nature.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-social-network-of-the-skies">The social network of the skies</h2>



<p>At the heart of this research is the amazing observation that feeding in groups offers birds a suite of benefits. These include heightened vigilance against greedy predators and improved efficiency in locating food.</p>



<p>However, this social dining comes with its share of tough challenges - mainly the intensified competition for the available resources.</p>



<p>It's within this context that the team discovered a compelling behavioral adaptation. By diversifying their diet to include previously untapped food options, sociable birds can effectively mitigate the competition inherent in their social circles.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



<p>Conducted in the verdant expanse of Wytham Woods in Oxfordshire, the experts meticulously tracked the foraging patterns of 105 wild great tits during the winter season. </p>



<p>The birds were equipped with radio frequency identification (RFID) tags, and their interactions at feeding stations were closely monitored. Additionally, the researchers analyzed the positions of individual birds within the social network - defined by the number of their social connections and preferred associates.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-food-choices">New food choices</h2>



<p>The crux of the experiment involved introducing new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-birds-learn-what-to-avoid-eating-by-watching-others/">food choices</a> at the feeding stations. The options were between the familiar comfort of ground peanuts and the intrigue of the same nuts dyed in vibrant hues of red or green.</p>



<p>Over a span of 19 days, the researchers charted the birds' engagement with these novel food options. They sought correlations with a variety of factors, including the birds' social connectivity.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-birds-expand-their-diets">Social birds expand their diets</h2>



<p>The findings were unequivocal. Birds with more robust social ties exhibited a marked preference for the novel food, consuming it at significantly higher rates than their less sociable counterparts. </p>



<p>Intriguingly, this pattern held true regardless of other seemingly potential influencing factors such as age, sex, flock size, or overall feeding activity. </p>



<p>Notably, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-bird-species-are-less-competitive/">sociability</a> did not affect the speed at which these birds initially approached the novel food - with 92% of the participants venturing to try it. However, it did play a strikingly decisive role in their subsequent preference for it.</p>



<p>"This indicates that the increased usage of the novel food by the more social birds was not due to them being generally more exploratory or brave, but rather that more social birds are more likely to use novel food as a way of expanding their diets to offset the costs of having more foraging associates," said Dr. Keith McMahon, the lead researcher from the Department of Biology at Oxford.</p>



<p>This insight challenges pre-existing notions about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migratory-behaviors-are-shaped-by-experience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal behavior</a>, remarkably suggesting that sociability, rather than innate boldness, drives dietary expansion.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sociality-and-survival-in-the-animal-kingdom">Sociality and survival in the animal kingdom</h2>



<p>Looking ahead, the research team plans to investigate further. They are extremely interested in how social birds might leverage their networks to gain information about new food sources. This could thereby bolster their confidence in experimenting with these alternatives.</p>



<p>Dr. Josh Firth, a senior researcher involved in the study, emphasized the potential directions for future research. "The findings suggest that highly social birds may alleviate the costs of competition for food by foraging more broadly and exploiting novel food sources, but future research could explore whether there are additional reasons which explain why more social individuals are more likely to tolerate new foods."</p>



<p>This study not only advances our understanding of the behavioral strategies that birds employ to navigate the challenges of <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/you-are-what-you-eat-diet-influences-the-social-lives-of-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social living</a>. It also opens up new avenues for exploring the intricate dynamics between sociality and survival in the animal kingdom.</p>



<p>As we delve deeper into these relationships, we gain a broader perspective on the natural world and the myriad strategies employed by its inhabitants to thrive within it.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.aps.org/prx/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevX.14.011028" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em><em>iScience</em></em></a>.</p>



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Birds' social networks greatly influence their food choices

In the realm of avian behavior, a study led by...

<p>Recent paleontological discoveries from the Jurassic period of China have provided crucial insights into the evolutionary history of mammals. Two new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-treasure-trove-discovered-in-auckland/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> sets of <em>Feredocodon chowi</em> offer unprecedented clarity on long-debated questions surrounding mammalian tooth morphology, jaw structure, and hearing development. </p>



<p>These findings hold the potential to significantly revise our understanding of the early branches of the mammalian evolutionary tree.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feredocodon-chowi-and-shuotheriids-fossils"><em>Feredocodon chowi</em> and Shuotheriids fossils</h2>



<p>Shuotheriids were a group of tiny mammals that lived during the Jurassic period. Their teeth have been a real head-scratcher for scientists because they don't look like teeth from any other known group of mammals. </p>



<p>This made it hard to figure out where they fit in the mammal family tree. Some scientists thought they might be related to the ancestors of today's egg-laying mammals, like the platypus.</p>



<p>But recently, scientists found two amazingly well-preserved fossils of shuotheriids (dated 168-164 million years ago). </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-branch-of-early-mammal-diversification">New branch of early mammal diversification</h2>



<p>By studying these fossils closely, they realized that the teeth were actually more similar to those of another extinct mammal group called the docodontans. </p>



<p>The implications of this discovery suggest that shuotheriids may represent a distinct and previously under appreciated branch of early mammal diversification.</p>



<p>“When you look at the fossil record, both for mammals and many other sorts of animals, teeth are the part of the body that you are most likely to recover,” said Jin Meng, curator in the American Museum of Natural History’s <a href="https://www.amnh.org/research/paleontology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Division of Paleontology</a> and a corresponding author. </p>



<p>“Yet since the 1980s, the perplexing tooth shape seen in shuotheriids has been a barrier to our efforts to understand early mammal evolution. These new specimens have allowed us to solve this longstanding problem.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-jurassic-fossils-unveil-mammal-hearing">How the Jurassic fossils unveil mammal hearing</h2>



<p>The skull of Dianoconodon youngi, dating back to 201-184 million years ago, offers a window into the dawn of mammalian hearing evolution. </p>



<p>This remarkable specimen showcases a jaw with a dual structure, combining a traditional reptilian joint (akin to that found in modern reptiles) with an early-stage mammalian joint, highlighting a pivotal moment in evolutionary history.</p>



<p>The presence of both joints in <em>Dianoconodon youngi</em> signifies an intermediate stage in the evolutionary transition from reptiles to mammals. The reduced functionality of the reptilian joint in this species points towards a declining reliance on it for chewing. </p>



<p>A shift in dietary habits, requiring different chewing mechanics, might have driven this change as early mammals adapted to new food sources.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feredocodon-chowi-makes-an-evolutionary-leap"><em>Feredocodon chowi</em> makes an evolutionary leap</h2>



<p>Moving forward in time, the younger fossil, <em>Feredocodon chowi</em>, which lived between 168-164 million years ago, shows us the culmination of this evolutionary transformation. </p>



<p>In <em>Feredocodon chowi</em>, the mammalian middle ear is fully formed, indicating that the transition away from the dual-jointed structure is complete. </p>



<p>This adaptation not only marks a significant evolutionary leap but also illustrates the complexity and gradual nature of these changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mammalian-middle-ear-insights-from-jurassic-fossils">Mammalian middle ear insights from jurassic fossils</h2>



<p>The mammalian middle ear is a small chamber situated just behind the eardrum. This chamber plays a crucial role in our exceptional hearing ability. Inside this chamber are three tiny bones called auditory ossicles. </p>



<p>These bones efficiently transmit sound vibrations from the eardrum to the inner ear. Here, the vibrations convert into electrical signals. Our brains then interpret these signals as sound.</p>



<p>This system stands in stark contrast to the middle ear structure found in reptiles and birds. These animals possess only a single bone in their middle ear. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reptilian-ancestors-of-feredocodon-chowi">Reptilian ancestors of <em>Feredocodon chowi</em></h2>



<p>As discussed above, scientists believe that some bones, originally part of the jaw joint in reptilian ancestors, evolved for hearing in mammals. These bones were repurposed during the evolution from reptiles to mammals.</p>



<p>This remarkable transformation allowed mammals to develop the superior hearing that's a hallmark of our class. </p>



<p>“Scientists have been trying to understand how the mammalian middle ear evolved since Darwin’s time,” said Meng. “While paleontological discoveries have helped reveal the process during the last a few decades, these new fossils bring to light a critical missing link and enrich our understanding of the gradual evolution of the mammalian middle ear.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-jurassic-fossils-illuminate-mammal-evolution">Jurassic fossils illuminate mammal evolution</h2>



<p>The dental findings from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-species-of-jurassic-pterosaur-found-on-the-isle-of-skye/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jurassic</a> fossils indicate that shuotheriids represent a distinct side branch of mammalian evolution, further elucidating the diversification pathways of mammals.</p>



<p>The auditory fossils provide a remarkably clear illustration of how the mammalian middle ear system developed, resolving a longstanding evolutionary question. </p>



<p>These breakthroughs highlight the potential for future paleontological work to further refine our understanding of mammalian origins and the development of their characteristic traits.</p>



<p>Meticulous analysis of fossil discoveries continues to enrich the study of mammalian evolution. These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plesiosaur-fossils-are-the-first-evidence-of-jurassic-vertebrates-in-texas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jurassic</a> specimens shed light on pivotal events in the evolutionary history of mammals, underscoring the power of the fossil record to unveil the transformative processes that have shaped life on Earth.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-theories-on-feredocodon-chowi-and-mammal-evolution">Other theories on <em>Feredocodon chowi</em> and mammal evolution</h2>



<p>Mammal evolution is a complex field with several competing theories that attempt to explain how modern mammals emerged from their ancient ancestors. </p>



<p>Besides the detailed analysis of fossil evidence like the transition in jaw and ear structure, other theories focus on various aspects of mammal evolution, including molecular biology, developmental processes, and ecological factors. Here are a few notable theories:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Molecular clock hypotheses</h3>



<p>These hypotheses use DNA and protein sequences to estimate the timing of evolutionary events. By comparing the genetic material of different species, scientists can infer when lineages diverged. </p>



<p>This approach has suggested that mammals diversified much earlier than the fossil record alone might indicate, possibly dating back to the late Triassic period.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Cretaceous terrestrial revolution</h3>



<p>Some researchers propose that the rapid evolution of flowering plants (angiosperms) during the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretaceous_Terrestrial_Revolution" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cretaceous Terrestrial Revolution</a> (CTR) significantly influenced the diversification of mammals. </p>



<p>This period marked a major shift in the ecological landscape. This ecological shift may have provided new niches and food sources for mammals, driving their diversification and adaptation.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Evolution of mammalian reproduction</h3>



<p>Theories about the evolution of mammalian reproduction focus on the transition from egg-laying to live birth (viviparity) and the development of complex reproductive strategies, including placentation. </p>



<p>These changes are believed to have provided early mammals with a competitive edge, allowing for more direct nurturing of offspring and a greater chance of survival in the harsh prehistoric world.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Survival and diversification post-dinosaur extinction</h3>



<p>Another significant theory posits that mammals were able to survive and diversify after the mass extinction event that wiped out the dinosaurs about 66 million years ago. </p>



<p>With the decline of dinosaurs, mammals exploited new ecological niches, leading to rapid evolution and the emergence of the wide variety of forms we see today.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Insular dwarfism and gigantism</h3>



<p>The theory of insular dwarfism and gigantism suggests that mammals living on islands evolved significantly different body sizes compared to their mainland counterparts. </p>



<p>This is believed to result from limited resources and reduced predation pressures on islands, leading to unique evolutionary pressures that shaped mammal evolution in these isolated environments.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Co-evolution with <em>Feredocodon chowi</em> and other species</h3>



<p>This theory emphasizes the importance of interactions between species, such as predator-prey relationships, symbiosis, and competition, in driving mammalian evolution. </p>



<p>The co-evolution of mammals with other organisms, including plants, insects, and other vertebrates, has likely played a crucial role in the development of diverse mammalian adaptations and behaviors.</p>



<p>Each of these theories contributes to a broader understanding of mammal evolution, highlighting the complexity and multifaceted nature of evolutionary processes. </p>



<p>By integrating findings from paleontology, genetics, ecology, and comparative anatomy, scientists continue to unravel the intricate history of mammalian life on Earth.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07235-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a></em>.</p>



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Feredocodon chowi: Fossils yield clues to mammal evolution

Recent paleontological discoveries from the Jurassic period of China have...

<p>Chickens have become an integral part of our lives, serving as a vital source of food and economic value. However, the origin story of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-can-now-decipher-the-emotional-states-of-chickens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener sponsored nofollow">chickens</a>, including their domestication and dispersal across the ancient world, has remained shrouded in mystery.</p>



<p>Recent archaeological findings have challenged previously held beliefs about early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/roosters-can-recognize-themselves-in-the-mirror-demonstrating-self-awareness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chicken</a> remains, prompting researchers to delve deeper into this fascinating topic.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-raising-chickens-for-egg-production">Raising chickens for egg production</h2>



<p>An international team of archaeologists, historians, and biomolecular scientists, led by Dr. Carli Peters from the Max Planck Institute of <a href="https://www.shh.mpg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geoanthropology</a> and Dr. Robert Spengler, presents the earliest clear evidence for the raising of chickens for egg production. </p>



<p>The researchers argue that the loss of seasonal egg laying was the main driver for the dispersal of domestic chickens across Eurasia and northeast Africa.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-silk-road-s-link-to-chicken-domestication">Silk Road's link to chicken domestication</h2>



<p>The team collected tens of thousands of eggshell fragments from 12 archaeological sites spanning roughly 1,500 years along the ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reopened-silk-road-route/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Silk Road</a> in Central Asia. </p>



<p>Using a biomolecular analysis method called ZooMS, which relies on protein signals rather than DNA, the researchers identified the source of the eggs as chickens. </p>



<p>Dr. Carli Peters emphasizes the potential of ZooMS in shedding light on human-animal interactions in the past, stating, "This study showcases the potential of ZooMS to shed light on human-animal interactions in the past."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prolific-egg-laying">Prolific egg laying</h2>



<p>The abundance of eggshells at each site led the researchers to a crucial conclusion. The chickens must have been laying more frequently than their wild ancestor, the red jungle fowl, which typically lays six eggs per clutch once a year. </p>



<p>Dr. Robert Spengler, the principal investigator on the study, highlights the importance of this finding. "This is the earliest evidence for the loss of seasonal egg laying yet identified in the archaeological record," Spengler explained. </p>



<p>"This is an important clue for better understanding the mutualistic relationships between humans and animals that resulted in domestication."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solving-the-riddle-of-the-chicken-and-the-egg">Solving the riddle of the chicken and the egg</h2>



<p>The question of whether the chicken or the egg came first is a classic philosophical dilemma that has puzzled people for generations. </p>



<p>From a scientific perspective, the answer is that the egg came first. Here's why:</p>



<ul>
<li><strong>Evolution</strong>: Chickens, like all birds, evolved from dinosaurs. The first chicken-like birds probably appeared around 150 million years ago. These ancient birds laid eggs, which means that eggs were around long before chickens as we know them today.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li><strong>Genetic mutations</strong>: The modern chicken is a domesticated subspecies of the red junglefowl. At some point, a genetic mutation occurred in a junglefowl egg that resulted in a bird with characteristics that we now associate with chickens. That egg, therefore, contained the first true chicken.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li><strong>Egg-laying animals</strong>: Eggs have been around since long before chickens. Reptiles and amphibians were laying eggs hundreds of millions of years ago, and the first amniotic egg (the type of egg that chickens lay) appeared around 340 million years ago.</li>
</ul>



<p>In summary, while it may seem counterintuitive, the egg came first from an evolutionary standpoint. The egg containing the first chicken was laid by a bird that was not quite a chicken, but the egg it laid contained the genetic mutation that resulted in the first true chicken.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chickens-remarkable-domestication-journey">Chickens' remarkable domestication journey</h2>



<p>This intriguing research on chicken domestication and dispersal along the ancient Silk Road has shed new light on the complex relationship between humans and animals. </p>



<p>By applying innovative methods like ZooMS and collaborating across disciplines, scientists have uncovered compelling evidence that the loss of seasonal egg laying played a crucial role in the chicken's journey from jungle fowl to global phenomenon. </p>



<p>This study answers the age-old question of the chicken and the egg and highlights the immense potential of interdisciplinary research in unraveling the mysteries of our past. </p>



<p>As we continue to explore the fascinating story of chicken domestication, we gain a deeper appreciation for the remarkable adaptability and economic significance of this beloved bird.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-46093-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a></em>.</p>



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How scientists cracked the code of chicken domestication

Chickens have become an integral part of our lives, serving...

<p>Ever seen a bug that looks like it should be in a bullfighting ring rather than a tropical forest? Meet the aptly named matador <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/do-bugs-bug-humans-more-than-humans-bug-bugs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bug</a>. This little critter has captured the interest of scientists with its flashy red, brightly colored hind legs. </p>



<p>But these adornments aren't just for show. Research suggests they send a clear message to hungry predators: "Stay away!"</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-matador-bugs">Matador bugs</h2>



<p>Matador bugs, belonging to the species <em>Anisoscelis alipes</em>, are fascinating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stink-bug-habitat-could-increase-by-70-percent-in-the-u-s/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a> known for their distinctive bright red hind legs, which resemble flags. </p>



<p>These bugs are primarily found in Central and South America. They flourish in tropical environments, where their colorful appearance melds with the vibrant foliage. Yet, to potential predators, this colorful display serves as a stark warning signal.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Habitat and distribution</h3>



<p>Matador bugs live in regions that offer a rich biodiversity. Their habitat allows them access to a variety of food sources and the warm, humid environment they need to survive and reproduce.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Lifestyle and behavior</h3>



<p>These bugs lead intriguing lives, marked by their unique behavior of waving their red "flag" legs. This action, previously thought to be a mating display, is actually a survival tactic against predators. Both male and female matador bugs possess these colorful legs, which they use to communicate with predators rather than potential mates.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Diet and predation</h3>



<p>Matador bugs, like many other insects, are likely herbivorous, feeding on the plant life abundant in their tropical habitats. The vivid coloration of their legs serves as a deterrent to predators, signaling that they might be toxic or taste bad due to chemical defenses, a strategy common among brightly colored insects.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Reproduction and life cycle</h3>



<p>The reproductive habits of matador bugs follow typical insect patterns, involving mating rituals that may not necessarily rely on their leg flags, contrary to what one might assume given their conspicuous display. </p>



<p>After mating, females lay eggs, which hatch into nymphs that go through several molts before reaching adulthood. Throughout these stages, they gradually develop the characteristic red legs that are critical to their survival strategy.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Importance in ecosystems</h3>



<p>Matador bugs play a vital role in their ecosystems, serving as both pollinators and a part of the food web. While their leg-waving behavior and chemical defenses protect them from many predators, they are still prey for some birds and other wildlife that have evolved to ignore their warning signals. </p>



<p>This dynamic contributes to the complex balance of predator-prey relationships within tropical ecosystems.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-secrets-of-the-matador-bug">Secrets of the matador bug</h2>



<p>The <a href="https://stri.si.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute</a> in Panama focused its attention on a particular aspect of the matador bug: its bright red hind legs. Researchers there were specifically interested in understanding the purpose behind this striking coloration. </p>



<p>The experts hypothesized that the matador bug primarily uses its red legs to protect itself, rather than to attract mates. </p>



<p>Here's why: matador bugs possess a chemical defense mechanism that makes them unpleasant to eat (we'll explore this further later). The scientists suspected that the vibrant red hind legs function as a warning signal to predators. </p>



<p>Just like red flags at a beach signal danger to swimmers, the matador bug's red legs could be a way of communicating a clear message: "I have a terrible taste, don't even consider eating me!"</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-taste-test-for-the-birds">A taste test (for the birds)</h2>



<p>To test their theory, the researchers conducted an experiment. They took crickets, a typical and desirable snack for birds, and carefully attached miniature red flags to their legs – designed to mimic the matador bug's hind leg coloration. </p>



<p>They then gathered a group of motmots, birds known for their vibrant plumage and sharp vision. These birds were presented with three choices:</p>



<ul>
<li>Ordinary crickets with no modifications</li>



<li>Crickets adorned with the red flags</li>



<li>Genuine matador bugs, with their natural flags</li>
</ul>



<p>The results of this experiment were intriguing. The birds were still inclined to attempt to eat the crickets with the red flags, although they showed a degree of hesitation. </p>



<p>“I was fascinated to see that when we outfitted tasty crickets with the matador <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-water-bugs-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bug</a> flags they immediately became less appealing to their bird predators,” said Juliette Rubin,&nbsp;currently the Tony Coates Post-Doctoral Fellow at the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute and lead-author of this study.</p>



<p>However, the motmots clearly avoided attacking the real matador bugs, regardless of whether the bugs had their signature red flags attached or not.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-matador-bugs-taste">Matador bugs taste</h2>



<p>To further solidify their findings, the researchers took their experiment a step further. They introduced a new group of test subjects: young chicks that had never encountered either matador bugs or crickets before. These chicks were presented with the same choices as the motmots – regular crickets, crickets with the red flags, and real matador bugs.</p>



<p>The results were highly informative. The chicks instinctively went after the crickets, demonstrating their natural predatory behavior. However, they completely avoided the matador bugs. Also, those who did dare attack the bugs reacted in disgust, shaking their heads and refusing to eat more. This confirmed the theory: matador bugs taste terrible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broad-implications">Broad implications</h2>



<p>In the wild, predator and prey constantly play a relentless game of eat or be eaten. Animals have developed a remarkable array of defense strategies to tip the scales in their favor – from camouflage that allows them to blend seamlessly with their surroundings to sharp spines and potent venom. The matador bug's flashy red legs fit squarely within a fascinating category of defenses known as aposematism.</p>



<p>Aposematic animals boldly announce their presence with vibrant colors or striking patterns. These signals are essentially advertisements: a warning that they are dangerous, unpalatable, or simply not worth the effort to hunt. </p>



<p>Think of the iconic black and yellow stripes of a wasp, the shockingly bright coloration of poison dart frogs, or the bold eye-spots on certain butterflies. Predators learn through experience, or sometimes instinct, to associate these striking features with a negative consequence.</p>



<p>The matador bug isn't alone in using this strategy. Many insects, including ladybugs, milkweed bugs, and even some caterpillars, sport bright colors that deter hungry predators. The concept of mimicry also comes into play in these predator-prey interactions. </p>



<p>Some harmless species evolve to resemble those with potent defenses, gaining protection by association even without packing a chemical punch themselves.</p>



<p>The results are published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/arae019" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Behavioral Ecology</em></a>.</p>



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Matador bugs have flashy red legs that send a clear message

Ever seen a bug that looks like it should be...

<p>The impact of mining on Africa's great ape populations has been greatly underestimated, according to a recent study led by the <a href="https://www.idiv.de/en/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">German Center for Integrative Biodiversity Research</a> (iDiv), <a href="https://www.uni-halle.de/?lang=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg</a> (MLU), and the non-profit organization <a href="https://www.rewild.org/">Re:wild</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-increasing-demand-for-critical-minerals-nbsp">Increasing demand for critical minerals&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The experts identified the burgeoning threat posed by the increasing demand for critical minerals like copper, lithium, nickel, cobalt, and rare earth elements, essential for the transition to cleaner energy.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This demand drives a mining surge in Africa, where many of these resources remain untapped, leading to deforestation and endangering the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/western-chimpanzees-need-protection-from-human-development/">habitats</a> of our closest living relatives, including gorillas, bonobos, and chimpanzees.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The researchers estimate that mining places nearly 180,000 great apes at risk, more than one-third of Africa's entire population of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-apes-will-suffer-through-frequent-and-extreme-climate-events/">species</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-concealment-of-biodiversity-data-by-mining-companies">Concealment of biodiversity data by mining companies</h2>



<p>The concealment of biodiversity data by mining companies exacerbates the situation, hiding the full extent of mining's impact on biodiversity and great apes.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The research team utilized data on operational and prospective mining sites across 17 African countries, incorporating buffer zones around these sites to measure both direct impacts, like habitat destruction and pollution, and indirect ones, such as increased human activity leading to habitat loss and elevated disease transmission risks.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-overlaps-in-mining-and-high-ape-density-zones-nbsp">Overlaps in mining and high ape density zones&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Great apes in West Africa, particularly in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Mali, and Guinea, face the severest threats due to substantial overlaps between mining areas and high ape density zones.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Notably, in Guinea, mining activities could impact over 23,000 chimpanzees, up to 83% of the country's ape population. The areas most at risk - where high ape and mining densities coincide - are largely unprotected.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mining-s-true-impact-on-great-apes">Mining's true impact on great apes</h2>



<p>"Currently, studies on other species suggest that mining harms apes through pollution, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/top-marine-predators-may-suffer-massive-habitat-loss-by-2100/">habitat loss</a>, increased hunting pressure, and disease, but this is an incomplete picture," said study lead author Jessica Junker, a researcher at Re:wild and former postdoctoral fellow at iDiv and MLU.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“The lack of data sharing by mining projects hampers our scientific understanding of its true impact on great apes and their habitat.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-regions-designated-as-critical-habitats-nbsp">Regions designated as critical habitats&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The intersection of mining areas with regions designated as "critical habitats," essential for their unique biodiversity, was found to be alarmingly high, about 20 percent.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Critical habitats are subject to stringent environmental regulations, especially for mining projects seeking financial backing from entities like the <a href="https://www.ifc.org/en/home">International Finance Corporation</a> or similar lenders. However, many ape habitats have been overlooked in previous mappings of critical habitat in Africa.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-transparency-is-urgently-needed">More transparency is urgently needed</h2>



<p>“Companies operating in these areas should have adequate mitigation and compensation schemes in place to minimize their impact, which seems unlikely, given that most companies lack robust species baseline data that are required to inform these actions,” explained senior author Tenekwetche Sop, the&nbsp; manager of the IUCN SSC A.P.E.S. Database at the <a href="https://museumfrankfurt.senckenberg.de/en/">Senckenberg Museum of Natural History</a>, a repository of all great ape population data.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Encouraging these companies to share their invaluable ape survey data with our database serves as a pivotal step towards transparency in their operations. Only through such collaborative efforts can we comprehensively gauge the true extent of mining activities' effects on great apes and their habitats.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-permanent-damage-inflicted-on-great-ape-populations">Permanent damage inflicted on great ape populations</h2>



<p>The study also critiques the current practices of compensation or offsetting by mining companies, pointing out that these measures are often based on underestimated approximations of mining's impacts and fail to account for the permanent damage inflicted on great ape <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/african-great-apes-will-lose-most-of-their-range-in-the-next-30-years/">populations</a>.&nbsp;</p>



<p>”Mining companies need to focus on avoiding their impacts on great apes as much as possible and use offsetting as a last resort as there is currently no example of a great ape offset that has been successful,” said co-author Genevieve Campbell, the leader of the <a href="https://www.arrctaskforce.org/about">IUCN SSC PSG SGA/SSA ARRC Task Force</a> and a senior researcher at Re:wild.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploration-and-habitat-destruction-nbsp">Exploration and habitat destruction&nbsp;</h2>



<p>"Avoidance needs to take place already during the exploration phase, but unfortunately, this phase is poorly regulated and ‘baseline data’ are collected by companies after many years of exploration and habitat destruction have taken place. These data then do not accurately reflect the original state of the great ape populations in the area before mining impacts.’’</p>



<p>“A shift away from fossil fuels is good for the climate but must be done in a way that does not jeopardize <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-biodiversity-crisis-is-actually-worse-than-we-thought/">biodiversity</a>. In its current iteration it may even be going against the very environmental goals we’re aiming for. Companies, lenders and nations need to recognize that it may sometimes be of greater value to leave some regions untouched to mitigate climate change and help prevent future epidemics,” Junker concluded.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adl0335" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Science Advances</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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Mining is permanently damaging great ape populations in Africa

The impact of mining on Africa's great ape populations has...

<p>A recent study has shifted the paradigm of how we understand the interconnectedness of our senses. At the heart of this discovery are chicks. These young birds have illuminated a path previously veiled in mystery, demonstrating an extraordinary ability to bridge the gap between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-respond-self-touch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">touch</a> and sight. </p>



<p>A diligent team at <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/">Queen Mary University of London</a> has not only answered a philosophical question centuries in the making but also redefined our grasp of sensory development. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chicks-answer-the-molyneux-s-problem">Chicks answer the Molyneux's Problem</h2>



<p>Imagine this: you're born blind. The world is a symphony of textures, sounds, and smells. You learn to navigate by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-hidden-way-that-humans-feel-and-sense-touch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">touch</a>, to picture the objects around you by their feel. </p>



<p>A teacup is a smooth cylinder, warm beneath your fingertips. A cat is a wriggling bundle of soft fur. You become so good at understanding shapes through touch that you could tell a cube from a pyramid with your hands tied.</p>



<p>Then, one miraculous day, your sight is restored. The world explodes into color and light. Could you look at a teacup and instantly know what it is, even though you've only "seen" it through touch? What about the cat you always stroked on your lap? </p>



<p>This is Molyneux's Problem - a thought experiment posed in 1688 that has haunted the minds of philosophers and scientists ever since. It forces us to confront the very nature of how we learn and how our brains weave together the information from our different senses.</p>



<p>Now, thanks to the inquisitive scientists and a bunch of fuzzy chicks, we might be a step closer to the answer.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chicks-and-sensory-perception">Chicks and sensory perception</h2>



<p>Dr. Elisabetta Versace is fascinated by how young animals (including humans) build their understanding of the world. At Queen Mary University of London, she leads a team that's determined to crack the secrets of sensory perception. Her interest in Molyneux's Problem led to a remarkable idea: Why not use newly hatched chicks?</p>



<p>"Unlike humans and other mammals, chicks hatch with developed sensory systems. This allowed us to raise them in darkness and expose them to either a smooth or bumpy object for the first 24 hours of their lives—their first-ever tactile experience," explained Dr. Versace.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-baby-chicks-touching-objects">Baby chicks touching objects</h2>



<p>The experiment itself was brilliantly simple. After hatching, some chicks were kept in darkness - only able to touch a smooth object using their beaks and feet. Others were given a smooth and bumpy object to investigate. </p>



<p>After a full day of this tactile exploration, the lights came on. Lying before the chicks were two new objects, one smooth and one bumpy. Would they show a preference, and if so, what would it tell us?</p>



<p>Incredibly, the chicks who had explored a smooth object with their touch showed a strong preference for the smooth object they now could see. The same was true for the "bumpy" chicks. </p>



<p>Dr. Versace was amazed: "This finding contradicts traditional theories. It suggests our brains are pre-wired to make connections between different senses, even before we have ever used them together."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-chicks-remembering-their-touch">Significance of chicks remembering their touch</h2>



<p>Traditionally, we believed that babies, both human and animal, learn to connect their senses through experience. Imagine seeing a dog, petting its soft fur, and hearing its playful bark. </p>



<p>Over time, these individual experiences combine to form a unified mental image of the dog. However, these chicks defied this notion entirely.</p>



<p>They exhibited a remarkable ability – cross-modal perception. This means their brains could inherently link touch with sight, even without any prior experience of seeing the object they'd touched. </p>



<p>This suggests that there might be deeper, pre-wired connections between our senses than we ever imagined.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-beyond-touch">Broader implications beyond touch</h2>



<p>This intriguing chick study sparks an exciting cascade of questions about the interplay between our senses. While its focus was on the connection between touch and sight, its implications could ripple across our entire sensory landscape.</p>



<p>Let's consider taste and smell. These two senses are intimately entwined, often working so closely that we struggle to tell them apart. Think of how a stuffy nose dulls your appreciation of food. </p>



<p>Could it be that our brains are also pre-wired to link certain textures we feel with our mouths to specific tastes or aromas? Might there be an innate connection that lets us instantly anticipate the sweetness of a smooth berry or the tartness of a spiky fruit, even before taking a bite?</p>



<p>Now, imagine the world of sound. We instinctively understand that certain sounds suggest specific textures or visuals. The crackle of a campfire evokes images of flickering flames and the rough feel of wood. The soft patter of rain might bring to mind a smooth, wet windowpane. </p>



<p>Could this seamless integration of sound, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-touch-molecular-basis-elkin1-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">touch</a>, and sight also stem from deep, pre-programmed connections within our brains?</p>



<p>While these are mere speculations, the chick study forces us to reconsider the boundaries we've traditionally placed between our senses. Perhaps they are far more intertwined from the very beginning than we ever suspected. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-directions">Future directions</h2>



<p>This basic science discovery has the potential to lead in numerous directions. It could possibly pave the way for better treatment of sensory disorders - ways to help people born blind more easily integrate their restored vision, for instance. But let's get a bit bolder. </p>



<p>Could this knowledge one day make "sensory translation" possible - machines that let you directly experience someone else's sense of touch or taste? It's the kind of thing that used to be pure science fiction, but now, thanks to some clever little chicks, it seems a bit more realistic.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2024.0025" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology Letters</a></em>.</p>



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Chicks can identify an object just by touching it, even in the dark

A recent study has shifted the paradigm of how we...

<p>A new study led by the <a href="https://serc.si.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Smithsonian Environmental Research Center</a> has found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-protected-areas-are-key-for-our-future/">marine protected areas</a> (MPAs) may not be fully serving their purpose in rebuilding dwindling fish populations, specifically among adult fish. </p>



<p>This study provides the first analysis of the age composition of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/environmental-dna-reveals-the-diversity-of-coral-reef-fish/">reef fish</a> within marine protected areas, revealing a concerning trend of stagnating or declining adult fish populations.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adult-fish-are-critical-to-rebuilding-populations-nbsp">Adult fish are critical to rebuilding populations&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“Adult fish are really important,” said co-lead author Steve Canty, a marine ecologist at the Smithsonian. “They are the primary catch within commercial fisheries that support livelihoods and food security of coastal communities."&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Additionally, it is the adults that breed and rebuild the fisheries, and here size matters. Bigger and older female fish produce more and better eggs, and therefore are critical to rebuilding fish populations.”&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-30-of-earth-s-oceans">Protecting 30% of Earth's oceans</h2>



<p>This discovery comes at a time when global efforts are intensifying to meet the ambitious "30 by 30" conservation target, set by delegates at the <a href="https://www.unep.org/un-biodiversity-conference-cop-15" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">United Nations Biodiversity Conference</a> in December 2022, which aims to protect 30% of Earth's oceans by 2030. </p>



<p>However, the effectiveness of this target hinges on the selection of sites conducive to marine life prosperity and the consideration of coastal community needs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-on-the-mesoamerican-reef">Fish on the Mesoamerican Reef</h2>



<p>The study focused on the Mesoamerican Reef, the longest reef in the Western Hemisphere, which spans over 600 miles across the coasts of southern Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, and Honduras.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This region, a biodiversity hotspot, is not only home to over 500 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-quarter-of-freshwater-fish-species-face-extinction/">fish species</a>, 60 coral species, and one of the largest whale shark congregations but also supports the livelihoods and food security of over one million people.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-effective-protection-and-strong-enforcement-are-needed">Effective protection and strong enforcement are needed</h2>



<p>By analyzing fish biomass across 139 reef sites, including both protected and unprotected areas, the researchers categorized the MPAs based on their level of protection. They found that only 24% of the examined MPAs offered full or high protection, underscoring the challenge of restricting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-fleets-hidden-industrial-fishing-activity-exposed/">fishing activities</a> in the sea.</p>



<p>"But fully protecting and enforcing these areas is the best way to grow bigger fish that can rebuild the populations and actually increase overall fish catches outside the fully protected areas," said co-author Melanie McField, the director of the <a href="https://www.healthyreefs.org/cms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Healthy Reefs Initiative</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-widespread-decline-of-adult-fish">Widespread decline of adult fish</h2>



<p>Data for the study was sourced from the Healthy Reefs Initiative, which employs scuba divers to conduct fish surveys across the region's reefs. Over a 12-year period from 2006 to 2018, the findings indicated that a mere 11 sites exhibited significant increases in adult fish biomass, with most sites showing no change and 28 sites experiencing declines.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Notably, declining sites shared characteristics such as proximity to heavy coastal development, higher <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/as-oceans-warm-up-smaller-species-of-fish-will-dominate/">water temperatures</a>, and weak protection levels with inadequate enforcement.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-minimal-protection-is-more-detrimental-nbsp">Minimal protection is more detrimental&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“Minimal protection in the weakest MPAs proved to be more detrimental than no protection at all, because it allowed for continued and concentrated exploitation without effective management,” said co-author Abel Valdivia, a marine conservation scientist at the <a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">World Wildlife Fund</a>. </p>



<p>“Unlike open-access zones, where fishing pressure may be spread out, weakly protected areas faced unchecked coastal development, warming waters and inadequate enforcement, leading to the decline in adult biomass.”</p>



<p>However, sites where adult fish populations rebounded shared positive attributes: full protection, adequate enforcement, fewer temperature spikes, and a lower human impact in adjacent areas.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study">Broader implications of the study</h2>



<p>These findings clarify the path forward for global "30 by 30" conservation efforts. Effective management, strong enforcement, community support, and climate-conscious site selection are paramount to MPA success, emphasizing the need to consider the distinct needs of adult and juvenile fish.</p>



<p>“Our study shows that adults and juvenile fish respond very differently to management and environmental change. Adults were more sensitive to stressors like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fishing-communities-cooperate-to-survive-climate-change/">climate change</a>, which can undermine the local benefits of MPAs," said study co-lead author Justin Nowakowski, an ecologist at the Smithsonian.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"The big question now is where to locate new MPAs to maximize positive impacts for the regional fishery. To do this, we need to consider the unique requirements of adult and juvenile life stages - otherwise we are missing the full picture."&nbsp;</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/gcb.17257" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Global Change Biology</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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Adult fish are dwindling across many marine protected areas

A new study led by the Smithsonian Environmental Research Center...

<p>A team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Riverside</a> (UCR) may have found a potential weak point in the fight against a fungus decimating frog and toad populations across the globe. The study focused on a virus that infects the fungus responsible for the global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/over-40-of-amphibians-face-extinction-due-to-escalating-climate-threats/">amphibian</a> pandemic, offering a possible avenue for intervention.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-declining-amphibian-species-worldwide">Declining amphibian species worldwide</h2>



<p>The culprit, a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deadly-fungus-threatens-african-amphibians/">fungus</a> known as <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> or Bd, attacks the skin of frogs and toads, leading to heart failure. It is implicated in the decline of over 500 amphibian species worldwide and the possible extinction of 90 species, including the yellow-legged mountain frogs in the Sierras and the Panamanian golden frog.</p>



<p>However, the recent discovery of a virus that infects Bd not only contributes for understanding how fungal pathogens emerge and spread, but also sparks hope for halting what is currently termed a global amphibian pandemic.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-frogs-as-bioindicators-of-climate-change-nbsp">Frogs as bioindicators of climate change&nbsp;</h2>



<p>"<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-altering-the-calls-and-voices-of-frogs-around-the-world/">Frogs</a> control bad insects, crop pests, and mosquitoes. If their populations all over the world collapse, it could be devastating," said co-author Mark Yacoub, a doctoral student in microbiology at UCR. </p>



<p>"They’re also the canary in the coal mine of climate change. As temperatures get warmer, UV light gets stronger, and water quality gets worse, frogs respond to that. If they get wiped out, we lose an important environmental signal.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovery-of-the-bd-infecting-virus">Discovery of the Bd-infecting virus</h2>



<p>The rise of Bd as a threat to amphibians began in the late 1990s, marking the start of widespread fatalities among frog populations. The discovery of the Bd-infecting virus came as Yacoub and Jason Stajich, a UCR microbiology professor, were analyzing the population genetics of Bd to trace its origins and mutations.</p>



<p>During their research, they employed DNA sequencing technology and identified sequences within the data that did not match Bd's DNA.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“We wanted to see how different strains of fungus differ in places like Africa, Brazil, and the U.S., just like people study different strains of COVID-19,” Stajich said. “We realized these extra sequences, when put together, had the hallmarks of a viral genome.”&nbsp;</p>



<p>This discovery is particularly significant as previous attempts to find viruses associated with Bd had failed, partly due to the fungus's complex life cycle and the difficulty of studying it in laboratory conditions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-single-stranded-dna-virus">Single-stranded DNA virus</h2>



<p>Interestingly, the virus identified is a single-stranded DNA virus, contrasting with the RNA viruses typically found infecting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungi-may-communicate-using-up-to-50-words/">fungi</a>. The presence of the virus in the fungal genome varies, with infected strains displaying different behaviors from those uninfected. </p>



<p>“When these strains possess the virus they produce fewer spores, so it spreads more slowly. But they also might become more virulent, killing frogs faster,” Stajich explained.</p>



<p>The next steps involve cloning the virus to see if artificially infecting Bd strains could lead to reduced spore production. This distinction between infected and uninfected fungal strains emphasizes the need for comprehensive studies across multiple strains.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-amphibians-may-evolve-resistance-to-the-fungus">Amphibians may evolve resistance to the fungus</h2>



<p>The research team is now focused on understanding how the virus infects the fungus and penetrates its cells, crucial knowledge for potentially engineering the virus to aid amphibians.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Additionally, there's hope that, similar to some emerging resistance to COVID-19, amphibians might slowly build immunity to Bd.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Like with COVID, there is a slow buildup of immunity. We are hoping to assist nature in taking its course,” Yacoub concluded, highlighting the potential for natural resistance alongside scientific intervention to combat this deadly fungal pathogen.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-global-amphibian-pandemic">More about global amphibian pandemic</h2>



<p>The global amphibian pandemic caused by the Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) fungus. Its spread has been facilitated by global trade and environmental changes, affecting diverse ecosystems across continents.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bd-fungus">Bd fungus</h3>



<p>First identified in the late 1990s, the Bd fungus has since been recognized as one of the most devastating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/project-aims-to-limit-pathogen-spread-from-pet-amphibians/">pathogens</a> to biodiversity. It thrives in cool, moist environments, making mountainous regions particularly vulnerable. The disease disrupts the electrolyte balance and skin functions in amphibians, leading to heart failure and death.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mitigation">Mitigation</h3>



<p>Efforts to combat the pandemic have included breeding programs in biosecure facilities, reintroduction of species to their natural habitats with improved resistance or reduced pathogen presence, and environmental management to reduce the impact of the disease.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Despite these efforts, the chytridiomycosis pandemic continues to pose a significant threat to amphibian populations, highlighting the challenges of managing disease in wild populations and the need for global conservation initiatives.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2024.02.062" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Current Biology</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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Could a new virus put an end to the global amphibian pandemic?

A team of scientists led by the University of California,...

<p>Have you ever wondered why some animals seem to love hanging out in urban areas while others steer clear? You've got grackles buzzing around on power lines, squirrels raiding trash cans, and pigeons strutting through bustling parks. Meanwhile, bears, wolves, and creatures of that nature keep their distance from urban life.</p>



<p>A new study from the <a href="https://www.eva.mpg.de/index/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</a> reveals the secret to success in the urban jungle: a knack for dealing with risks. Turns out, those critters brave enough to roll the dice might be the ones cashing in on our love of city life.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-to-live-in-the-city">Learning to live in the city</h2>



<p>"For animals, living alongside humans is ‘risky business,'” said <a href="https://www.eva.mpg.de/linguistic-and-cultural-evolution/staff/alexis-breen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Alex Breen</a>, one of the lead researchers. The study looked specifically at urban life among sleek black birds known as grackles. They wanted to discover what makes these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/body-sizes-and-shapes-of-birds-are-shrinking-as-the-earth-warms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> such successful city-dwellers.</p>



<p>Let's not forget that cities are unpredictable places. Imagine a hungry grackle. Sure, it might scavenge a tasty morsel from a sidewalk cafe, but those same streets are also filled with unpredictable humans, chaotic traffic, and maybe a few unfriendly dogs. </p>



<p>To figure out how grackles deal with this uncertainty, the researchers observed how quickly the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/city-birds-lay-larger-eggs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> learned where to find hidden snacks. Then, they switched up the locations and watched how fast the grackles figured out the change.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-male-grackles-are-urban-risk-takers">Male grackles are urban risk takers</h2>



<p>The experts discovered that male grackles learned the new food locations faster than the females. In the grackle world, males are the pioneers. </p>



<p>They're the ones scouting out new territories, venturing beyond familiar grounds to discover fresh opportunities. This drive to explore makes them ideal candidates for leading the urban invasion.</p>



<p>Imagine a group of grackles encountering a sprawling city and tackling urban life for the first time. The females, likely more cautious by nature, might hang back in the safety of nearby trees or fields. </p>



<p>The males, however, compelled by their pioneering spirit, would be the ones venturing into the unknown. They'd be the first to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-tailed-grackles-adapt-quickly-to-changing-circumstances/">navigate</a> the maze of buildings, dodge traffic, and deal with the unpredictable behavior of humans.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-grackles-identify-the-safe-urban-spots">Grackles identify the safe urban spots</h2>



<p>Here's where the ability to learn quickly from successes and failures becomes crucial. A male grackle who stumbles upon a reliable source of food in a new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/city-birds-prefer-native-trees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">city</a> neighborhood needs to remember that location. </p>



<p>This "risk-sensitive learning" allows him to exploit this newfound bounty and potentially share it with others in the group.</p>



<p>Conversely, a male grackle who explores a risky location and encounters danger, perhaps a close call with a car or a territorial cat, will be more likely to avoid that area in the future. This ability to learn from negative experiences helps grackles navigate urban life and establish safe and successful city colonies.</p>



<p><a href="https://www.mpib-berlin.mpg.de/staff/dominik-deffner" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Deffner</a>, another researcher from the study, explained: "Unlike females, males exhibit pronounced risk-sensitive learning." They pay close attention to successful food sources and are less likely to just wing it and try a new spot. </p>



<p>It's a "better safe than sorry" approach that turns out to be pretty helpful when exploring uncertain environments.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-grackles-winning-strategy-for-the-urban-jungle">Grackles winning strategy for the urban jungle</h2>



<p>To further understand how learning impacts survival in urban environments, the researchers took their study into the digital realm. </p>



<p>They designed a computer simulation that mimicked the challenges and unpredictability of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/city-blackbirds-live-longer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">city</a>. This virtual world included fluctuating food sources, potential dangers, and other elements that animals would encounter in an urban setting.</p>



<p>Within this simulation, they introduced virtual creatures programmed with different learning strategies. Some were bold risk-takers, while others were more cautious and methodical. </p>



<p>Over many simulated generations, the researchers observed which learning strategies led to the highest survival and reproduction rates.</p>



<p>The results were striking. Time and time again, the cautious, risk-averse virtual creatures outperformed their bolder counterparts. These successful virtual creatures employed strategies that closely resembled the real-world learning patterns observed in male grackles.</p>



<p>"Our study offers compelling evidence for how and why at least grackles are thriving in unpredictable urban environments," said Dr. Breen.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urban-life-takes-guts">Urban life takes guts</h2>



<p>So the next time you see a pigeon waddling down the sidewalk or a squirrel digging through a dumpster, remember, they're taking calculated risks to survive alongside us. A little caution goes a long way when you're navigating the ever-changing, sometimes chaotic world created by humans.</p>



<p>And if you're interested in learning more or building your own models of how animals thrive in cities, the researchers have even created an online resource for scientists and curious minds alike. "We hope this open-science resource proves useful to others," said Dr. Deffner.</p>



<p>It looks like animals are learning some pretty impressive tricks to share our spaces, and scientists are only just starting to uncover their secrets.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-the-urban-friendly-grackles">More about the urban-friendly grackles</h2>



<p>Grackles are fascinating birds that belong to the Quiscalus genus, which is part of the larger family of New World blackbirds. Here are some key points about grackles:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Habitat and distribution</h3>



<p>Grackles are found across North America, from the high plains to urban centers. Their ability to thrive in a wide range of environments, including cities, makes them a common sight in many areas. They are highly adaptable and can live in environments ranging from open woodlands to agricultural lands and urban parks.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Diet and foraging behavior</h3>



<p>Grackles have a varied diet that includes insects, seeds, grains, fruits, and even small vertebrates and eggs from other birds. Their opportunistic feeding habits allow them to take advantage of different food sources throughout the year. </p>



<p>When it comes to urban life, grackles also forage in trash bins and around outdoor eating areas, showcasing their adaptability.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Social behavior</h3>



<p>Grackles can be very social birds, often seen in large flocks, especially outside of the breeding season. These flocks can include thousands of birds and are known for their impressive, synchronized flights. During the breeding season, however, they can become more territorial, with males displaying aggressive behaviors to defend their nesting sites.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Communication</h3>



<p>Grackles are noted for their wide range of vocalizations, which include whistles, caws, and other sounds that can be surprisingly melodic. Their calls serve a variety of purposes, such as attracting mates, signaling danger, and communicating with others in their flock.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Reproduction</h3>



<p>Grackles are nest builders, with females usually taking the lead in constructing nests out of twigs, grass, and other materials. These nests are often located in trees or bushes. Females lay between 4 to 7 eggs, which they incubate for about two weeks. The young are then cared for by both parents until they fledge.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Interaction with humans</h3>



<p>Grackles have a mixed relationship with humans. On one hand, people admire them for their adaptability and their role in controlling insect populations. On the other, they can be considered as pests, especially in agricultural areas where they eat crops, and in urban areas where their large flocks create noise and mess.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/articles/89315" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ELife</a>.</p>



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Grackles adapt to urban life better than any other animal species

Have you ever wondered why some animals seem to love...

<p>The pursuit of understanding human intelligence and deciphering the mind's complexity has always been at the forefront of scientific inquiry. Remarkably, according to recent findings, the study of dogs can shed light on the roots and structure of human cognition and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-dogs-have-exceptional-learning-capacities/">intellect</a>.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Research led by the Department of Ethology at <a href="https://www.elte.hu/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eötvös Loránd University</a> (ELTE) in Hungary has found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/larger-dogs-more-intelligent/">dogs</a> may possess a crucial element of intelligence, known as the “g factor,” which closely mirrors its human equivalent, including how it changes with age. </p>



<p>This discovery could bridge the gap in our understanding of cognitive organization and the progression of cognitive decline in both dogs and humans.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-g-factor-in-human-cognition-nbsp">The g factor in human cognition&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Humans show a tendency to perform consistently across different cognitive tests; for example, those good at mathematics might also excel in literature. This suggests that human cognitive abilities are centralized yet hierarchical, culminating in the g factor at the hierarchy's summit.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The g factor is integral to intelligence, affecting all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/learning-to-play-piano-boosts-cognitive-abilities/">cognitive abilities</a> and correlating with success in academic, workplace, and career achievements.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cognitive-structure-in-dogs-nbsp">Cognitive structure in dogs&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The scientists embarked on a quest to explore whether dogs also exhibit a general cognitive factor.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"The cognitive and socio-cognitive performance of dogs is a highly popular topic in scientific literature, yet most studies are comparative, focusing on how well dogs perform as a species,” said co-lead author Borbála Turcsán, an ethologist at ELTE.</p>



<p>“Surprisingly, these studies have largely overlooked the individual differences in specific skills and the reasons behind them. As a result, we know very little about how dogs' cognitive abilities are structured.”&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dog-cognition-resembles-that-of-humans">Dog cognition resembles that of humans</h2>



<p>To delve into this, the team designed a battery of seven cognitive tests for 129 family dogs, aged three to fifteen years, and monitored them over two and a half years.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The analysis revealed a hierarchical structure of cognitive abilities in dogs, similar to human cognition, with two broad domains identified: independent problem-solving and learning ability. These domains were interlinked, suggesting the presence of a “canine g factor” that unifies them.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scoring-the-g-factor-in-dogs">Scoring the g factor in dogs</h2>



<p>Further investigation aimed at verifying the canine g factor's predictive validity. "To confirm that we have indeed identified the general cognitive factor, we examined whether this factor correlates with individual characteristics known from the literature of humans and other animal species to be associated with the 'g factor,'" said study co-author Tamás Faragó, a research fellow in comparative ethology at ELTE.</p>



<p>Dogs scoring higher on the g factor were more adventurous in new environments, more curious about novelties, and excelled in learning tasks compared to lower-scoring counterparts.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-higher-g-factor-scores-nbsp">Higher g factor scores&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Their g factor score also correlated with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-personality-algorithm-will-improve-work-and-home-placement/">personality traits</a> assessed through owner-completed questionnaires, linking higher g factor scores to higher activity levels, training levels, and trainability.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These outcomes affirmed the canine g factor's similarity to its human analogue in structure and external associations.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pattern-of-aging-in-dogs">Pattern of aging in dogs</h2>



<p>The study not only drew parallels between canine and human g factors but also ventured into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-reversed-aging-in-mice-by-decades/">aging</a> research.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"It is well-known that as dogs age, their attention, learning ability, and memory naturally decline. However, if cognitive abilities are interconnected, it's plausible that their decline with age is not independent but rather linked to a common underlying factor behind the deterioration of various abilities," explained co-lead author Zsófia Bognár, a PhD student at ELTE.</p>



<p>Longitudinal data showed a general cognitive decline in dogs as they aged, with health status affecting the rate of this decline. This pattern of aging is akin to that observed in humans, offering valuable insights for future research into cognitive decline's molecular and neurological underpinnings.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-human-intelligence-nbsp">Evolution of human intelligence&nbsp;</h2>



<p>"This new research highlights intriguing parallels between human and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-live-longer-and-happier-lives-when-they-get-to-socialize-often/">canine aging</a>, further strengthening the argument that dogs serve as an excellent model species for aging research,” said senior author Enikő Kubinyi, leader of the MTA-ELTE Companion Animal Research Group and the Senior Family Dog Program.</p>



<p>“Moreover, our findings support the existence of the 'canine g factor,' suggesting that dogs can also help in understanding the evolution and background of human intelligence.”&nbsp;</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11357-024-01123-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>GeroScience</em></a>.</p>



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Dogs provide insight into human cognition and aging

The pursuit of understanding human intelligence and deciphering the mind's...

<p>Birds have it tough these days. With declining numbers, shrinking habitats, and increasing heat, the future seems grim for many species. Yet, in a surprising twist, the tree swallow is defying the odds and expanding its range into the hot Southeastern U.S. </p>



<p>How is this small but mighty bird beating the heat? The answer lies in a remarkable combination of behavioral and physiological adaptations, making the tree swallow a beacon of hope in our changing world.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-curious-case-of-the-tree-swallow">The curious case of the tree swallow</h2>



<p>Unlike most North American <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/farming-practices-insect-eating-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> seeking cooler climates, the tree swallow caught the attention of scientists with its peculiar southward migration pattern. </p>



<p>This inquisitive observation sparked an investigation led by <a href="https://www.iu.edu/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Indiana University</a> researchers Dr. Kim Rosvall and her then-graduate student Mary Woodruff. The duo dedicated themselves to unraveling the mysteries of how these birds thrive in rising temperatures.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-behind-tree-swallows-heat-resilience">The science behind tree swallows heat resilience</h2>



<p>Through years of meticulous research, Rosvall and Woodruff discovered that tree swallows have several tricks up their feathered sleeves:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beat-the-heat-with-behavior">Beat the heat with behavior</h3>



<p>When temperatures rise, tree swallows employ several behavioral strategies to maintain their internal body temperature. Panting allows them to evaporate moisture and dissipate heat. </p>



<p>Additionally, spreading their wings increases the surface area exposed to the air, promoting heat loss through convection.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cellular-superheroes">Cellular superheroes</h3>



<p>In response to heat stress, tree swallows increase the production of specialized molecules known as heat shock proteins (HSPs). These proteins play a vital role in cellular protection. </p>



<p>They act as molecular chaperones, preventing the misfolding and clumping of proteins caused by heat. HSPs also assist in repairing damaged proteins, maintaining cellular function during periods of thermal stress.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-survival-of-the-warmest-nbsp">Survival of the warmest&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Interestingly, the research suggests that exposure to moderate heat stress early in life may enhance the survival of tree swallows. This phenomenon indicates that heat stress could drive evolutionary adaptation. </p>



<p>"Stress can expose new variation upon which selection can act," said Dr. Rosvall. Individuals with genetic traits better suited to tolerate heat are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing these beneficial traits to their offspring.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tree-swallows-in-the-us">Tree swallows in the US</h2>



<p>Woodruff's research began with a meticulous analysis of tree swallow tissue samples collected from various locations throughout the United States. </p>



<p>Intriguingly, her analysis revealed a distinct pattern: birds nesting in warmer southern climates exhibited significantly higher levels of heat shock proteins (HSPs) compared to their northern counterparts. This compelling discovery fueled further exploration into the birds' physiological responses to heat.</p>



<p>To delve deeper, the researchers designed controlled experiments in which tree swallows were exposed to elevated temperatures, carefully simulating heat stress conditions. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-increased-antioxidants">Increased antioxidants</h2>



<p>The results were remarkable. In addition to behavioral adjustments aimed at cooling down, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noise-from-natural-gas-compressors-disrupts-songbird-reproduction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> unleashed a powerful physiological defense mechanism. </p>



<p>They boosted the production of antioxidants, which neutralize harmful molecules generated by heat stress, and initiated anti-inflammatory responses to minimize cellular damage.</p>



<p>"In a sense, behavior was not enough," said Dr. Rosvall. "They needed that physiological change to cope with heat." This observation highlights the intricate interplay between behavioral adjustments and complex internal processes that allow tree swallows to withstand thermal challenges.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tree-swallows-heat-tolerance">Tree swallows heat tolerance</h2>



<p>The success of the tree swallow offers a positive perspective in the face of climate change. It shows that some species have the capacity to adapt, at least for now. "I was surprised that the story was so hopeful, but I'm thrilled that it is," said Woodruff.</p>



<p>The tree swallow provides a springboard for further research and raises a crucial question: "If a little bit of heat is good for an animal, is there something we can do to help animals thrive in a warming world?" </p>



<p>Experts are exploring the potential of "priming" animals by exposing them to brief bouts of heat, helping them trigger the helpful changes similar to those in tree swallows.</p>



<p>The work of researchers like Dr. Rosvall and Mary Woodruff is crucial. Their studies not only shed light on how birds like the resilient tree swallow handle heat stress but also pave the way for potential strategies to help other species survive the challenges of a warming planet.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-tree-swallows">More about tree swallows</h2>



<p>Tree swallows are small, agile birds known for their brilliant iridescent blue-green upper bodies and clean, white underparts. These birds belong to the swallow family, which is famous for their aerial acrobatics and speed in flight. Here are some key points about tree swallows:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Habitat and distribution</h3>



<p>Tree swallows are native to North America and are widely distributed across the continent. They breed in the northern regions, including Canada and the northern United States, and migrate south to spend the winter in warmer climates, ranging from the southern United States to Central America.</p>



<p>They are versatile in their habitat preferences but are commonly found near water bodies like lakes, rivers, and wetlands, which provide ample insect food for their diet.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Nesting and breeding</h3>



<p>True to their name, tree swallows often nest in tree cavities, but they readily adapt to nest boxes if available. This adaptability has made them a favorite among bird watchers and conservationists, who often set up nest boxes to attract them. </p>



<p>During the breeding season, they display remarkable aerial displays and can become quite territorial over nesting sites.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Diet</h3>



<p>Tree swallows primarily feed on insects, catching them mid-air with their mouths during flight. Their diet includes flies, beetles, mosquitoes, and other flying insects. </p>



<p>During the breeding season, when their energy needs increase, they can eat hundreds of insects per day. In some locations and seasons, they may also supplement their diet with berries and other small fruits, especially during their migration when insects are less abundant.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Migration</h3>



<p>Tree swallows are migratory birds with a remarkable ability to cover long distances during their migration between breeding and wintering grounds. They typically travel in large flocks, which can include thousands of birds, creating impressive displays in the sky. </p>



<p>Migration allows them to exploit the summer breeding conditions in the north and the warmer wintering habitats in the south.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Conservation Status</h3>



<p>Currently, tree swallows are considered to be of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (<a href="https://www.iucn.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN</a>), indicating a stable population globally. </p>



<p>However, like many <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/why-are-birds-endangered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird</a> species, they face threats from habitat loss, climate change, and pollution. Conservation efforts, including habitat preservation and the installation of nest boxes, are important in supporting their populations.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Other interesting facts</h3>



<ul>
<li>Tree swallows are one of the few species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/the-12-endangered-birds-most-at-risk-of-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> that can actually digest wax. They will sometimes eat the wax from bayberries and other fruit waxes during the winter months.</li>



<li>The iridescent colors of tree swallows come from the microscopic structure of their feathers, not pigments, reflecting light in a way that creates the brilliant blue-green sheen.</li>
</ul>



<p>Tree swallows play a significant role in their ecosystems, controlling insect populations and acting as indicators of environmental health. </p>



<p>Their presence and behavior can provide valuable insights into the state of their habitats and the broader implications of environmental changes.</p>



<p>The study is published in&nbsp;<em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.164809" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science of the Total Environment</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Tree swallows have a surprising ability to beat the heat

Birds have it tough these days. With declining numbers, shrinking...

<p>A team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Exeter</a> has recently developed an AI system, VespAI, for the rapid detection of invasive Asian hornets. This system entices hornets into a monitoring station and captures images for analysis with an overhead camera.</p>



<p>VespAI boasts a remarkable ability to identify the Asian hornet species with nearly flawless precision, enabling a quick response to prevent their spread.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgency-for-efficient-monitoring-systems">Urgency for efficient monitoring systems</h2>



<p>Asian hornets, also known as yellow-legged hornets, have spread across Europe and Asia and have been sighted in the U.S. states of Georgia and South Carolina. The urgency for efficient monitoring systems is heightened by the UK's position at the forefront of the hornets' European invasion path.</p>



<p>“Our goal was to develop something cost-effective and versatile, so anyone – from governments to individual beekeepers – could use it,” said Thomas O’Shea-Wheller, an expert in collective behavior and sociobiology at Exeter. “This study tested a prototype version, and the results were encouraging. VespAI shows promise as a robust early warning system to detect Asian hornet ingressions into new regions.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-accurate-surveillance-capabilities-nbsp">Accurate surveillance capabilities&nbsp;</h2>



<p>VespAI operates on a compact processor, activating only when detecting an insect of hornet-size dimensions. Its AI algorithm then assesses whether the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bees-use-a-contagious-warning-signal-to-scare-off-hornets/">insect</a> is an invasive Asian hornet or the native European variety. Upon identifying an Asian hornet, the system issues an image alert for user verification.</p>



<p>“Unfortunately, the majority of reports submitted are misidentified native species, meaning that the responsible agencies have to manually validate thousands of images every year – our system thus aims to provide a vigilant, accurate, and automated surveillance capability to remediate this,” said Peter Kennedy, a behavioral ecologist at Exeter.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-traditional-detection-methods">Traditional detection methods</h2>



<p>Moreover, traditional detection methods in Europe often involve traps that indiscriminately kill many native insects without significantly affecting Asian hornet populations. VespAI stands out by sparing non-target insects, facilitating the live capture of hornets for nest tracking. Kennedy highlighted the environmental and operational benefits of this approach:&nbsp;</p>



<p>“VespAI does not kill non-target insects, and thus eliminates the environmental impact of trapping, while ensuring that live hornets can be caught and tracked back to the nest, which is the only effective way to destroy them.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reliable-detection-algorithm-nbsp">Reliable detection algorithm&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The device underwent rigorous testing on the island of Jersey, close to France, a hot spot for Asian hornet incursions. Despite being exposed to a mix of Asian and European hornets, as well as other insects, VespAI's detection algorithm accurately differentiated among them.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“That’s the benefit of our system – its high accuracy means that it won’t wrongly identify other species, or miss any Asian hornets that visit,” said O’Shea-Wheller.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-powerful-tool-for-asian-hornet-detection">Powerful tool for Asian hornet detection</h2>



<p>Plans are in place to deploy additional prototypes in partnership with various UK organizations, aiming to strengthen defense against the rising Asian hornet threat.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“The proposed device may prove a powerful tool in the early determination of the presence of Asian hornets in an area, and thereby fills an important gap,” concluded Alistair Christie, a Senior Scientific Officer for Invasive Species in Jersey.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-asian-hornets-nbsp">More about Asian hornets&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The Asian hornet, also known as Vespa velutina, is a species of hornet indigenous to Southeast Asia. It has become infamous as an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-are-hornets-so-successful-as-invasive-species/">invasive species</a> in various parts of the world, including Europe and North America, due to its significant negative impacts on local ecosystems and human activities.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predatory-species">Predatory species</h3>



<p>One of the most concerning aspects of the Asian hornet's presence outside its native range is its predation on honeybees and other pollinators. This species is particularly adept at hunting and killing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumblebees-have-unique-defense-tactics-against-asian-hornets/">bees</a>, which can lead to devastating losses for bee populations and, by extension, the pollination services they provide to both wild flora and agricultural crops.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distinctive-appearance-nbsp">Distinctive appearance&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The Asian hornet is easily recognizable by its distinctive appearance, which includes a dark brown or black body with a yellow or orange band on the fourth segment of its abdomen and yellow-tipped legs. Adults can reach up to 3 centimeters in length, making them quite a bit larger than many native European and North American bee species, which can exacerbate their impact as predators.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detection-and-mitigation-nbsp">Detection and mitigation&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Efforts to control and mitigate the spread of Asian hornets have included a variety of strategies, from the setting of traps to the destruction of nests. These measures require significant effort and resources, as the hornets' nests are often large, well-hidden, and can be located high up in trees.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Public awareness and reporting of sightings are also critical components of controlling the spread of this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alien-invasion-yellow-legged-hornet-spotted-in-the-u-s-for-the-first-time/">invasive species</a>, as early detection can greatly increase the chances of successfully eliminating nests before Asian hornets can establish a strong presence in a new area.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-introduction-nbsp">Introduction&nbsp;</h3>



<p>The introduction of Asian hornets to non-native regions is believed to have occurred through human activities, such as the transport of goods in which the hornets or their nests were inadvertently included. Once established, they can spread rapidly, outcompeting native species for resources and further endangering the ecological balance and biodiversity of the areas they invade.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The ongoing battle against the Asian hornet is a stark reminder of the challenges and complexities involved in managing invasive species and protecting native ecosystems.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s42003-024-05979-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Communications Biology</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

AI detection system quickly identifies invasive species

A team of researchers led by the University of Exeter...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



<p>Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



<p>The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



<p>At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.</p>



<p>"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



<p>The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.</p>



<p>The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a></em> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.</p>



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



<p>On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.</p>



<p>This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.</p>



<p>Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.</p>



<p>The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators.  Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas.  These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.</p>



<p>Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



<p>Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.</p>



<p>Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



<p>385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.</p>



<p>The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.</p>



<p>Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



<p>The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."</p>



<p>This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a></em> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.</p>



<p>Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet <em>Archaeopteris</em>: the first modern tree</h2>



<p>The star of this ancient forest is <em>Archaeopteris</em> – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur <em>Archaeopteryx</em>. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.</p>



<p>William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.</p>



<p>Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



<p>These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.</p>



<p>This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



<p>The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified <em>Eospermatopteris</em>, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.</p>



<p>All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



<p>Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.</p>



<p>Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."</p>



<p>The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



<p>In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.</p>



<p>Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



<p>Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.</p>



<p>Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.</p>



<p>These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.</p>



<p>The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em>Current Biology</em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



<p>Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?</p>



<p>The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What was acid rain?</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The science behind it</strong></h2>



<p>Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.</p>



<p>While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The crisis at its peak</strong></h2>



<p>During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Environmental devastation</strong></h2>



<p>The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.</p>



<p>By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.</p>



<p>Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Economic impact</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The solution: government action and technology</strong></h2>



<p>Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The Clean Air Act of 1990</strong></h2>



<p>The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Cap-and-trade success</strong></h2>



<p>Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.</p>



<p>The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Technology advances</strong></h2>



<p>Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.</p>



<p>The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today"><strong>Why we don't hear about it today</strong></h2>



<p>Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Success doesn't make news</strong></h2>



<p>There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Mission accomplished</strong></h2>



<p>The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone"><strong>Is it really gone?</strong></h2>



<p>The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.</p>



<p>EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What this teaches us</strong></h2>



<p>The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.</p>



<p>Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.</p>



<p>Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.</p>



<p>This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.</p>



<p>Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.</p>



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



<p><strong>Sources:</strong> <em>This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.</em></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Frequently Asked Questions</strong></h2>



<p><strong>1. Is acid rain completely gone?</strong> No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.</p>



<p><strong>2. How long did solving take?</strong> Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.</p>



<p><strong>3. What made the solution successful?</strong> Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.</p>



<p><strong>4. Do other countries have acid rain problems?</strong> Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.</p>



<p><strong>5. Could acid rain return?</strong> Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.</p>



<p><strong>6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"?</strong> The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a></p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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<p></p>



<p>Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. </p>



<p>Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. </p>



<p>These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.</p>



<p>Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. </p>



<p>For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.</p>



<p>Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. </p>



<p>Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.</p>



<p>This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. </p>



<p>With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>-----</p>

What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
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<p>A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. </p>



<p>Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. </p>



<p>Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. </p>



<p>Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. </p>



<p>The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.</p>



<p>Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.</p>



<p>Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.</p>



<p>This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. </p>



<p>The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the <em><a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

<p>Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. </p>



<p>The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.</p>



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



<p>Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. </p>



<p>Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.</p>



<p>Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. </p>



<p>They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).</p>



<p>Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.</p>



<p>Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.</p>



<p>This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.</p>

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.</p>



<p>"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.</p>



<p>"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.</p>



<p>To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.</p>



<p>"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."</p>



<p>"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."</p>



<p><em>Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?</p>



<p>One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ACS Reactions</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;</p>



<p>'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."</p>



<p>"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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<p>Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.</p>



<p>The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."</p>



<p>"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."</p>



<p>"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."</p>



<p>The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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<p>Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.</p>



<p>According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."</p>



<p>Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;</p>



<p>ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. </p>



<p>Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> </em>Staff Writer </p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.</p>



<p>"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."</p>



<p>Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.</p>



<p>"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."</p>



<p>Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.</p>



<p>In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.</p>



<p>The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.</p>



<p>The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.</p>



<p>The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. </p>



<p>Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.</p>



<p>The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.</p>



<p>At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.</p>



<p>"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."</p>



<p>The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.</p>



<p><em>Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."</p>



<p>The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.</p>



<p>"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Goddard</em></p>



<p><em>Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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