Two iconic dinosaurs - Tyrannosaurus rex and Brachylophosaurus canadensis - have yielded a fresh line of evidence that traces of their original biology can survive for tens of millions of years. 



In new work, researchers at <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Carolina State University</a> identified hemoglobin - the oxygen-carrying protein in blood - and its iron-bearing heme group in bone extracts from both animals.



The finding strengthens a growing body of data showing that certain biomolecules can persist in exceptional fossils. It also clarifies how they change as fossils form.



Researchers have debated and re-examined soft, stretchy tissues from these same specimens for nearly two decades. 



Teams have used high-resolution imaging, antibodies, and protein sequencing to argue that the materials are genuine remnants of dinosaur biology rather than modern contaminants. The latest study adds another tool - and another confirmation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-light-unlocks-dinosaur-chemistry">Light unlocks dinosaur chemistry</h2>



The team turned to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/resonance-raman-spectroscopy" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Resonance Raman (RR) spectroscopy</a>. In this method, laser light is tuned to a molecule’s electronic transitions. This causes only that molecule to “sing” back with a strong signal.



“Raman spectroscopy essentially uses light waves to identify a molecule’s energetic ‘fingerprint,’” said physicist Hans Hallen, the study’s corresponding author. 



“Resonance Raman, which we use here, takes that process one step further by using light already tuned to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seeking-the-origins-of-the-molecule-that-made-the-universe/">molecule</a> of interest - so only that type of molecule will resonate.”



That resonance dramatically boosts the signal from specific bonds - crucial when your targets are rare, damaged molecules embedded in a complex fossil matrix.



“This strong signal allows us to find the needle (hemoglobin remnants) in the haystack (messy fossil) to see how this molecule has changed from the functional living state, revealing the chemical changes molecules undergo in deep time,” Hallen added.



RR spectra from T. rex and Brachylophosaurus extracts showed signatures consistent with heme still bound to globin proteins. In addition, they indicated heme bound to goethite, an iron oxide mineral linked to oxidized iron.



The researchers cross-checked those signals against demineralized modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-of-a-cretaceous-ostrich-mexidracon-longimanus-with-extremely-long-arms/">ostrich</a> bone and human blood to anchor their interpretations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-molecules-traced-to-dinosaurs">Blood molecules traced to dinosaurs</h2>



Because Raman detects bonds rather than whole molecules, skeptics often point out that generic signals could arise from modern microbes or other contaminants. 



That’s where the extra selectivity of RR - and the structural information in the spectra - matters.



“RR identifies both bonds and structure," said paleobiologist Mary Schweitzer, a co-author on the work. 



"We know that heme is there and that it is still bound to hemoglobin protein - contaminants like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reusable-water-bottles-are-breeding-ground-for-strep-and-fecal-bacteria/">bacteria</a> don’t have those specific bonds, so we can say that the molecules are from the animal, or in this case, the dinosaur,”



The team also mapped how those spectral fingerprints shift as hemoglobin decays. After death, the protein breaks down, damaging the heme ring and oxidizing the iron inside it. 



RR data show that goethite forms on that iron, and the heme can bind to the mineral surface.



Tellingly, the researchers observed the early stages of the same degradation pathway in modern samples, suggesting that key steps happen relatively quickly and then stabilize.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-blood-survived-fossilization">Dinosaur blood survived fossilization</h2>



Beyond confirming what the molecules are, the spectral changes reveal a plausible route for how they survived. 



Goethite is a bio-related mineral - it often forms in association with biological activity - and the new data hint that it doesn’t just grow near proteins; it can latch onto and stabilize fragments. "We didn’t know that it could bind to and stabilize <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-modified-plant-proteins-to-create-delicious-meat-alternatives/">protein</a> fragments,” Hallen said.



That matters because it shows a mechanism that locks delicate organics in place and protects them during fossilization. 



Researchers already know that heme persists in sediments far older than the age of dinosaurs, but the path from fresh blood to ancient rock has remained murky.



Pinning down the chemistry helps explain why hemoglobin, in particular, shows up as a survivor - and why some fossils preserve molecular vestiges while others do not.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-view-of-fossil-preservation">A new view of fossil preservation</h2>



The study reinforces a shift in paleontology: under the right conditions, original biochemistry can endure deep time, and modern tools can detect and interpret it. 



Instead of a binary “preserved or not,” researchers are piecing together degradation pathways, mineral partnerships, and microenvironments that favor survival.



For dinosaur biology, that means more than just curiosity. Hemoglobin and heme in blood play key roles in metabolism, oxygen transport, and overall physiology. 



Their presence, and the way they degrade, defines how tissues fossilize and what information we can still extract.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/dinosaur-bone_hemoglobin_preserved_NCSU_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/dinosaur-bone_hemoglobin_preserved_NCSU_1s.webp" alt="Vessels isolated from Tyrannosaurus cortical bone by demineralization in EDTA. Credit: NC State University" class="wp-image-1985867"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Vessels isolated from Tyrannosaurus cortical bone by demineralization in EDTA. Click image to enlarge. Credit: NC State University</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-chemistry-spans-eons">Blood chemistry spans eons</h2>



For dinosaur fossil science, mineral–organic interactions like heme–goethite may help preserve blood proteins and molecular fragments throughout Earth’s history.



“Heme has been identified in sediments that are much, much older than dinosaurs, so we know that it persists,” Schweitzer noted. 



“Understanding why <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-human-genetics-could-optimize-medical-care/">hemoglobin</a> preserves, and the role that heme plays in the process, is really important if we want to know how these ancient molecules survive through time.”



The upshot is both practical and provocative. Resonance Raman pinpoints specific ancient molecules within messy fossils, and the chemistry it reveals also serves as a preservation roadmap. 



That’s a powerful combination for anyone trying to read life’s oldest diaries written in stone.



The study is published in the <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspa.2025.0175" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences</a>.



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Hemoglobin and other blood molecules found preserved in dinosaur fossils

Two iconic dinosaurs - Tyrannosaurus rex and Brachylophosaurus canadensis - have yielded a fresh line of evidence that traces of their original biology can survive for tens of millions of years. In new work, researchers at North Carolina State University identified hemoglobin - the oxygen-carrying protein in blood - and its iron-bearing heme group in bone extracts from both animals. The finding strengthens a growing body of data showing that certain biomolecules can persist in exceptional fossils. It also clarifies how they change as fossils form. Researchers...

A new study reveals that vervet monkeys exhibit diverse social "norms" and behaviors that are comparable to human customs, varying significantly across different communities.&nbsp;



Led by Elena Kerjean from the <a href="https://www.unil.ch/central/en/home.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Lausanne</a>, the research team spent nine years observing vervet monkeys and their unique social dynamics.



"Over the last decades, animal tradition studies not only helped researchers to better understand the diversity of intra-species behavioral repertoires, but also to unravel the evolutionary roots and the selective pressures leading to the emergence of culture," wrote the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-customs">Social customs</h2>



The study provides new insights into the social behaviors of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/south-african-primates-face-multiple-threats/">primates</a>. Kerjean explained that the research has uncovered behavioral traditions of social customs in vervet monkeys that are stable across nine years.



This discovery challenges the previous understanding of animal behavior, as it demonstrates a complex social structure within vervet monkey groups, similar to human societies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-atmospheres">Social atmospheres</h2>



One of the key findings of the study is the identification of different "social atmospheres" within vervet monkey groups.&nbsp;



These atmospheres, characterized by varying social customs, are passed down through generations, indicating a form of social learning.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-conformity-nbsp">Social conformity&nbsp;</h2>



The team also discovered a notable aspect of social adaptation: when male monkeys moved to a new group, they quickly adapted their social behaviors to align with the norms of their new community. This behavior suggests an element of social conformity and peer pressure among vervet monkeys.



“Males adapted their sociality to the group they integrated with, which we believe is a good example of social conformity,” said Kerjean.&nbsp;



“This normative rule - act like others - probably helps them to get better integrated in a new group. This conformity effect had been previously shown through a novel food experiment, but this is the first time that we observed that with social behavior.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distinct-behaviors">Distinct behaviors</h2>



Kerjean, along with her colleagues Erica van de Waal and Charlotte Canteloup, analyzed over 84,000 social interactions among nearly 250 vervet monkeys.&nbsp;



The analysis revealed distinct social behaviors in one group, named Ankhase (AK), where monkeys showed a higher tendency for reciprocal grooming compared to other groups. In this group, grooming was more fairly exchanged, with individuals reciprocally grooming each other, creating a more balanced social interaction.



“You can think about it like massage exchanges between individuals,” explained Kerjean. “If I give you a massage 100 times a year but you only did it two times, I may feel that our relation is quite unfair. That’s the kind of differences we observed between our groups.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



The research sheds light on the social structures and norms of vervet monkeys. It also offers new perspectives on animal behavior and social learning.&nbsp;



The team's findings indicate that social norms among vervet monkeys are not only diverse but also stable over time, suggesting a deeper level of social complexity than previously understood.



Looking ahead, the researchers would like to learn more about how social traditions are introduced and passed on. They are especially curious to explore the role of key individuals or leaders in pressuring newcomers to follow incidence.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2023.108591" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iScience</a>.



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Vervet monkeys deal with social norms and peer pressure too

A new study reveals that vervet monkeys exhibit diverse social...

A new study from <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">John Hopkins University</a> reveals that apes can recognize photographs of their groupmates, even after a separation of over 25 years. This discovery highlights the longest-lasting social <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-have-a-generic-memory-of-their-ancestral-environments/">memory</a> documented outside of humans, offering profound insights into the evolution of human culture from our shared ancestry with apes.



“Chimpanzees and bonobos recognize individuals even though they haven’t seen them for multiple decades,” said study senior author Professor Christopher Krupenye. 



“And then there’s this small but significant pattern of greater attention toward individuals with whom they had more positive relationships. It suggests that this is more than just familiarity, that they’re keeping track of aspects of the quality of these social relationships.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-memory-mechanisms-of-apes">Memory mechanisms of apes</h2>



Study lead author Laura Lewis is a biological anthropologist and comparative psychologist at the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Berkeley</a>. She reflected on the cognitive similarities between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/apes-may-have-begun-walking-upright-to-eat-leaves-not-fruits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">apes</a> and humans.



“We tend to think about great apes as quite different from ourselves but we have really seen these animals as possessing cognitive mechanisms that are very similar to our own, including memory. And I think that is what’s so exciting about this study," said Lewis.



The study was inspired by the researchers' personal experiences with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-can-understand-the-gestures-of-other-great-apes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">apes</a>, noting their apparent recognition and enthusiastic responses after long absences. 



“You have the impression that apes are responding like they recognize you and that to them you’re really different from the average zoo guest,” said Krupenye. “They’re excited to see you again. So our goal with this study was to ask, empirically, if that’s the case: Do they really have a robust lasting memory for familiar social partners?”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-apes-recognize-their-families">How apes recognize their families</h2>



The research involved chimpanzees and bonobos at Edinburgh Zoo in Scotland, Planckendael Zoo in Belgium, and Kumamoto Sanctuary in Japan.&nbsp;



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-children-more-curious-than-apes-yes-and-no-finds-new-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">apes</a> were shown photographs of former groupmates - including some they had not seen for up to 26 years - alongside images of strangers.



The results were striking. The apes demonstrated a significant preference for looking at former groupmates over strangers, and even more so at friends.&nbsp;



In a notable instance, bonobo Louise showed a strong bias towards her sister Loretta and nephew Erin, whom she hadn't seen for over 26 years.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="VQhy72UMed-3247262-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-memory-of-apes">Social memory of apes</h2>



These findings suggest that great ape social memory could outlast the majority of their 40 to 60-year lifespan, comparable to human memory, which can persist as long as 48 years after separation.&nbsp;



This longevity in memory might have been present in our common evolutionary ancestors and could have played a crucial role in the development of human culture, including maintaining long-term intergroup relationships.



The idea that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/apes-evolved-shoulders-as-brakes-to-safely-climb-down-trees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">apes</a> remember information about the quality of their relationships, years beyond any potential functionality, is another novel and human-like finding of the work, said Krupenye.



“This pattern of social relationships shaping long-term memory in chimpanzees and bonobos is similar to what we see in humans, that our own social relationships also seem to shape our long-term memory of individuals,” said Lewis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications">Study implications</h2>



The research raises intriguing questions about the emotional depth of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-apes-spin-to-experience-altered-states-of-mind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">apes</a>. Do they miss their friends and family members they no longer see? 



“The idea that they do remember others and therefore they may miss these individuals is really a powerful cognitive mechanism and something that's been thought of as uniquely human,” said Lewis. “Our study doesn’t determine they are doing this, but it raises questions about the possibility that they may have the ability to do so.”



The team hopes the findings will improve our understanding of great apes while shedding new light on how deeply they could be affected when poaching and deforestation separate them from their groupmates.



“This work clearly shows how fundamental and long lasting these relationships are. Disruption to those relationships is likely very damaging,” said Krupenye.



Looking ahead, the research team aims to investigate whether this remarkable social memory is unique to great apes or shared by other primates. They also plan to explore the richness of ape memories, probing whether they can remember experiences as vividly as they remember individuals.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2304903120" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins University



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Apes recognize long-lost friends after decades

A new study from John Hopkins University reveals that apes...

Mosquito,On,A,Leaf,Outdoor,Picture

A recent study led by researchers from Virginia Commonwealth University (<a href="https://www.vcu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">VCU</a>) has found that a warmer climate could lead to an increase in mosquito populations, as it becomes more difficult for their predators to control their numbers. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-mosquito-populations">Climate change and mosquito populations</h2>



The researchers discovered that rising temperatures, often associated with climate change, can reduce the effectiveness of mosquito larvae predators in controlling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-mosquitoes-find-tasty-humans-from-hundreds-of-meters-away/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mosquito</a> populations. 



Warmer temperatures accelerate the development time of the larvae. This, in turn, decreases the window of time available for dragonflies, their natural predators, to consume them. As a result, the study suggests that nearly twice as many mosquito larvae could reach adulthood in a warmer climate. 



The researchers conducted their investigation in riverine rock pools at Belle Isle along the James River in Richmond. Even in the presence of their natural predators, warmer temperature pools were found to have a higher number of aquatic mosquito larvae.



It is important to note that the native rock pool mosquito studied in this research is not a significant disease vector. However, these findings could have implications for similar species, such as the invasive Asian rock pool mosquito, which do act as vectors for diseases like West Nile or Zika virus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-mosquitoes-and-disease">Climate, mosquitoes and disease</h2>



Lead researcher of the study, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Andrew-Davidson-28" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Andrew T. Davidson</a>, Ph.D., shared his insights, saying, "We might see larger populations of everyone's least favorite bug, mosquitoes. While the mosquito larvae we studied here are the North American rock pool mosquito, these findings likely apply to species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquito-hearing-could-be-targeted-to-combat-deadly-diseases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mosquito</a> that do act as vectors for diseases like West Nile or even Zika virus." 



Davidson conducted this research as part of his Ph.D. program in VCU's <a href="https://cilse.vcu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for Integrative Life Sciences Education</a>.



The study also emphasizes the important role of predators in stabilizing ecosystems and food webs. Specifically, the researchers focused on the interactions between dragonfly nymphs and mosquito larvae. 



Prior to conducting field work, the study was based on concepts of thermal physiology and short-term laboratory experiments, which generated predictive models of the relationship between predators, prey, and temperature in the field. Ultimately, the field study provided empirical evidence to validate these models in a natural environment.



In summary, this research sheds light on the impact of climate change on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-aims-to-control-mosquitoes-by-deactivating-their-sperm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mosquito</a> populations and highlights the need for further studies to better understand the consequences of rising temperatures on the spread of mosquito-borne diseases. 



By uncovering the intricate predator-prey dynamics and demonstrating the influence of temperature on these interactions, this study lays the foundation for future research on effective mosquito control strategies in a changing climate.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">E</a><a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/">cological Society of America</a>.



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Climate change is great for mosquitoes

A recent study led by researchers from Virginia Commonwealth University...

In an effort to understand the ecological impact of climate change on aardvarks, researchers from <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a> embarked on a unique study in sub-Saharan Africa.



The goal was to collect and analyze aardvark feces, providing insights into the species' adaptation and survival in a changing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-disrupts-communication-among-animals/">environment</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



“Everyone had heard of aardvarks and they are considered very ecologically important but there has been little study of them,” said wildlife biologist Clint Epps, who led the study with wildlife geneticist Rachel Crowhurst. “We wanted to see if we could collect enough data to begin to understand them.”



Epps had previously acquired skills in identifying aardvark tracks and feces during postdoctoral research in Tanzania. For the current study, the team collected 253 fecal samples, of which 104 were used for genetic analysis.



“During times of rapid environmental change, evaluating and describing changes in the landscape where a species lives is important for informed conservation and management decisions,” said Crowhurst.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-elusive-aardvarks-nbsp">Elusive aardvarks&nbsp;</h2>



Aardvarks are nocturnal and burrowing mammals that weigh up to 180 pounds and are distinct in their ecology. With long snouts and claws used for digging out ant and termite hills, aardvarks are the sole members of the order Tubulidentata, distantly related to golden moles, elephants, and manatees.&nbsp;



Despite being categorized as "least concern" by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature, the actual distribution and population trends of aardvarks remain largely unknown. This lack of knowledge is attributed to their nocturnal habits, low population densities, and expansive, often remote habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aardvarks-are-understudied-animals">Aardvarks are understudied animals</h2>



“I wanted to work on a system that was understudied, where anything I learned would likely be truly new information to the scientific community,” said Epps. “I also wanted to work over large landscapes, on foot, alone or with a friend or with guards when needed, in protected areas, with minimal logistical support and little cost.”



By analyzing the genetic data from the fecal samples, the researchers inferred the distribution and range of aardvark movements. For instance, they could identify if fecal samples from different locations belonged to the same individual, which helped in estimating the scale of their movements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-insights-nbsp">Critical insights&nbsp;</h2>



In South Africa, the findings revealed three distinct regional groups of aardvarks, suggesting some degree of isolation among populations in the western, central, and eastern regions.&nbsp;



The results further indicated that aardvarks could travel up to 55 kilometers from their birthplace, with closely related individuals found as far as 44 kilometers apart.&nbsp;



Interestingly, the genetic differentiation was more pronounced in arid landscapes, implying that such environments hinder aardvark movement, potentially affecting their gene flow.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers plan to continue the research with genomic analyses and field work across a wider area of sub-Saharan Africa.



“Our initial findings suggest that climate change will increase habitat fragmentation and limit gene flow for aardvarks, particularly where precipitation is expected to decrease and temperature increase,” said Epps. “With aridity expected to increase in southern-most Africa under most climate change scenarios, the need for further research is clear.”



Despite their extensive fieldwork, Epps and his team have yet to see an aardvark in the wild, and hope to do so in the near future.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ddi.13792" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Diversity and Distributions</a>.



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How will climate change affect elusive aardvarks? 

In an effort to understand the ecological impact of climate...

The <a href="https://www.iucn.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Union for Conservation of Nature</a> (IUCN) has raised an alarm about the risk of extinction facing a significant number of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/value-freshwater-fish/">freshwater fish</a> species. 



In a report presented at the United Nations climate conference in Dubai (COP28) on Monday, the IUCN’s assessment of nearly 15,000 species revealed that about 25 percent are on the brink of extinction, with climate change affecting at least 17 percent of these threatened species.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-contributing-factors">Contributing factors</h2>



Rising sea levels are pushing seawater into rivers, exacerbating the threat to freshwater species. Additionally, these species are endangered by factors such as pollution, overfishing, invasive species, diseases, dams, and water extraction. According to the IUCN, pollution affects 57 percent of the at-risk freshwater fish species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-freshwater-ecosystems-nbsp">Freshwater ecosystems&nbsp;</h2>



Kathy Hughes, co-chair of the IUCN freshwater fish specialist group, highlighted the critical role of these species in ecosystems, noting their importance to billions of people dependent on freshwater ecosystems and the millions who rely on fisheries for their livelihood.&nbsp;



“Ensuring freshwater ecosystems are well managed, remain free-flowing with sufficient water, and good water quality is essential to stop species declines and maintain food security, livelihoods, and economies in a climate resilient world,” said Hughes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-atlantic-salmon-nbsp">Atlantic salmon&nbsp;</h2>



In 2021, the <a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">World Wildlife Fund</a> reported that at least 200 million people globally depend on freshwater fish as their primary protein source. The IUCN assessment also pointed to a decline in the global population of Atlantic salmon, classified as near threatened, with a 23 percent decrease from 2006 to 2020. 



Atlantic salmon, which inhabit both freshwater and saltwater, are adversely affected by climate change across their life cycle, including developmental challenges, reduced prey availability, and the expansion of invasive species. Additionally, human-made barriers like dams hinder their access to vital spawning and feeding grounds, while pollution and sedimentation from activities like logging and agriculture increase young salmon mortality.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change">Climate change</h2>



The threat is not limited to freshwater species alone. The IUCN’s updated <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Red List of Threatened Species</a> now includes 157,190 species, with 44,016 facing the threat of extinction. “Climate change is menacing the diversity of life our planet harbors, and undermining nature’s capacity to meet basic human needs,” said IUCN Director General Dr. Grethel Aguilar.



Climate change poses several significant threats to freshwater species through various mechanisms. Protecting freshwater species from these threats requires global efforts to mitigate climate change and local conservation actions to preserve and restore freshwater habitats.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-temperature-changes-nbsp">Temperature changes&nbsp;</h3>



Increasing water temperatures can disrupt the life cycles and breeding patterns of many species. Some species will not survive if the water becomes too warm for their physiological processes.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-altered-water-levels">Altered water levels</h3>



Climate change causes changes in precipitation patterns, resulting in altered river flows, lake levels, and wetland areas. This can destroy or reduce habitats for many freshwater species.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-increased-pollution">Increased pollution</h3>



Higher temperatures can exacerbate pollution issues by increasing the concentration of pollutants and reducing the water's capacity to dissolve oxygen, leading to hypoxic conditions.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-in-seasonality">Changes in seasonality</h3>



The timing of seasonal events, like spring thaw or seasonal rains, is shifting due to climate change. This can affect breeding and migration patterns of aquatic species.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invasive-species-and-diseases">Invasive species and diseases</h3>



Warmer temperatures may allow invasive species and new pathogens to thrive in areas where they were previously unable to survive, outcompeting or infecting native species.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-acidification">Ocean acidification</h3>



While primarily an issue for marine ecosystems, the increasing acidity of oceans can affect freshwater systems as well, especially in coastal and estuarine areas.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-fragmentation">Habitat fragmentation</h3>



Extreme weather events like droughts and floods, which are becoming more frequent due to climate change, can lead to habitat fragmentation, isolating populations and reducing genetic diversity.



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One quarter of freshwater fish species face extinction

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has raised...

Whilst,Their,Mates,Incubate,Their,Eggs,,These,Arctic,Terns,Head

The annual migration of billions of birds, a journey spanning thousands of miles, has long fascinated and puzzled ornithologists. A critical aspect of this phenomenal journey is where these birds rest and refuel. This question is now being addressed in a new study by Fengyi Guo, a Ph.D. student at <a href="https://www.princeton.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Princeton</a>, and her team.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-to-study-bird-migration">How to study bird migration</h2>



Fengyi Guo, along with colleagues from Princeton and the <a href="https://www.udel.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Delaware</a>, has published a paper that utilizes weather radar imagery to map the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/surprising-discovery-behind-long-distance-bird-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migratory</a> stopover sites of birds in North America. This innovative approach has enabled the team to identify over 2.4 million hectares of crucial stopover hotspots across the eastern United States.



Guo explains the methodology, stating, “Most landbirds migrate at night, lifting off from stopover sites after sunset. Weather radar captures this movement, but interpreting the data requires extensive processing.” The radar, sampling the atmosphere every 6-10 minutes, detects bird take-offs within an 80 km radius, providing intricate details of stopover habitats.



David Wilcove, a co-author and C-PREE faculty member, highlights the significance of this research. “Fengyi’s work gives us the first accurate picture of key stopover sites for birds across the eastern United States,” he says. This information is vital for identifying and protecting these critical sites to ensure safe passage for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migratory-birds-have-new-strategy-to-cope-with-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migrating</a> birds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-resting-spots-for-migrating-birds">Identifying resting spots for migrating birds</h2>



The study reveals that these hotspots are predominantly deciduous forests, including fragments in deforested regions. These areas are essential resting points for numerous landbirds annually. However, bird <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/geomagnetic-disturbances-throw-nocturnal-birds-off-course/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migration challenges</a> remain. Only half of these protected hotspots are free from extractive resource use, and two-thirds lack formal protection.



Interestingly, the study found substantial seasonal differences in hotspot locations. The places where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migratory-birds-take-breaks-to-boost-their-immune-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds rest</a> in the fall often differ from those used in the spring. With only 17% of hotspots being used in both seasons, the need for protecting a vast number of sites across the eastern U.S. becomes apparent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-decline-of-migratory-bird-populations">The decline of migratory bird populations</h2>



Since 1970, migrating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-radio-waves-disrupt-the-magnetic-compass-of-migratory-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird populations</a> in the U.S. have declined by over a quarter, primarily due to human-induced factors such as habitat loss, overexploitation, and climate change. The authors of the paper emphasize the importance of protecting key habitats, noting higher stopover densities in protected areas.



The paper states, “A well-distributed network of well-protected stopover areas is essential to sustaining healthy populations of migratory landbirds in North America.” This network would complement conservation efforts on breeding and wintering grounds.



In summary, this study by Guo and her team marks a significant advancement in understanding and conserving migratory bird pathways. By leveraging the power of weather radar, this research provides a foundation for targeted conservation efforts, ensuring the survival and health of migratory bird populations in North America.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(23)01583-X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Where do migrating birds stop to rest and refuel?

The annual migration of billions of birds, a journey spanning...

In the icy expanse of the Arctic winter, where the landscape is cloaked in snow and darkness, reindeer possess a remarkable adaptation that aids in their survival: the ability to see <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-does-skin-become-leathery-after-too-much-uv-light-from-sun-exposure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ultraviolet light</a>. 



This unique trait enables reindeer to locate their primary food source, lichen, in the harsh winter months.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arctic-survival">Arctic survival</h2>



Researchers from <a href="https://home.dartmouth.edu/dartmouth">Dartmouth</a> and the University of St. Andrews in Scotland have shed light on the long-standing mystery of why reindeer, including the legendary Rudolph, can perceive ultraviolet (UV) light. The study, led by Professor Nathaniel Dominy, reveals a fascinating aspect of reindeer biology.



"Reindeer are so cool, but many people think about them only at Christmas," said Dominy. "Now is a good time to alert people to their extraordinary visual system."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-lichen-connection">The lichen connection</h2>



Reindeer moss, or Cladonia rangiferina, is not moss but a type of algae-fungus fusion known as lichen. This lichen forms extensive mats across northern latitudes and is critical for reindeer survival, so much so that its name is derived from the scientific term for reindeer, Rangifer.



In the Cairngorms mountains of the Scottish Highlands, home to Britain's only reindeer herd, the researchers observed the reindeer's reliance on C. rangiferina, especially during winter. This preference for a singular food source is uncommon among large mammals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ultraviolet-light">Ultraviolet light</h2>



The researchers discovered that C. rangiferina and a few other lichen species absorb UV light.&nbsp;



While invisible to the human eye against the snowy backdrop, these lichens appear as distinct, dark patches in reindeer vision, making them more identifiable in the vast white landscape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-reindeer-see-the-world">How reindeer see the world</h2>



"Getting a visual approximation of how reindeer might see the world is something other studies haven't done before," said Dominy, who published a paper in 2015 on how Rudolph's red nose would have acted as an effective foglamp in the haze of winter.



"If you can put yourself in their hooves looking at this white landscape, you would want a direct route to your food."



"Reindeer don't want to waste energy wandering around searching for food in a cold, barren environment. If they can see lichens from a distance, that gives them a big advantage, letting them conserve precious calories at a time when food is scarce."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-visual-adaptations-nbsp">Visual adaptations&nbsp;</h2>



Reindeer not only have unique visual capabilities but also undergo seasonal changes in their eyes. During winter, their tapetum (a light-reflecting layer) shifts from a golden to a vivid blue hue. This transition is thought to enhance low light visibility in polar winters.&nbsp;



"If the color of the light in the environment is primarily blue, then it makes sense for the eye to enhance the color blue to make sure a reindeer's photoreceptors are maximizing those wavelengths," explained Dominy.



The blue tapetum also allows about 60% of UV light to reach the retina, painting the winter world in shades of purple, akin to a room under a black light.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-human-perception-nbsp">Beyond human perception&nbsp;</h2>



This study offers an answer to why reindeer, despite being diurnal Arctic animals, have evolved to perceive UV light. It seems their vision is specially adapted to distinguish food sources like lichen from the reflective snow-covered surroundings.



Given the importance of lichens in their diet, it is possible that reindeer eyes are optimized to single out this food staple at the time of year it would be most difficult to find, noted the researchers.



While the red-nosed reindeer may guide Santa's sleigh with his luminous nose, it is, in fact, the blue eyes of reindeer that play a crucial role in their survival. These eyes, attuned to a world beyond human perception, allow them to efficiently locate their food in a landscape where every calorie counts.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/20416695231218520" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">i-Perception</a>.



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Reindeer use ultraviolet vision to find food in the winter

In the icy expanse of the Arctic winter, where the...

In an extraordinary event, a wild Green Honeycreeper exhibiting distinct characteristics of both male and female of its species, known as a bilateral gynandromorph, was spotted, marking a significant moment in ornithological studies.



Distinguished Professor Hamish Spencer from the <a href="https://www.otago.ac.nz/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Otago</a> encountered this rare phenomenon in the avian world while on a holiday in Colombia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-green-honeycreeper">Significance of the Green Honeycreeper</h2>



The discovery occurred when amateur ornithologist John Murillo brought the unique bird to Professor Spencer's attention. The Green Honeycreeper displayed an unusual half green (female) and half blue (male) plumage.



This sighting is a remarkable occurrence. Professor Spencer notes, “Many birdwatchers could go their whole lives and not see a bilateral gynandromorph in any species of bird. The phenomenon is extremely rare in birds, I know of no examples from New Zealand ever.”



Professor Spencer expressed his privilege in witnessing this extraordinary Green Honeycreeper bird. “It is very striking, I was very privileged to see it,” he says. The significance of this find is heightened by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/bird_Green-Honeycreeper_Credit-John-Murillo_1medium.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photographic evidence captured</a>. Professor Spencer describes it as “arguably the best of a wild bilateral gynandromorphic bird of any species ever.”



This find was only the second recorded instance of gynandromorphism in this species in over a century. The rarity of such sightings makes this a landmark event in the field of ornithology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-gynandromorphs">Importance of gynandromorphs</h2>



Gynandromorphs are animals that exhibit both male and female characteristics in species usually characterized by distinct sexes. They hold substantial importance in the understanding of sex determination and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blue-tits-have-more-mating-success-when-males-perform-a-variety-of-songs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sexual behavior</a> in birds. 



Professor Spencer elaborates on the phenomenon, saying, “This particular example of bilateral gynandromorphy – male one side and female the other – shows that, as in several other species, either side of the bird can be male or female.”



The occurrence of gynandromorphism has been predominantly observed in species with strong sexual dimorphism, such as certain insects (especially butterflies), crustaceans, spiders, lizards, and rodents. 



The Professor explains the cause behind this rarity, saying, “The phenomenon arises from an error during female cell division to produce an egg, followed by double-fertilization by two sperm.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-green-honeykeeper-inspires-a-challenge">Green Honeykeeper inspires a challenge</h2>



This novel discovery holds the potential to inspire both the scientific community and the general public. Professor Spencer hopes it encourages people to “treasure exceptions” as they often reveal intriguing insights. 



Spencer concludes with a thought-provoking challenge, saying, “Be always on the lookout for oddities -- who will find the first New Zealand example of a bilateral gynandromorph in a bird?”



In summary, the sighting of the bilateral gynandromorphic Green Honeycreeper by Professor Hamish Spencer and John Murillo is not just a rare encounter in birdwatching but a beacon of scientific intrigue. It underlines the mysteries of nature and the continual surprises it holds, urging scientists and enthusiasts alike to keep exploring the unknown.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-the-green-honeycreeper">More about the Green Honeycreeper</h2>



As discussed above, the Green Honeycreeper, a small yet strikingly vibrant bird, captivates birdwatchers and ornithologists with its vivid colors and unique behaviors. Native to the tropical regions of Central and South America, this bird stands as a symbol of the rich biodiversity found in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-rainforest-day-conserve-restore-regenerate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainforest ecosystems</a>.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-physical-characteristics">Physical characteristics</h3>



The most notable feature of the Green Honeycreeper is its brilliant plumage. Males display a deep, iridescent blue color with a black head, while females and juveniles are mostly green, allowing them to blend seamlessly into the foliage. This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gynandromorphs-half-male-half-female/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sexual dimorphism</a> is not just a visual spectacle but also plays a crucial role in their breeding behavior.



Typically, Green Honeycreepers are small birds, measuring about 5 inches in length. They possess a distinctly curved bill, perfectly adapted for feeding on nectar. Their slender bodies and agile wings enable them to navigate through dense foliage with ease.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-green-honeycreeper-habitat-and-distribution">Green Honeycreeper habitat and distribution</h3>



Green Honeycreepers primarily inhabit the tropical rainforests of Central and South America. Their range extends from southern Mexico through the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-warming-amazon-deforestation-has-far-reaching-impacts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Amazon Basin</a>. These birds thrive in the upper canopy layers of the forest, where they have access to a rich supply of food sources.



Their habitat choice reflects their specialized diet and breeding habits. The dense foliage provides protection from predators and a bounty of feeding opportunities, from nectar to small fruits and insects.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diet-and-feeding-habits">Diet and feeding habits</h3>



Primarily nectarivores, Green Honeycreepers exhibit a preference for the nectar of certain flowering trees. However, their diet is diverse and includes insects and small fruits, which they skillfully pluck from the trees using their curved bills.



Their tongue is specially adapted for nectar feeding, capable of extending far beyond the beak to reach deep into flowers. This adaptation not only aids in feeding but also in pollination, making them important players in their ecosystem.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-green-honeycreeper-breeding-and-nesting">Green Honeycreeper breeding and nesting</h3>



During the breeding season, males exhibit vibrant plumage to attract females. They engage in elaborate displays, including singing and showing off their brightly colored feathers.



Green Honeycreepers build their nests in the higher branches of trees. The female takes the lead in nest-building, using plant fibers and <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/welcome-to-the-not-so-creepy-crawly-world-of-spider-silk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spider webs</a>, and typically lays two to three eggs.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-status">Conservation status</h3>



Despite being relatively widespread, Green Honeycreepers face threats from habitat destruction due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-warming-amazon-deforestation-has-far-reaching-impacts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deforestation</a> and climate change. These factors impact their food sources and nesting sites, challenging their survival.



Conservationists emphasize the importance of protecting tropical rainforests to ensure the survival of species like the Green Honeycreeper. Efforts include habitat preservation, sustainable land-use practices, and raising awareness about the ecological importance of these birds.



In summary, the Green Honeycreeper, with its dazzling colors and intriguing behaviors, is more than just a beautiful bird. It represents the intricate balance of tropical ecosystems. As we continue to explore and understand these magnificent creatures, their conservation becomes a vital part of preserving the natural wonders of our world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-gynandromorphs">More about Gynandromorphs</h2>



As discussed previously in this article, gynandromorphism is a rare and intriguing biological phenomenon where an organism exhibits both male and female physical characteristics. This condition is most commonly observed in birds, like the Green Honeycreeper, insects, and crustaceans. Gynandromorphs are not just a blend of male and female traits; they are a living mosaic of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sex-impacts-gene-expression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sexual dimorphism</a>.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-behind-gynandromorphism">The science behind gynandromorphism</h3>



Gynandromorphism arises from a genetic anomaly during the early stages of embryonic development. In most cases, it results from a chromosomal mishap during cell division. 



For example, with insects, it often occurs when the two sex chromosomes (ZZ for males and ZW for females in many species) fail to separate properly during the formation of reproductive cells.



In the developing embryo, cells with differing chromosomal compositions (male and female) start to divide and multiply independently. This leads to a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-first-live-birth-of-a-chimeric-monkey-created-with-stem-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimera</a>, an organism with two sets of DNA. The distribution of these male and female cells determines the physical manifestation of gynandromorphism.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-types-of-gynandromorphs">Types of gynandromorphs</h3>



The most visually striking type is the bilateral gynandromorph, where one side of the organism displays male characteristics, and the other side exhibits female traits. This phenomenon is most famously observed in butterflies and birds like the Green Honeycreeper.



Mosaic gynandromorphs have a more mixed distribution of male and female characteristics. Their appearance can be a patchwork of male and female traits distributed across their bodies, often seen in crustaceans like lobsters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-case-studies-in-nature">Case studies in nature</h2>



In butterflies, gynandromorphism can lead to one wing displaying the color and pattern typical of a male, while the other wing exhibits female characteristics. This can provide unique insights into how wing patterns are genetically controlled.



In birds like Green Honeycreepers, where males are typically bright blue and females are green, a gynandromorph Green Honeycreeper can exhibit a striking split-coloration. This split not only affects their plumage but also their behavior, offering a rare glimpse into the role of genetics in bird behavior.



Gynandromorphs are both biological anomalies and a window into understanding sexual dimorphism and genetic development. Studies of gynandromorphs can lead to insights in developmental biology, genetics, and even evolution.



In summary, gynandromorphs remind us of the complexity and wonder of nature. They exemplify the intricate dance of genetics and development, presenting a living tapestry of two sexes in a single organism. While rare, these creatures offer invaluable insights into the mysteries of biology.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://journal.afonet.org/vol94/iss4/art12/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Field Ornithology</a>.



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"Extremely rare" half-female, half-male bird captured on film

In an extraordinary event, a wild Green Honeycreeper exhibiting distinct...

A new study from <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CU Boulder</a> raises concerns about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/underwater-upheaval-the-ecological-impact-of-deep-sea-mining/">ecological impacts</a> of reintroducing beavers on a large scale in the Western United States. The research reveals the potential for the spread of mercury-containing toxins in rivers and their surrounding habitats.



The study was presented at the 2023 <a href="https://www.agu.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Geophysical Union</a> meeting by Clifford Adamchak, a PhD student in the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology.



“In a world where beavers are increasingly being seen as an effective means to achieve various conservation and restoration goals, there is a possibility that we would see an abnormally large flush of methylmercury if we were to reintroduce beavers in the Western U.S. on a larger scale,” said Adamchak. "So it is important to better understand the impacts of their activities.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-beavers">Significance of beavers</h2>



Beavers are key players in ecosystem dynamics. Their ability to alter streamflow through dam construction creates rich wetland habitats. These changes have far-reaching effects, including water conservation and improvement in biodiversity.



The study was focused on the impact of beaver activities and their potential role in exacerbating the spread of methylmercury.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-benefits">Environmental benefits</h2>



Beavers were widespread in North American streams before European settlement led to hunting and habitat loss. Their population dwindled, as well as their environmental benefits.&nbsp;



Over time, beavers change the environment significantly. By damming up streams and trapping water in their ponds, they help to replenish groundwater supplies and maintain wetland habitats for other species, noted the researchers.



Beaver ponds can also ease the effects of drought and help to mitigate wildfires, which is increasingly significant in the face of climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mercury-hotspots-nbsp">Mercury hotspots&nbsp;</h2>



However, the study highlights a critical concern. Beaver ponds, which often lack oxygen, can become hotspots for bacteria producing mercury-containing neurotoxins.&nbsp;



“A stream that flows smoothly with nothing stopping it would have very different biological chemical and geological processes than a stream that has cascading beaver dams and ponds,” said Adamchak. “Beaver activities also impact the surrounding landscape, because the animals forage for woody vegetation on land.”&nbsp;



Human activities, such as coal burning and mining, emit mercury into the atmosphere, which eventually invades water bodies. Here, it transforms into methylmercury, a toxic compound that accumulates in organisms and travels up the food chain, posing health risks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-insights-nbsp">Key insights&nbsp;</h2>



The research involved collecting over 300 water and sediment samples from beaver ponds in California and Colorado. Adamchak found low methylmercury levels in the water but high levels in the sediment, indicating potential accumulation in the ecosystem.&nbsp;



This raises concerns about the spread of mercury-containing neurotoxins, especially as beavers move and abandon ponds, allowing vegetation in high methylmercury areas to grow and enter the food chain.



Since the research is still in its early stages, Adamchak said it’s unclear to what degree methylmercury can affect the wetland ecosystem as a result of beaver activities. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-research-is-needed">More research is needed</h2>



Previous studies have shown that methylmercury concentrations in beaver ponds decrease with age, indicating a lesser potential impact.&nbsp;



"That suggests beavers probably don’t have overwhelmingly negative effects on the ecosystem. But at this point, it’s very hard to say if more beaver activities are good or bad in terms of mercury levels,” said Adamchak.



Going forward, he plans to investigate the influence of pond age and seasonal variations on methylmercury levels.



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Boosting beaver populations could have toxic consequences

A new study from CU Boulder raises concerns about the...

A study on grey reef <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ghost-sharks-unraveling-the-mysteries-of-these-strange-and-elusive-sea-monsters/">sharks</a> in the Seychelles is challenging long-held beliefs about shark breathing and sleeping patterns.&nbsp;



The research contradicts the long-held belief that some sharks, known as obligate ram ventilators, must constantly swim to breathe.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-of-shark-breathing">Science of shark breathing</h2>



Traditionally, experts believed that sharks employed two primary methods of respiration: ram ventilation and buccal pumping.&nbsp;



Ram ventilators, like the grey reef shark, were thought to require constant movement to force water over their gills.&nbsp;



By contrast, buccal pumpers can actively pump water while stationary. This distinction has significant implications for how these creatures rest and potentially sleep.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-discovery-nbsp">Surprising discovery&nbsp;</h2>



"On routine survey dives around D’Arros we found grey reef sharks resting under coral reef ledges," said Dr. Robert Bullock, the director of research at the <a href="https://saveourseas.com/sosf-darros-research-centre/">Save Our Seas D’Arros Research Centre</a> (SOSF-DRC).



The team observed the sharks resting alone and in groups, showing signs of what could be considered sleep.&nbsp;



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="rAGq3DzqGF-3243712-12187" type="single"]</div>



"This is not something we believed they could do. The grey reef shark has been considered a ram-ventilating species, unable to rest, so to find these ones resting turns our fundamental understanding of them on its head," said Dr. Bullock.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-shark-sleep">Rethinking shark sleep</h2>



The sharks demonstrated lower jaw movements, suggesting a shift from ram ventilation to buccal pumping. This is a remarkable adaptation for a species that was previously believed to be incapable of such behavior.&nbsp;



"There is something very special about 'tiptoeing' around underwater at a depth of 25 meters and looking into the open eyes of sleeping sharks, moving carefully so as not to wake the peaceful beauties," said Craig Foster, founder of the SeaChange Project.



"I love things that challenge our current thinking, and I’ve always thought of the grey reef shark as a clear example of a species that needs to swim to breathe. Clearly not from this discovery!"



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-questions-emerge">New questions emerge</h2>



The research presents essential questions about the resting and potential sleeping patterns of sharks, particularly those thought to be obligate ram ventilators.&nbsp;



"This raises all kinds of other questions. How are they coping? How long for? How often? We have so much to learn still, and to me, that’s exciting," said Dr. James Lea, CEO of the Save Our Seas Foundation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers plan to explore how these behaviors impact the sharks' use of their environment. They noted that if the grey reef shark can switch its mode of breathing, and rest, there’s more to uncover about similar sharks.&nbsp;



"It’s key to understanding how they use their environment and also how this may change in response to shifts in environmental conditions," explained Dr Lea.&nbsp;



"How important is this rest, or possible sleep, for the sharks? And what’s the impact on them if they can’t get that rest if conditions change, such as oxygen levels rising or falling due to a changing climate?"



"I hope that these findings serve as a reminder of how much we still do not know and how exciting that is," said Dr. Bullock. "Science is about being wrong quite a lot. And that’s OK."



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jfb.15623" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Fish Biology</a>.



Video Credit: Filmed by Craig Foster | © Save Our Seas Foundation



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Grey reef sharks can stop and rest, which was thought to be impossible

A study on grey reef sharks in the Seychelles is...

Cats are often perceived as independent and less trainable pets, but a new study shows that they have a surprising inclination toward playing fetch - a game commonly associated with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-live-longer-and-happier-lives-when-they-get-to-socialize-often/">dogs</a>.&nbsp;



A comprehensive survey of 924 cat owners sheds light on this unexpected feline behavior, revealing that most cats who engage in fetching do so without explicit training.



"The motivation behind playing with objects in cats is different from that of dogs; cats are more motivated to engage in solitary play with objects that have prey-like features, as seen in other non-domestic animal species such as kestrels, whereas object play in dogs usually involves a dog or human partner and is socially motivated," wrote the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cats-control-the-game">Cats control the game</h2>



The study, conducted by Jemma Forman, Elizabeth Renner, and David Leavens, involved a detailed analysis of fetching behaviors in 1,154 cats.&nbsp;



The survey delved into various aspects of this activity, including the frequency of fetching, the types of objects used, and the dynamics of initiating and concluding the game.



Key findings from the study indicate that cats are not just passive participants but active controllers of the fetch game.&nbsp;



Approximately 59 percent of fetching cats did so up to ten times a month, and 55 percent fetched objects up to five times during their most recent game.&nbsp;



Interestingly, the cats themselves often initiated and concluded these games, suggesting a significant level of autonomy and control over the activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-natural-fetchers">Natural fetchers</h2>



A remarkable 94 percent of owners observed that their cats began playing fetch spontaneously, without any formal training. The survey further reveals that 61 percent of these cats started fetching as kittens, underlining an innate tendency towards this behavior.&nbsp;



While some cats might have learned from other animals, only 23 percent cohabited with another fetching pet, like a dog or a cat.



"Most cats who fetch first display this behavior as kittens or young adults. Cats have individual preferences for a variety of objects to fetch and they exhibit agency in the initiation and ending of fetching sessions," wrote the researchers.



"Owners also provided detailed descriptions of the fetching process itself and highlighted how some cats will fetch only in certain circumstances."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cats-fetching-preferences">Cats' fetching preferences</h2>



Among the 160 purebred cats in the survey, Siamese cats emerged as the top fetching breed, followed by Bengals and Ragdolls.&nbsp;



This finding points towards a possible breed-specific propensity towards this type of play, although the behavior was observed across various breeds.



The study also highlights the diverse range of objects cats choose to fetch. While cat toys constituted nearly 40 percent of these objects, the majority were everyday household items, such as hair ties and bottle parts, or items thrown by owners, like crumpled paper.&nbsp;



Common locations for the games included bedrooms and stairs, indicating that cats have a preference for familiar and comfortable environments.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-47409-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Some cats love to play fetch as much as dogs and even initiate the game

Cats are often perceived as independent and less trainable pets,...

In the harsh conditions of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-arctic-dipole-the-atmospheric-pattern-shaping-our-future-climate/">Arctic</a>, survival hinges on an array of specialized adaptations. One such adaptation, as revealed in a recent study, is the strategic structure of the nasal cavities in Arctic seals.&nbsp;



The researchers found that Arctic seals have more convoluted nasal passages than seal species that live in milder environments. This unique feature, which is often overlooked, plays a crucial role in helping the seals conserve heat and moisture in their frigid habitat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-advantage-nbsp">Evolutionary advantage&nbsp;</h2>



Study co-author Signe Kjelstrup, a physical chemist at the <a href="https://www.ntnu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Norwegian University of Science and Technology</a>, said the complex nasal structure of Arctic seals allows them to minimize heat loss during the critical process of breathing.&nbsp;



“Thanks to this elaborate structure in their nasal cavities, Arctic seals lose less heat through nasal heat exchange than subtropical seals when both are exposed to the same conditions,” said Kjelstrup. “This provides an evolutionary advantage, especially in the Arctic where heat loss is energy dissipation, which must be replenished by food.”



“What’s so amazing is that these Arctic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-fur-seals-face-an-emerging-threat-of-food-shortages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seals</a> retain 94% of the water when they breathe in and out. This means that most of the water added to the air during inhalation is then recovered during exhalation.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-arctic-seals">Studying Arctic seals</h2>



The research team used advanced imaging techniques, such as computer tomography, to create 3D models of the nasal cavities of two seal species: the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bearded-seals-may-not-be-loud-enough-to-survive-ocean-noise-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic bearded</a> seal (Erignathus barbatus) and the Mediterranean monk seal (Monachus monachus). 



By simulating various environmental conditions and analyzing the nasal structures' efficiency, the team discovered significant differences in the heat and moisture exchange capabilities between these species.&nbsp;



The Arctic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-flu-killed-hundreds-of-seals-in-new-england-last-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seals</a> proved to be far more effective in retaining heat and moisture across different temperatures, a testament to their specialized adaptation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-nbsp">Broader implications&nbsp;</h2>



This discovery not only sheds light on the fascinating adaptations of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-amplification-is-destabilizing-the-delicate-balance-of-the-ecosystem/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic wildlife</a> but also opens doors to potential applications in engineering and design. 



Inspired by nature's ingenuity, Kjelstrup envisions leveraging these biological insights to enhance the efficiency of heat exchangers and ventilation systems in technology.



“If nature manages to create such great heat exchangers, I think we should copy that in engineering to create more efficient processes, for instance, in air conditioners,” said Kjelstrup.  



Going forward, the researchers also plan to study the nasal structures of other species to see if different structures provide evolutionary advantages in other environments.&nbsp;



“The camel, for instance, doesn't need to save much on heat, but it does need to save on water, so one may speculate that it could tell us something about relative importance of the two,” said Kjelstrup.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-arctic-seals">More about Arctic seals</h2>



As discussed above, Arctic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seals-can-perceive-rhythm-early-in-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seals</a>, the resilient inhabitants of the frigid Arctic regions, present a fascinating example of adaptation and survival. Their lives, deeply intertwined with the Arctic ice and sea, offer a glimpse into the complex ecosystem of the polar areas.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-species-of-arctic-seals">Species of Arctic seals</h3>



Harp seals, known for their distinctive harp-shaped markings, primarily inhabit the North Atlantic and Arctic Oceans. They are famous for their annual migration, covering thousands of miles.



Ringed seals, the smallest and most common Arctic seal, have a unique ability to create breathing holes in the ice. This skill is crucial for their survival in the ice-covered waters.



Bearded seals, named for their prominent whiskers, are larger and prefer shallow waters. They play a vital role in the diet of indigenous peoples and are critical prey for polar bears.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-and-adaptation">Habitat and adaptation</h3>



Arctic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weddell-seals-sacrifice-diving-energy-to-give-iron-to-their-pups/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seals</a> have evolved remarkable adaptations to thrive in extreme cold. They possess a thick layer of blubber for insulation and streamlined bodies for efficient swimming. Their specialized flippers enable agile movement both in water and on ice.



Sea ice is crucial for their survival, serving as a platform for resting, molting, and nurturing their young. The diminishing ice due to climate change poses a significant threat to their habitat.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diet-and-predation">Diet and predation</h3>



Arctic seals mainly feed on fish, krill, and other small marine creatures. Their hunting techniques are a marvel, involving stealth and agility. However, they also fall prey to larger predators like polar bears and orcas, playing a vital role in the Arctic food web.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reproduction-and-lifecycle">Reproduction and lifecycle</h3>



The reproductive cycle of Arctic seals is closely linked to the sea ice. Mothers give birth on ice floes, providing a safe haven for their pups. The nurturing period is short but intense, with pups quickly learning to swim and hunt.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-status">Conservation status</h3>



Several Arctic seal species face threats from climate change, hunting, and pollution. Conservation efforts are underway, including habitat protection and regulating hunting practices. Monitoring and research are critical for their continued survival.



In summary, Arctic seals, with their unique adaptations and crucial role in the Arctic ecosystem, are a testament to the resilience of wildlife in extreme environments. Understanding and protecting them is essential for preserving the delicate balance of the Arctic's natural world.



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bpj.2023.11.012" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biophysical Journal</a>. 



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Complex nasal passages help Arctic seals stay warm

In the harsh conditions of the Arctic, survival hinges on...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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