<p>Two iconic dinosaurs - <em>Tyrannosaurus rex</em> and <em>Brachylophosaurus canadensis</em> - have yielded a fresh line of evidence that traces of their original biology can survive for tens of millions of years. </p>



<p>In new work, researchers at <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Carolina State University</a> identified hemoglobin - the oxygen-carrying protein in blood - and its iron-bearing heme group in bone extracts from both animals.</p>



<p>The finding strengthens a growing body of data showing that certain biomolecules can persist in exceptional fossils. It also clarifies how they change as fossils form.</p>



<p>Researchers have debated and re-examined soft, stretchy tissues from these same specimens for nearly two decades. </p>



<p>Teams have used high-resolution imaging, antibodies, and protein sequencing to argue that the materials are genuine remnants of dinosaur biology rather than modern contaminants. The latest study adds another tool - and another confirmation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-light-unlocks-dinosaur-chemistry">Light unlocks dinosaur chemistry</h2>



<p>The team turned to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/resonance-raman-spectroscopy" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Resonance Raman (RR) spectroscopy</a>. In this method, laser light is tuned to a molecule’s electronic transitions. This causes only that molecule to “sing” back with a strong signal.</p>



<p>“Raman spectroscopy essentially uses light waves to identify a molecule’s energetic ‘fingerprint,’” said physicist Hans Hallen, the study’s corresponding author. </p>



<p>“Resonance Raman, which we use here, takes that process one step further by using light already tuned to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seeking-the-origins-of-the-molecule-that-made-the-universe/">molecule</a> of interest - so only that type of molecule will resonate.”</p>



<p>That resonance dramatically boosts the signal from specific bonds - crucial when your targets are rare, damaged molecules embedded in a complex fossil matrix.</p>



<p>“This strong signal allows us to find the needle (hemoglobin remnants) in the haystack (messy fossil) to see how this molecule has changed from the functional living state, revealing the chemical changes molecules undergo in deep time,” Hallen added.</p>



<p>RR spectra from <em>T. rex</em> and <em>Brachylophosaurus</em> extracts showed signatures consistent with heme still bound to globin proteins. In addition, they indicated heme bound to goethite, an iron oxide mineral linked to oxidized iron.</p>



<p>The researchers cross-checked those signals against demineralized modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-of-a-cretaceous-ostrich-mexidracon-longimanus-with-extremely-long-arms/">ostrich</a> bone and human blood to anchor their interpretations.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-molecules-traced-to-dinosaurs">Blood molecules traced to dinosaurs</h2>



<p>Because Raman detects bonds rather than whole molecules, skeptics often point out that generic signals could arise from modern microbes or other contaminants. </p>



<p>That’s where the extra selectivity of RR - and the structural information in the spectra - matters.</p>



<p>“RR identifies both bonds and structure," said paleobiologist Mary Schweitzer, a co-author on the work. </p>



<p>"We know that heme is there and that it is still bound to hemoglobin protein - contaminants like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reusable-water-bottles-are-breeding-ground-for-strep-and-fecal-bacteria/">bacteria</a> don’t have those specific bonds, so we can say that the molecules are from the animal, or in this case, the dinosaur,”</p>



<p>The team also mapped how those spectral fingerprints shift as hemoglobin decays. After death, the protein breaks down, damaging the heme ring and oxidizing the iron inside it. </p>



<p>RR data show that goethite forms on that iron, and the heme can bind to the mineral surface.</p>



<p>Tellingly, the researchers observed the early stages of the same degradation pathway in modern samples, suggesting that key steps happen relatively quickly and then stabilize.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-blood-survived-fossilization">Dinosaur blood survived fossilization</h2>



<p>Beyond confirming what the molecules are, the spectral changes reveal a plausible route for how they survived. </p>



<p>Goethite is a bio-related mineral - it often forms in association with biological activity - and the new data hint that it doesn’t just grow near proteins; it can latch onto and stabilize fragments. "We didn’t know that it could bind to and stabilize <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-modified-plant-proteins-to-create-delicious-meat-alternatives/">protein</a> fragments,” Hallen said.</p>



<p>That matters because it shows a mechanism that locks delicate organics in place and protects them during fossilization. </p>



<p>Researchers already know that heme persists in sediments far older than the age of dinosaurs, but the path from fresh blood to ancient rock has remained murky.</p>



<p>Pinning down the chemistry helps explain why hemoglobin, in particular, shows up as a survivor - and why some fossils preserve molecular vestiges while others do not.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-view-of-fossil-preservation">A new view of fossil preservation</h2>



<p>The study reinforces a shift in paleontology: under the right conditions, original biochemistry can endure deep time, and modern tools can detect and interpret it. </p>



<p>Instead of a binary “preserved or not,” researchers are piecing together degradation pathways, mineral partnerships, and microenvironments that favor survival.</p>



<p>For dinosaur biology, that means more than just curiosity. Hemoglobin and heme in blood play key roles in metabolism, oxygen transport, and overall physiology. </p>



<p>Their presence, and the way they degrade, defines how tissues fossilize and what information we can still extract.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/dinosaur-bone_hemoglobin_preserved_NCSU_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/dinosaur-bone_hemoglobin_preserved_NCSU_1s.webp" alt="Vessels isolated from Tyrannosaurus cortical bone by demineralization in EDTA. Credit: NC State University" class="wp-image-1985867"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>Vessels isolated from Tyrannosaurus cortical bone by demineralization in EDTA. Click image to enlarge. Credit: NC State University</em></figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-chemistry-spans-eons">Blood chemistry spans eons</h2>



<p>For dinosaur fossil science, mineral–organic interactions like heme–goethite may help preserve blood proteins and molecular fragments throughout Earth’s history.</p>



<p>“Heme has been identified in sediments that are much, much older than dinosaurs, so we know that it persists,” Schweitzer noted. </p>



<p>“Understanding why <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-human-genetics-could-optimize-medical-care/">hemoglobin</a> preserves, and the role that heme plays in the process, is really important if we want to know how these ancient molecules survive through time.”</p>



<p>The upshot is both practical and provocative. Resonance Raman pinpoints specific ancient molecules within messy fossils, and the chemistry it reveals also serves as a preservation roadmap. </p>



<p>That’s a powerful combination for anyone trying to read life’s oldest diaries written in stone.</p>



<p>The study is published in the <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspa.2025.0175" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Proceedings of the Royal Society A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences</em></a>.</p>



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Hemoglobin and other blood molecules found preserved in dinosaur fossils

Two iconic dinosaurs - Tyrannosaurus rex and Brachylophosaurus canadensis - have yielded a fresh line of evidence that traces of their original biology can survive for tens of millions of years. In new work, researchers at North Carolina State University identified hemoglobin - the oxygen-carrying protein in blood - and its iron-bearing heme group in bone extracts from both animals. The finding strengthens a growing body of data showing that certain biomolecules can persist in exceptional fossils. It also clarifies how they change as fossils form. Researchers...

<p>Protecting your dog's teeth is very important. Periodontal disease is a prevalent issue among canines, impacting at least 80 percent of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/typical-american-dog-knows-18-words-and-love-is-at-the-top-of-the-list/">dogs</a> over the age of three. The disease begins with gingivitis, characterized by red, inflamed gums that may bleed. </p>



<p>If untreated, the condition escalates to periodontitis, leading to progressive alveolar bone damage and potential tooth loss, while also increasing the risk of cardiovascular and lung diseases.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oral-hygiene">Oral hygiene</h2>



<p>With poor oral hygiene identified as a principal cause of periodontal disease, leading to plaque and tartar build-up, regular teeth brushing for dogs is advised by veterinarians.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, many people do not comply with this advice, often because their dogs will not cooperate.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-plaque-and-tartar">Reducing plaque and tartar</h2>



<p>Dr. Jerzy Gawor is a veterinary dentistry practitioner and researcher at the Arka Veterinary Clinic in Krakow, Poland, and lead author of a new study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2023.1241197" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Frontiers in Veterinary Science</em></a>.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Here we show that an additive to drinking water, based on pomegranate extract, can reduce the accumulation of plaque and tartar in dogs,” said Dr. Gawor. “This additive thus helps dogs to maintain healthy gums, and may ultimately help to limit the occurrence of periodontal disease.”</p>



<p>The researchers examined Vet Aquadent® FR3SH™ - an over-the-counter oral hygiene product developed by French veterinary company Virbac.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“We did this study after obtaining evidence that the main ingredient, pomegranate extract, limits the growth of oral bacteria in dogs in vitro, including species involved in periodontal disease," said study co-author Dr. Celine Nicolas, an employee of Virbac.</p>



<p>"There was also evidence that the other components, inulin and erythritol, likewise play a role in the maintenance of a healthy oral microbiome in dogs."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-dogs-teeth">Studying dogs' teeth</h2>



<p>The product, which can be easily added to dogs’ drinking water, was tested on 40 dogs representing 14 breeds. All subjects had mild to moderate gingivitis but were otherwise healthy.</p>



<p>The dogs were monitored over 30 days after a professional dental cleaning session. The research involved thorough oral health assessments, dental charting, and mouth radiography under general anesthesia.</p>



<p>Dogs were then divided into two groups: one receiving water with a 1% solution of Vet Aquadent® FR3SH™ daily, and the other receiving plain water. During the study, no other oral hygiene practices were implemented.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-results-of-the-study">Results of the study</h2>



<p>After 30 days, dogs receiving the pomegranate extract additive had a 47 percent reduction in plaque and a 24 percent decrease in tartar. Furthermore, the gums of dogs in the treatment group were completely healthy.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“The results showed that 30 days after the dental cleaning and polishing, dogs which had received the additive daily scored 47% lower for the amount of plaque, and had a 24% lower score for the amount of tartar, compared to dogs in the control group. The gum was also completely healthy in the active treatment group,” wrote the study authors.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-healthier-dog-teeth">Healthier dog teeth</h2>



<p>The study thus affirmed that the additive effectively limits plaque and tartar reformation post professional dental cleaning.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Dr. Gawor and team suggest that the product works by restricting the growth of harmful bacteria, especially preventing bacterial biofilms formation.</p>



<p>"Daily oral hygiene and prophylaxis are essential to prevent periodontal diseases in dogs. This includes active methods like brushing, passive methods like dental chews or water additives, or a combination, as well as regular clinical dental checks," said Dr. Gawor.</p>



<p>"The frequency of the latter should depend on the dog’s age, breed, size, and predisposition, as determined by veterinary clinicians."</p>



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Protect your dogs' teeth by using mouthwash with pomegranate

Protecting your dog's teeth is very important. Periodontal disease is...

<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whales-travel-thousands-of-miles-to-mate/">Humpback whales</a> have been engaging in a unique behavior involving seaweed. Experts believe that whales are not just using seaweed for play, but also for its antibacterial properties.</p>



<p>This intriguing behavior is documented in a paper by Dr. Olaf Meynecke of Griffith University. The research is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jmse11091802"><em>Journal of Marine Science and Engineering</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sand-scrubs-nbsp">Sand scrubs&nbsp;</h2>



<p>In previous work, Dr. Meynecke described whales rolling in sandy substrates off the Gold Coast during their migration, presumably to shed dead skin cells and parasites.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kelping-nbsp">Kelping&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The new paper delves into another understudied behavior displayed by baleen whales, including humpbacks, across various populations in the northern and southern hemispheres. The whales have been seen frolicking and rolling around with clumps of kelp and seaweed at the water’s surface.</p>



<p>According to Dr. Meynecke, the behavior was similar in different individuals, regardless of where in the world it occurred.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-research-nbsp">Focus of the research&nbsp;</h2>



<p>For the investigation, three instances of "kelping" behavior on Australia's east coast were scrutinized through aerial observations, alongside 100 other documented seaweed interactions worldwide.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These interactions involved 163 baleen whales with the majority being humpbacks (in 95 separate events), followed by gray whales, southern right whales, and northern right whales.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-behaviors-nbsp">Complex behaviors&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“The use of objects by cetaceans like baleen whales is well known, and their ability to interact with their environment in complex behaviors has been previously reported on,” said Dr. Meynecke. “But baleen whales, including humpback whales, are less often observed to perform object use, and this behavior might be more common than previously thought."&nbsp;</p>



<p>“There are two plausible theories: play and/or self-medication with seaweed. This behavior may be playful but could also serve additional benefits in the context of learning and socialising, as well as ectoparasite removal and skin treatment by using brown algae’s antibacterial properties.”&nbsp;</p>



<p>Dr. Meynecke emphasizes that recognizing this behavior across various whale populations is crucial for understanding the species’ habitat preferences. It also sheds light on the intricate behaviors of whales, about which there is still much to discover.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-playful-behavior-among-whales">Playful behavior among whales</h2>



<p>Whales, despite their immense size, often engage in playful behavior, demonstrating both their intelligence and their social nature.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breaching">Breaching</h3>



<p>One of the most dramatic and easily noticeable behaviors, a breach involves the whale leaping out of the water and then crashing back down with a splash. It's believed this may help to dislodge parasites or simply be a form of play.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tail-slapping">Tail slapping</h3>



<p>Whales might slap their tails (flukes) on the water's surface. This can serve as a form of communication, a way to stun prey, or even just play.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spyhopping">Spyhopping</h3>



<p>This is when a whale vertically pokes its head out of the water to take a look around, possibly to scout its surroundings.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lobtailing">Lobtailing</h3>



<p>Similar to tail slapping, but the whale will stick its tail out of the water and wave it around before smacking it down.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-log-rolling">Log rolling</h3>



<p>Whales, especially young ones, are sometimes observed rolling around in the water, which can be a playful activity or a way to dislodge parasites.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-playing-with-seaweed">Playing with seaweed</h3>



<p>Some whales have been observed playing with seaweed, passing it between their fins or tossing it around.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interacting-with-other-species">Interacting with other species</h3>



<p>Whales are known to occasionally interact playfully with other marine animals, such as dolphins. For example, orcas (killer whales) and dolphins have been seen playing together, chasing each other, and even sliding on each other's wakes.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bubble-blowing">Bubble blowing</h3>



<p>Some whales will release a stream of bubbles as they swim, which could serve various purposes including hunting, communication, or simply play.</p>



<p>The reasons behind these behaviors aren't always clear and could be a combination of play, communication, and practical necessity. Nevertheless, these playful activities offer a glimpse into the complex social and cognitive lives of these magnificent marine mammals.</p>



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Whales roll in seaweed as a play toy and also use it for its antibacterial properties

Humpback whales have been engaging in a unique behavior involving...

<p>In a recent study, scientists from the University of Florida have unveiled the mysterious process of how hammerhead sharks, renowned for their peculiar head shape, undergo dramatic changes during their gestation. </p>



<p>“This is a look at how monsters form,” said Gareth Fraser, a UF professor of Biology who supervised the new study. “This is an insight into the development of a wonder of nature that we haven’t seen before and may not be able to see again.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-transformations-nbsp">Surprising transformations&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The research highlighted the surprising transformations that bonnethead shark <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-birds-can-learn-sounds-before-birth/">embryos</a>, a species of hammerhead, experience during their growth.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Approximately mid-gestation, these two-inch-long embryos begin to widen their heads drastically. This expansion pushes their developing eyes outwards, creating an eerie and unnatural appearance.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Subsequently, the front of this "hammer" shape continues to evolve, moving backward toward the gills until it takes on a shovel-like form. A few months post this transformation, a foot-long shark emerges into the world.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study-nbsp">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Steven Byrum, a graduate student, teamed up with Professor Fraser to lead this detailed investigation of bonnetheads, which are abundant in the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean. Given their proximity to the shore, bonnetheads provide a unique opportunity for study.</p>



<p>What makes this study even more remarkable is the inherent challenges in studying the development of hammerheads. Unlike many fish and sharks that lay eggs, which can be studied in a controlled lab environment, hammerheads give birth to live young.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This natural process, combined with the endangered status of many shark species, prevents the harvesting of sharks for developmental research. To conduct this study without causing harm to additional sharks, Fraser’s team utilized preserved embryos from bonnetheads obtained during other biological research endeavors.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-opportunity-nbsp">Unique opportunity&nbsp;</h2>



<p>"It’s the perfect qualities of the bonnethead that allowed us to do it with this species," said Byrum. "This was a unique opportunity we may not be able to get for very much longer with bonnetheads and may not be able to get in any other species of hammerhead.”</p>



<p>The study was a collaborative effort that involved Gavin Naylor, director of the Florida Program for Shark Research at the Florida Museum of Natural History, as well as scientists from the South Carolina Department of Natural Resources and Florida State University.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-nbsp">Future research&nbsp;</h2>



<p>This documentation now paves the way for future experiments. The researchers hope to uncover the mechanisms that govern the hammerhead's head shape evolution and to decipher the evolutionary reasons behind their unique features, which are believed to enhance their visual field and ability to detect the electrical movements of their prey.</p>



<p>"Documenting the development of hard-to-access vertebrates, like this viviparous shark species, offers important information about how new and diverse morphologies arise that otherwise may remain poorly studied," wrote the researchers.</p>



<p>"This work will serve as a platform for future comparative developmental research both within sharks and across the phylogeny of vertebrates, underpinning the extreme potential of craniofacial development and morphological diversity in vertebrate animals."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-hammerhead-sharks-nbsp">More about hammerhead sharks&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Hammerhead sharks are a distinctive group of sharks known for their unique, hammer-like head shape which is called a "cephalofoil." This unusual structure provides them with several advantages in their marine environment:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-species">Species</h3>



<p>There are nine recognized species of hammerhead sharks, including the well-known great hammerhead, scalloped hammerhead, and the bonnethead. Each species varies in size, habitat, and behavior.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-physical-characteristics">Physical Characteristics</h3>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cephalofoil">Cephalofoil</h4>



<p>The hammer-shaped head improves their maneuverability, allowing them to make sharp turns quickly.</p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eyes">Eyes</h4>



<p>Their eyes are positioned on the ends of the cephalofoil, providing a wide field of vision and improved depth perception.</p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-size">Size</h4>



<p>Hammerheads range in size, with smaller species like the bonnethead measuring around 3 to 4 feet long, while larger species like the great hammerhead can grow up to 20 feet.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-and-distribution">Habitat and distribution</h3>



<p>Hammerhead sharks are found worldwide in warmer waters along coastlines and continental shelves. They typically prefer temperatures ranging from 20 to 30 degrees Celsius (68 to 86 degrees Fahrenheit).</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-behavior">Behavior</h3>



<p>Some species, like the scalloped hammerhead, often swim in schools, which is unusual for most shark species.</p>



<p>Despite their occasional schooling behavior, hammerheads usually hunt alone, using their cephalofoil to scan the ocean floor for prey.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diet">Diet</h3>



<p>Hammerheads primarily feed on fish, including other sharks, as well as squid, octopus, and crustaceans. Their wide-set eyes give them a better visual range to locate prey, while the cephalofoil assists in trapping stingrays, one of their favorite meals, against the seafloor.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation">Conservation</h3>



<p>Many species of hammerhead sharks are classified as endangered or vulnerable due to overfishing and the global shark fin trade. Conservation efforts are ongoing to protect these unique and important marine predators, including establishing shark sanctuaries and implementing fishing regulations.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reproduction">Reproduction</h2>



<p>As mentioned previously, hammerheads give birth to live young. Depending on the species, a female can give birth to a litter ranging from 6 to 42 pups every two years.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hunting-behavior">Hunting behavior</h3>



<p>The cephalofoil is also believed to house a large number of electroreceptors, allowing hammerhead sharks to effectively detect the electrical signals emitted by other marine organisms, making them highly efficient predators.</p>



<p>Understanding and protecting hammerhead sharks is crucial due to their role in maintaining the health and balance of their marine ecosystems. The study by the University of Florida offers valuable insights into their developmental process, adding to the body of knowledge necessary for their conservation and management.</p>



<p>The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/dvdy.658" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Developmental Dynamics</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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Making a monster: The bizarre development of hammerhead sharks

In a recent study, scientists from the University of Florida...

<p>As our planet faces escalating challenges from global warming, a group of international scientists will be recruiting a surprising ally in the fight against <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenhouse-gas-emissions-reach-another-all-time-high/">greenhouse emissions</a>: the cow.&nbsp;</p>



<p>At the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, experts in animal sciences are launching a novel venture aimed at cutting methane emissions due to rumen fermentation in beef and dairy cattle.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greener-cattle">Greener cattle</h2>



<p>Spanning three years and backed by a $3.2-million budget, this undertaking falls under the umbrella of the <a href="https://foundationfar.org/consortia/greener-cattle-initiative/">Greener Cattle Initiative</a>, which is backed by the Foundation for Food and Agriculture Research (FFAR).</p>



<p>Research data indicates that taking on methane might be a faster route to addressing climate issues than solely focusing on carbon dioxide (CO2). Methane’s heat-trapping ability is 28 times stronger than CO2’s, but it exits the atmosphere in roughly a dozen years, while CO2 can linger for centuries.</p>



<p>“What this means is that anything we do now with ruminant animals can have a huge impact on warming within decades, rather than centuries. Our challenge is to reduce enteric methane emissions by about 30 to 40 percent with the technologies we have,” said project leader Rod Mackie, a professor in the Department of Animal Sciences at U of I.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



<p>Connecting six research centers globally, this project zeroes in on enteric methane – a byproduct of microbial fermentation in the rumen. As a part of this strategy, Mackie and his colleagues aim to examine hydrogen’s role during fermentation.</p>



<p>During the fermentation process, the recycling of an energy-rich molecule, NADH, stands out. For the uninterrupted generation of energy, NADH must release its hydrogen and anticipate a replacement from the decomposition of carbohydrates. Generally, NADH’s surplus hydrogen aids in turning CO2 into methane. Yet, the scientists speculate that there are alternatives to use this type of hydrogen.</p>



<p>“In anaerobic fermentation in the rumen, you have to have some way of recycling hydrogen through the conversion of NADH to NAD. In that process, most of the excess hydrogen goes towards methane. If you shut down methane production, hydrogen builds up and inhibits glycolysis,” Mackie explained.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“We don’t want that to happen. Instead, we want to redirect hydrogen into other products, such as propionate and butyrate, reduced fatty acids that serve as the primary energy source for all ruminants.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-methane-reduction">Methane reduction</h2>



<p>“There are a lot of groups working on inhibiting methane directly using dietary additives. Our focus is trying to figure out how we actually make it work in an animal and make it more energetically feasible. That’s really been the missing piece,” added Josh McCann, an assistant professor of Animal Sciences at the same university, who will also be involved in the project.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“If cows can’t metabolize the excess hydrogens for productive benefit and to improve growth, there will continue to be limited adoption of methane reduction strategies or additives. There’s no economic incentive.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbial-communities-nbsp">Microbial communities&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The team’s strategy begins in the lab through a thorough investigation of hydrogen production and its utilization. By examining rumen microbial communities from diverse cattle, the researchers aim to uncover potential tweaks using inhibitor compounds. Their findings will eventually be tested on cattle.</p>



<p>“Most of the grant is focused on the basic and the mechanistic side, but once we make something that might work within a microbial community, it still has to work in an animal,” McCann explained.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-methane-inhibitor-nbsp">Methane inhibitor&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“We have complicating factors like diet components and how much they want to eat. Not to mention dairy cattle and beef cattle are eating different things, so the bugs in the rumen function differently. So, if we apply a methane inhibitor to a dairy microbial community, we might have to approach the hydrogen capture a little bit differently than in a beef rumen community.”</p>



<p>Mackie envisions this initiative as the starting point of a long-term quest to tackle enteric methane. By the conclusion of the three-year project, the experts aim to pinpoint precise inhibitor dosages that either maintain or even bolster production capacities.</p>



<p>“What we’d like is to have ruminants save the planet within 10 years. That would be amazing,” Mackie concluded.</p>



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<p>.</p>

Greener cattle: Seeking ways to inhibit methane production in cows

As our planet faces escalating challenges from global warming, a...

<p>A team of researchers led by Dartmouth College has recently used an innovative approach to solve the longstanding debate about what caused the mass <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-were-in-a-state-of-decline-before-their-extinction/">extinction</a> of dinosaurs and many other species 66 million years ago: Did a colossal asteroid strike or volcanic eruptions lead to their demise? </p>



<p>To remove potential biases, the experts took the scientists out of the equation and put the decision-making in the hands of computers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interconnected-processors">Interconnected processors</h2>



<p>The novel modeling technique they used employed interconnected processors to sift through extensive geological and climate data autonomously.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The processors were given the task of retroactively examining the fossil record to identify the sequences and conditions that culminated in the Cretaceous–Paleogene (K–Pg) extinction event. This event set the stage for mammals, including primates and eventually early humans, to rise.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



<p>“Part of our motivation was to evaluate this question without a predetermined hypothesis or bias,” said lead author Alex Cox, a graduate student in Earth Sciences at Dartmouth.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Most models move in a forward direction. We adapted a carbon-cycle model to run the other way, using the effect to find the cause through statistics, giving it only the bare minimum of prior information as it worked toward a particular outcome. In the end, it doesn’t matter what we think or what we previously thought - the model shows us how we got to what we see in the geological record.”</p>



<p>This computational model tested over 300,000 potential scenarios spanning a million years around the K–Pg extinction, factoring in variables like carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide emissions and biological productivity.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-machine-learning">Machine learning</h2>



<p>Relying on a machine learning technique known as the Markov Chain Monte Carlo, the processors functioned collaboratively yet independently, continuously refining their findings until a conclusion was reached that aligned with fossil records.</p>



<p>The traces left behind in fossils distinctly portray the catastrophic environment during the K–Pg extinction. There were significant ecological disruptions as food chains crumbled amidst an atmosphere that oscillated drastically due to airborne pollutants.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-caused-the-dinosaur-extinction">What caused the dinosaur extinction?</h2>



<p>While the evidence of this devastation is clear, the root cause remains a topic of debate. Initial theories that pointed to volcanic eruptions have been overshadowed by the discovery of the Chicxulub impact crater in Mexico, attributed to a massive asteroid believed to be the primary catalyst for the dinosaur extinction.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, recent findings suggest the asteroid might have struck an Earth already destabilized by powerful volcanic eruptions in India’s Deccan Traps.</p>



<p>Yet, there is still uncertainty about the relative contributions of each event to the extinction. This drove Cox and his advisor, Brenhin Keller, a Dartmouth assistant professor of Earth Sciences and co-author of the study, to “see what you would get if you let the code decide.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-deccan-traps">The Deccan Traps</h2>



<p>Their model indicates that the emissions from the Deccan Traps could have alone instigated the global extinction. The Deccan eruptions began approximately 300,000 years before the asteroid’s impact, releasing staggering amounts of gases over nearly a million years.</p>



<p>“We’ve known historically that volcanoes can cause massive extinctions, but this is the first independent estimation of volatile emissions taken from the evidence of their environmental effects,” Keller explained.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Our model worked through the data independently and without human bias to determine the amount of carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide required to produce the climate and carbon cycle disruptions we see in the geologic record. These amounts turned out to be consistent with what we expect to see in emissions from the Deccan Traps.”&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surge-in-gas-emissions-nbsp">Surge in gas emissions&nbsp;</h2>



<p>While the model recognized a significant decline in organic carbon accumulation in deep-sea regions around the Chicxulub impact timeframe, it revealed no surge in gas emissions during the period, implying that the asteroid’s role in the extinction wasn’t primarily linked to gas emissions.</p>



<p>Comparing historical events to modern times, Cox noted that between 2000 and 2023, fossil fuel burning released roughly 16 billion tons of carbon dioxide annually, a rate 100 times more intense than the Deccan Traps’ highest yearly emissions. However, it would still take millennia for current emission levels to equal the total output of these ancient eruptions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impressive-results">Impressive results</h2>



<p>“Most heartening is that the results we achieved are broadly physically plausible, which is impressive given that the model could have technically run completely wild without stronger prior constraints,” Cox said.</p>



<p>The integration of processors sped up the data analysis, trimming what could have taken years down to mere hours. This method developed by Cox and Keller can be applied to other earth systems models, enabling researchers to delve deeper into well-documented geological events where the outcomes are clear but the preceding conditions remain elusive.</p>



<p>“This type of parallel inversion hasn't been done in earth sciences models before. Our method can be scaled up to include thousands of processors, which gives us a much broader solution space to explore, and it’s quite resistant to human bias,” remarked Cox.</p>



<p>“So far, people in our field have been more fascinated by the novelty of the method than the conclusion we reached. Any earth system for which we know the effect but not the cause is ripe for inversion. The better we know the output, the better we’re able to characterize the input that caused it.”</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.adh3875" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Science</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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Violent volcanic eruptions likely caused dinosaur extinction

A team of researchers led by Dartmouth College has recently...

<p>Experts have identified a fascinating new species of dinosaur, Garumbatitan morellensis, which inhabited the Iberian Peninsula approximately 122 million years ago during the Early Cretaceous period.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The remains were uncovered in the Morella region of Spain, highlighting the region's significant contribution to the understanding of dinosaur diversity in Europe. Sedimentary deposits in this region have been found to contain an abundant record of dinosaurs from the Early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-shed-new-light-on-europes-enigmatic-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cretaceous</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-cretaceous-dinosaur">New Cretaceous dinosaur</h2>



<p>Garumbatitan morellensis belongs to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-species-of-sauropod-dinosaur-discovered/">sauropod</a> group, characterized by their immense size, quadrupedal stature, herbivorous diet, and distinctive long necks and tails.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The new dinosaur was identified by a team of Spanish and Portuguese paleontologists, whose findings were recently published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/zoolinnean/zlad124" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society</em></a>.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-historical-significance">Historical significance</h2>



<p>Morella has a history of significant fossil discoveries, with the region yielding some of Spain's first dinosaur fossils. In recent years, there has been an upsurge in the discovery of relevant Mesozoic vertebrate fossils, including a notable collection of ornithopod dinosaurs like Morelladon beltrani and other sauropods.</p>



<p>One of the unique aspects of Garumbatitan morellensis is its distinct anatomical characteristics, separating it from other known sauropods. Its femur shares similarities with those of later sauropods from the Late Cretaceous, while the elements forming the foot exhibit unique morphologies.</p>



<p>“One of the individuals we found stands out for its large size, with vertebrae more than one meter wide, and a femur that could reach two meters in length," said Pedro Mocho, a paleontologist at the <a href="https://www.ulisboa.pt/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Lisbon</a>. "We found two almost complete and articulated feet in this deposit, which is particularly rare in the geological record."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-implications">Evolutionary implications</h2>



<p>“Our study highlights the enormous complexity of the evolutionary history of sauropods from the European Cretaceous - in particular, from the Iberian Peninsula, with species related to lineages present in Asia and North America, as well as some groups related to forms from the African continent. Our results suggest the existence of periods of faunal dispersal between these continents," explained Pedro Mocho.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“The future restoration of all fossil materials found in this deposit will add important information to understand the initial evolution of this group of sauropods that dominated dinosaur faunas during the last million years of the Mesozoic era," noted study co-author Francisco Ortega of the Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia (UNED).</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-garumbatitan-morellensis">Garumbatitan morellensis</h2>



<p>The name Garumbatitan morellensis carries significant meaning. “Garumbatitan” translates to “the giant of Garumba,” referencing the base of Mola de la Garumba where the specimen was found.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Meanwhile, “morellensis” pays homage to the location of the deposit, Morella. These fossil remains are now part of the extensive collection of the Iberian Mesozoic at the Temps Museum of Dinosaurs in Morella, contributing to the Valencian Community Museum Network’s offering.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The introduction of Garumbatitan morellensis to the scientific community not only emphasizes the rich dinosaur diversity in the Early Cretaceous but also provides crucial insights into their evolutionary history.&nbsp;</p>



<p>With the promise of future restoration and study of these fossils, the discovery may ultimately help to clarify the initial evolution of the sauropod group that dominated the dinosaur landscape of the Mesozoic era.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-the-cretaceous-period">More about the Cretaceous period</h2>



<p>The Cretaceous period spanned from approximately 145 to 66 million years ago. It ushered in a diverse array of dinosaurs that dominated the land, air, and sea. This era, last of the three periods of the Mesozoic Era, saw the rise of iconic dinosaurs like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/an-estimated-2-5-billion-tyrannosaurus-rexes-lived-and-died-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tyrannosaurus rex</a>, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/triceratops-horns-attract-mates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Triceratops</a>, and as mentioned above, <em>Garumbatitan morellensis</em>. The Cretaceous ended with one of the most significant mass extinction events in Earth's history.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Diversity and adaptation</h3>



<p>Cretaceous dinosaurs exhibited remarkable diversity and adaptability, populating every continent and evolving a myriad of forms, sizes, and ecological roles. Small, feathered theropods like Velociraptor roamed the lands, showcasing the link between dinosaurs and modern birds. Larger predators like Spinosaurus, with its distinctive sailback, pursued prey in aquatic environments.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Herbivorous giants</h3>



<p>Massive herbivores such as the long-necked sauropods also marked the landscapes of the Cretaceous. Titanosaurs, the last surviving group of long-necked sauropods, roamed the Southern Hemisphere, revealing the evolutionary success of herbivorous dinosaurs. Triceratops, recognized by their prominent frills and horns, browsed the lush vegetation. They represented a group of herbivorous dinosaurs known as ceratopsians.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Flora and climate</h3>



<p>Rich and diverse flora characterized the Cretaceous landscapes. Flowering plants, or angiosperms, made their first appearance, rapidly diversifying and providing new food sources for herbivorous dinosaurs. The global climate was warmer, with higher sea levels creating shallow seas and dividing continents. These conditions shaped the distinct dinosaur faunas in different regions.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Birds and flight</h3>



<p>The Cretaceous period witnessed the evolutionary transition from non-avian dinosaurs to birds. Archaeopteryx, often regarded as the first bird, illustrated the morphological changes from theropod dinosaurs to modern avian species. Pterosaurs, with their membranous wings, dominated the skies, showcasing various adaptations for flight and feeding.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event</h3>



<p>The fascinating journey of the Cretaceous dinosaurs concluded with the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-true-survivors-flowering-plants-lived-through-the-dinosaur-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event</a> around 66 million years ago. A colossal asteroid impact, combined with extensive volcanic activity, dramatically altered the Earth’s climate. This ultimately led to the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs. The remnants of this impact form the Chicxulub crater, located on the Yucatán Peninsula.</p>



<p>In summary, the Cretaceous period illuminates the adaptability and diversity of dinosaurs in a dynamically changing world. The dinosaurs of this era, from the fearsome T. rex to the soaring Pterosaurs to <em>Garumbatitan morellensis</em>, showcase the evolutionary innovations and ecological roles that these creatures occupied. </p>



<p>The advancements in paleontology continue to uncover new dinosaur species and provide deeper insights into their lives, behaviors, and environments. This ongoing research enhances our understanding of the intricate tapestry of life during the Cretaceous period. The fossil record from this time not only serves as a window into our planet’s past, but also as a reminder of the ever-present possibility of change and adaptation in the natural world.</p>



<p>---</p>



<p><em>Image Credit: Grup Guix</em></p>



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Massive new dinosaur discovered in Spain's Early Cretaceous fossil collection

Experts have identified a fascinating new species of dinosaur, Garumbatitan...

<p>Were the earliest forms of animals more inclined towards a predatory nature or passive filtering like sponges?&nbsp;</p>



<p>A new study on sea anemones may offer some answers. The research indicates that the evolution of sea anemones, and potentially the early evolution of multicellular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organisms-can-thrive-on-the-seafloor-in-extreme-heat/">organisms</a>, was significantly shaped by a predatory lifestyle.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predatory-larvae">Predatory larvae</h2>



<p>The study, which was led by Dr Thomas W. Holstein of Heidelberg University, was focused on the young life stages or larvae of the Aiptasia sea anemone.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Contrary to previous beliefs, these larvae actively hunt and feed on live prey. They do not rely on algae as previously thought. Using specialized stinging cells and a rudimentary neuronal network, these larvae capture and devour their prey.</p>



<p>“In its simplest form, the gastrula develops from a hollow sphere of cells, the blastula, forming a larval stage with gut and mouth; imagine pushing a ball inwards at one side. All animals pass through this gastrula stage, which could also have existed at the beginning of animal evolution,” said Dr. Holstein.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-model-organism-nbsp">A model organism&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The Aiptasia sea anemone holds significance as a model for researching endosymbiosis in corals and other cnidarians.</p>



<p>“Corals live in nutrient-poor waters and as larvae or young polyps, take up symbiotic algae cells. In Aiptasia, however, this process is important for adults but does not lead to growth and settlement of the larvae, suggesting that nutrition is a critical step in closing the life cycle,” said Dr. Holstein.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Ira Mägele, a member of the research group, provided crucial evidence. She found that even in the late gastrula stage, Aiptasia larvae actively use their stinging cells to hunt prey that matches their size, subsequently consuming and digesting them.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-relevance-of-aiptasia-nbsp">Relevance of Aiptasia&nbsp;</h2>



<p>While corals, especially in nutrient-deficient waters, absorb symbiotic algae cells during their larvae or young polyp stages, Aiptasia doesn't show this reliance during their larval phase.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to the researchers, lab studies of the nutritional conditions showed that the food for the tiny Aiptasia larvae had to be small enough and alive. Nauplius larvae of Tisbe copepods are 50 to 80 micrometers - a similar size to Aiptasia larvae - making them an ideal food.</p>



<p>Under these conditions, larvae grew consistently, later settling and undergoing metamorphosis into primary polyps.</p>



<p>“In this way, we were able to grow mature polyps as well as their descendants for the first time,” explained Mägele.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“By thus closing the life cycle of Aiptasia, it will finally be possible to carry out necessary molecular genetic experiments required for functional studies on this key endosymbiotic model organism," noted study&nbsp;co-author Dr. Elizabeth Hambleton.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-redefining-the-gastrula-hypothesis">Redefining the gastrula hypothesis</h2>



<p>Dr. Holstein's findings challenge the long-standing gastrula hypothesis first proposed by evolutionary theorist Ernst Haeckel in the 19th century. While Haeckel imagined the gastrula as a passive, particle-filtering entity similar to sponges, the Aiptasia gastrula tells a different story. It showcases a predatory lifestyle with specialized stinging cells tailored for hunting.</p>



<p>This predatory nature, which is also found in some single-celled organisms and simple worms, might have been pivotal in the evolution of multicellular organisms, potentially even spurring the development of sophisticated nervous systems.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2311872120"><em>PNAS</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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Did early animal evolution start with predatory behavior?

Were the earliest forms of animals more inclined towards a...

<p>Scientists have recently uncovered remnants of DNA within the fossilized remains of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossilized-sea-turtle-flattened-dinosaur/">sea turtle</a>, closely related to contemporary Kemp’s ridley and olive ridley turtles, dating back six million years.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This finding marks one of the infrequent instances where genetic material has been identified in ancient vertebrate fossils. The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02724634.2023.2254356" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bone-cells-nbsp">Bone cells&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The fossil, discovered along the Caribbean coast of Panama in 2015, presented notably well-preserved bone cells, known as osteocytes.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Though the fossil is incomplete, featuring a relatively intact carapace - the turtle’s shell - but lacking the rest of the skeleton, researchers estimate the turtle would have measured about a foot (30 cm) in length during its lifetime.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-remnants">DNA remnants</h2>



<p>In some of these osteocytes, the cell nuclei remained intact and responded to a specific chemical solution. This reaction allowed the scientists to detect the remnants of DNA, essential for an organism’s development and functioning, explained study lead author Edwin Cadena, a paleontologist at the Universidad del Rosario in Bogota and the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute.</p>



<p>“I want to point out that we did not extract DNA, we only were able to recognize the presence of DNA traces in the nuclei,” Cadena said.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Given its perishable nature, DNA preservation in ancient remains is rare, but not unprecedented, with discoveries of DNA remnants dating back to around two million years in some ancient specimens from Greenland.</p>



<p>The only vertebrate fossils older than the newly studied turtle and showing similar DNA remnants belonged to two dinosaurs – Tyrannosaurus, from around 66 million years ago, and Brachylophosaurus, from about 78 million years ago. DNA remnants have also been reported in insects dating back tens of millions of years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-history-nbsp">Evolutionary history&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The turtle in question belongs to the genus Lepidochelys, which includes two of the seven existing sea turtle species – the Kemp’s ridley, primarily found in the Gulf of Mexico, and the more widespread olive ridley.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This fossil is pivotal in shedding light on the evolutionary history of this genus, which remains largely unclear.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Due to the incomplete nature of the remains, the researchers have refrained from identifying the turtle by its species.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biomolecular-remains-nbsp">Biomolecular remains&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“Each fossil, each fossil site has specific conditions of preservation that in some cases could have favored preservation of original biomolecular remains such as proteins and DNA," said Cadena.</p>



<p>"Maybe in the future and with more studies of this kind, we could be able at some point to sequence very small pieces of DNA and to infer things about their close relatives or involve that information in a broader molecular evolutionary study."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ridley-turtles-nbsp">Ridley turtles&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Ridley turtles, specifically those in the Lepidochelys genus, are known for their relatively small size compared to other sea turtles and unique nesting habits.</p>



<p>There are two species within this genus: the Kemp's ridley turtle (Lepidochelys kempii) and the olive ridley turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea).</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-size">Size</h3>



<p>Ridley turtles are among the smallest sea turtles, with adults usually weighing between 75 and 100 pounds.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shell">Shell</h3>



<p>Their carapace (upper shell) is broad and somewhat heart-shaped, typically olive-green in Kemp’s ridleys and grayish-green in olive ridleys.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limbs">Limbs</h3>



<p>They possess flippers with clawless tips, which are adapted for swimming in open oceans.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-and-distribution">Habitat and distribution</h3>



<p>Kemp's ridley is primarily found in the Gulf of Mexico and along the Atlantic coast of North America. These turtles prefer coastal habitats like bays, estuaries, and lagoons.</p>



<p>Olive ridley is found in tropical regions of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans. They are often found in open waters but migrate to coastal areas for nesting.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nesting">Nesting</h3>



<p>One notable behavior of ridley turtles is “arribada,” a mass nesting phenomenon where thousands of females come ashore simultaneously to lay eggs.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Olive ridley turtles are particularly known for this behavior, with significant arribada events occurring in places like Ostional, Costa Rica.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diet">Diet</h3>



<p>Ridley turtles are omnivores, consuming a variety of food items, including crabs, shrimp, mollusks, jellyfish, and occasionally algae and seaweed.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-status">Conservation status</h3>



<p>Both species of ridley turtles are listed under the IUCN Red List. Kemp's ridley is classified as critically endangered, with major threats including habitat loss, accidental capture in fishing gear (bycatch), and climate change affecting their nesting sites.</p>



<p>Olive ridley is listed as vulnerable, facing threats like illegal egg collection, bycatch, and habitat destruction.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-efforts-nbsp">Conservation efforts&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Various conservation programs and legal protections are in place to help conserve ridley turtles, such as:</p>



<ul>
<li>Establishing protected areas and wildlife refuges.</li>



<li>Implementing regulations and initiatives to reduce bycatch.</li>



<li>Engaging in public education and awareness campaigns.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arribadas-nbsp">Arribadas&nbsp;</h3>



<p>The synchronized nesting events, or arribadas, are crucial for the survival of these species as it overwhelms predators, ensuring that more hatchlings can safely reach the ocean.</p>



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DNA remnants found in six million-year-old sea turtle

Scientists have recently uncovered remnants of DNA within the fossilized...

<p>A new study led by the University of South Carolina (USC) has found that distinct variations in the attributes of wildflowers, depending on their respective <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-are-not-just-attracted-to-plants-by-scent-but-also-by-humidity/">pollinators</a>, are driven by a small number of key genetic differences.</p>



<p>Wildflowers exhibit unique sets of characteristics - termed “pollination syndromes” - that have evolved to cater to specific animal pollinators, such as insects or birds.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-penstemons">Penstemons</h2>



<p>While most species within the Penstemon genus present wide, blue flowers, serving as landing spots for bees, evolution has led some species to develop narrow, red, tubular flowers, catering to hummingbird pollination.</p>



<p>The North American wildflower genus&nbsp;<em>Penstemon</em>&nbsp;displays remarkable floral syndrome convergence, with at least 20 separate lineages that have evolved from ancestral bee pollination syndrome (wide blue-purple flowers that present a landing platform for bees and small amounts of nectar) to hummingbird pollination syndrome (bright red narrowly tubular flowers offering copious nectar).&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study-nbsp">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Related taxa that differ in floral syndrome offer an attractive opportunity to examine the genomic basis of complex trait divergence,” the authors explained.</p>



<p>The objective of this research was to explore how these distinctive pollination syndromes are preserved genetically.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted-nbsp">How the research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The team sequenced the DNA of 229 plants from three related species of the Penstemon genus: <em>P. neomexicanus</em> and <em>P. virgatus</em>, which are bee-pollinated, and <em>P. barbatus</em>, adapted to hummingbird pollination.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-researchers-learned-nbsp">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Despite the stark differences in floral attributes, the experts found a relatively small number of genetic differences between <em>P. barbatus</em> and its bee-pollinated relatives.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Moreover, plants from the same geographical vicinity exhibited greater genetic similarity compared to those from varied locations, regardless of the species. These findings suggest that a genetic blending occurs between wildflowers adapted to both bee and hummingbird pollination.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-varied-pollinators-nbsp">Varied pollinators&nbsp;</h2>



<p>However, the researchers identified 21 sites that showcased consistent differences among species with varied pollinators. These sites are dispersed throughout the genome, suggesting an increased likelihood of the disruption of complementary floral traits by recombination, resulting in hybrids with diminished success.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Interestingly, three of these identified genetic variances were located proximal to genomic regions that determine flower color, width, and nectar volume - traits distinctive to different pollination syndromes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nbsp-flower-traits">&nbsp;Flower traits</h2>



<p>The study provides evidence of occasional hybridization between neighboring bee- and hummingbird-pollinated Penstemon species, alongside an intense selection pressure to retain flower traits adapted to each type of pollinator.</p>



<p>“Although bee- vs. hummingbird-pollinated species are easily distinguished in the field, based on unmistakable differences in flowers and the overall stature of the plant, a surprisingly small number of genetic regions distinguish these different species at the genetic level,” concluded Carolyn Wessinger, an assistant professor of Evolution and Plant Biology at USC.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3002294" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>PLoS Biology</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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Just a few genetic differences tailor flowers to specific pollinators

A new study led by the University of South Carolina...

<p>In a recent study, scientists have investigated some curious behavior among fish-eating killer whales in the Pacific Northwest.&nbsp;For decades, these toothed whales have been harassing and killing porpoises, but without eating them.</p>



<p>The research was co-led by Deborah Giles of Wild Orca and Sarah Teman of the <a href="https://www.seadocsociety.org/killer-whale-facts#:~:text=Three%20distinct%20types%20of%20killer,as%20shown%20in%20recent%20studies." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SeaDoc Society</a>, a program of the UC Davis School of Veterinary Medicine.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysterious-conduct-nbsp">Mysterious conduct&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The team examined over 60 years of interactions between Southern Resident killer whales and porpoises in the Salish Sea to clarify this mysterious conduct.</p>



<p>These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lack-of-prey-is-changing-the-behavior-of-killer-whales/">killer whales</a>, an endangered group with a count of only 75, are significantly dependent on Chinook salmon for their survival. These fish are also endangered.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-ecology">Unique ecology</h2>



<p>Giles pointed out that the killer whales, despite residing in the same waters as their marine mammal-eating counterparts, possess a distinct ecology and culture, making them exclusively fish-eaters.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“I am frequently asked, why don’t the Southern Residents just eat seals or porpoises instead?” said Giles.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“It's because fish-eating killer whales have a completely different ecology and culture from orcas that eat marine mammals - even though the two populations live in the same waters."&nbsp;</p>



<p>"So we must conclude that their interactions with porpoises serve a different purpose, but this purpose has only been speculation until now.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plausible-theories-nbsp">Plausible theories&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The study authors analyzed 78 documented porpoise harassment incidents from 1962 to 2020, proposing three plausible explanations.&nbsp;</p>



<p>One suggestion is that this behavior serves as social play for the killer whales, allowing them to bond, communicate, and enjoy themselves, ultimately benefiting group coordination and teamwork.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Alternatively, harassing porpoises might be a method for the whales to sharpen their salmon-hunting skills, using the porpoises as practice targets without intending to eat them.&nbsp;</p>



<p>A third hypothesis introduces the concept of “mismothering behavior,” where whales may offer care to perceived weaker porpoises, mirroring their instinct to assist group members.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mothering-challenges">Mothering challenges</h2>



<p>“Mismothering behavior - also known as ‘displaced epimeletic behavior’ to scientists - might be due to their limited opportunities to care for young,” explained Giles.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Our research has shown that due to malnutrition, nearly 70% of Southern Resident killer whale pregnancies have resulted in miscarriages or calves that died right away after birth.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-animals">Complex animals</h2>



<p>The exact motivations behind porpoise harassment by these whales may remain elusive.&nbsp;The study confirms that porpoises are not included in the Southern Resident killer whale's diet, as these whales feed almost exclusively on Chinook salmon.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Killer whales are incredibly complex and intelligent animals. We found that porpoise-harassing behavior has been passed on through generations and across social groupings. It’s an amazing example of killer whale culture,” said Teman.</p>



<p>“Still, we don’t expect the Southern Resident killer whales to start eating porpoises. The culture of eating salmon is deeply ingrained in Southern Resident society. These whales need healthy salmon populations to survive.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-salmon-conservation">Salmon conservation </h2>



<p>This dietary constraint underlines the crucial need for salmon conservation efforts in the Salish Sea to ensure the Southern Residents' survival and the health of the region’s ecosystem.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The study received funding and support from numerous institutions, including Wild Orca, SeaDoc Society, University of Exeter, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Orca Behavior Institute, NOAA, Cascadia Research, The Whale Museum, Center for Whale Research, ORCA at Everett Community College, Bay Cetology, North Gulf Oceanic Society, George Mason University, and Marine-Med.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/mms.13073"><em>Marine Mammal Science</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<p><em>Image Credit: Wild Orca</em></p>



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Killer whales have been killing porpoises for decades, but why?

In a recent study, scientists have investigated some curious behavior...

<p>An emerging <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-are-some-sea-stars-more-susceptible-to-disease/">disease</a> that was believed to only cause hoof deformation in elk appears to trigger molecular changes throughout the entire animal system.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This is the conclusion of an epigenetic study by experts at <a href="https://vetmed.wsu.edu/departments/veterinary-microbiology-and-pathology/elk-hoof-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington State University</a> (WSU), who set out to gain a better understanding of elk treponeme-associated hoof disease.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapidly-spreading-disease-nbsp">Rapidly spreading disease&nbsp;</h2>



<p>In a previous <a href="https://news.wsu.edu/press-release/2021/09/16/wsu-researchers-discover-one-way-elk-become-infected-devastating-hoof-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study from WSU</a>, researchers discovered that healthy elk can contract the disease by simply walking on soil contaminated by infected hooves. </p>



<p>The experts described the disease as "devastatingly painful," noting that it often leads to death.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Affected elk suffer with deformed hooves, lameness, and increasingly poor health as a result of the infection," said the report.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"The disease is spreading unabated and has been found in Washington, Idaho, Oregon, and California."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-physiological-changes-nbsp">Physiological changes&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The results of the latest study indicate that the molecular changes caused by hoof disease might not be limited to where the infection is visible, but could potentially be affecting the entire physiology of the elk.</p>



<p>According to the researchers, the illness severely impairs the elk’s ability to find food and escape predators.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heritable-impacts">Heritable impacts</h2>



<p>The research suggests that the disease-induced changes may be heritable, but it is not yet clear whether this means subsequent generations of elk may be more prone to catching the disease.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“It’s not just the absence or presence of the infection. It’s affecting the animal’s entire physiology, all the cells,” said study senior author Michael Skinner, a WSU biologist. “It shows that there's a molecular impact by the presence of the disease organisms.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-epigenetic-changes-nbsp">Epigenetic changes&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Epigenetics refers to stable molecular processes that influence gene behavior, independently of the DNA sequence.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These changes in an organism’s epigenetics can be brought about by various factors such as nutrition or the environment. The current study suggests that infectious diseases can also play a part.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted-nbsp">How the research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The research team analyzed cells from the leg tendons of 55 Roosevelt and Rocky Mountain elk, both infected and uninfected.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These specimens were provided by hunters and procured by wildlife agencies across five states: Washington, Oregon, California, Idaho, and South Dakota.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-researchers-learned-nbsp">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Interestingly, the findings reveal epigenetic changes associated exclusively with the disease in the infected elk.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Considering that the tendon cells were located away from the hoof infection, this suggests that the changes induced by the treponeme-associated hoof disease could be systemic.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



<p>According to Margaret Wild, this research is only the tip of the iceberg.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“We’re building foundational knowledge to understand this disease,” said Wild. “By doing this epigenetic study, we can see apparent systemic impacts from the infection, even though we don't see those pathological changes when we look at the elk.”</p>



<p>The disease's name originates from the treponeme bacteria. However, researchers now theorize that it might be caused by multiple bacterial strains.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-nbsp">Future research&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Wild and her team are currently undertaking studies in captive elk to identify the transmission mode of the disease. This research could also shine a light on factors like diet that may alter the animals' vulnerability to the infection.</p>



<p>While elk remain the only wild species detected with the disease, WSU researchers are exploring possible connections to bovine digital dermatitis found in cattle.&nbsp;</p>



<p>There's also an ongoing effort using computer modeling to identify environmental factors, such as soil type, moisture, and geography, which might determine where elks are more susceptible.</p>



<p>“This is a brand-new emerging disease that hardly anything is known about,” Wild said. “We are taking a multi-pronged approach and conducting a broad range of exploratory studies."&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Our goal is to do as much research as we can to learn about all the impacts this disease is having on individuals and elk populations to help wildlife managers address the disease.”</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-42546-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Scientific Reports</em></a>.</p>



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Emerging hoof disease may cause physiological changes in elk

An emerging disease that was believed to only cause hoof...

<p>The capacity for individual innovation is often seen as a marker of intelligence across species, with elephants being a focal point of such studies due to their nuanced problem-solving skills.&nbsp;</p>



<p>A new study led by the <a href="http://www.cuny.edu/">City University of New York</a> (CUNY) has reported the findings of a six-month investigation, shedding light on the capabilities of individual wild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/for-asian-elephants-shrinking-habitats-will-increase-conflicts/">Asian elephants</a> in securing food by solving puzzles that unlock storage boxes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-capacity-to-adapt">Capacity to adapt</h2>



<p>“An animal’s capacity for innovation or solving novel problems likely has important implications for how quickly they can adapt to environmental change. Asian elephants,&nbsp;<em>Elephas maximus</em>, living in zoos have previously demonstrated a capacity to innovate, but problem solving has never been studied experimentally in a wild elephant population,” the authors explained.</p>



<p>“This is the first research study to show that individual wild elephants have different willingness and abilities to problem solve in order to get food,” said lead author Sarah Jacobson, a doctoral student in Animal Cognition at CUNY.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“This is important knowledge, because how animals think and innovate may influence their ability to survive in environments that are rapidly changing due to human presence.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



<p>This study was carried out at the Salakpra Wildlife Sanctuary in Kanchanaburi, Thailand, utilizing motion-activated cameras to monitor 77 wild Asian elephants as they decided whether to engage with puzzle boxes containing aromatic jackfruit within three uniquely configured compartments.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The methods of access varied: elephants could pull on a chain, push a door, or slide a door open, each method requiring a different approach. The elephants were left to interact with the puzzle boxes autonomously to learn the unlocking mechanisms.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-researchers-learned-nbsp">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Out of the elephants observed, 44 decided to engage with the boxes, showing varying levels of innovative interactions.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The experts found that elephants which engaged more frequently and persistently with the boxes had higher success rates in accessing food from all the differently configured compartments.&nbsp;</p>



<p>In the end, 11 elephants managed to solve one type of compartment, eight cracked two types, and five elephants showcased the highest level of innovation by solving all three.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“Conflict involving humans and elephants is increasing due to loss of natural habitat and agricultural encroachment into what is left of it,” said senior author Joshua Plotnik, a professor of Psychology at CUNY.</p>



<p>“Investigating innovation and problem solving in elephants can inform our understanding of wild elephant cognitive flexibility and its potential impact on conservation management and human-elephant conflict mitigation,” he concluded.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-elephant-innovation">More about elephant innovation</h2>



<p>Elephants are remarkable animals, known for their intelligence and complex social behaviors. As mentioned by the CUNY team, their "innovations" are more about adapting and evolving to their environment over time, rather than inventing or creating new tools or technologies.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-structures">Social structures</h3>



<p>Elephants have intricate social structures, which they use to manage group dynamics, support each other, and protect young members.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-communication">Communication</h3>



<p>They use a variety of vocalizations and even subsonic rumbles that can travel long distances to communicate with one another.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-memory">Memory</h3>



<p>Known for their excellent memory, elephants can remember the locations of water sources over vast distances and recall these during dry seasons.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-problem-solving-abilities">Problem-solving abilities</h3>



<p>Elephants are known to work together to solve problems. For example, they might coordinate efforts to move obstacles or assist a member in distress.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-empathy-and-mourning-nbsp">Empathy and mourning&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Elephants display empathetic behaviors and even engage in rituals that resemble mourning when a member of their group dies.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-use-of-tools">Use of tools</h3>



<p>While not as advanced as some species, elephants do use basic tools. They might use branches to swat flies, or utilize their trunks in sophisticated ways to gather food, drink water, or give themselves dust or mud baths for skin protection.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-and-imitation">Learning and imitation</h3>



<p>They have the ability to learn new behaviors, both from other elephants and through direct experience. They can also imitate sounds and behaviors.</p>



<p>While these may not be "innovations" in the human sense, these adaptations and evolved behaviors highlight the intelligence and complexity of elephants as a species.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2023.08.019"><em>Animal Behavior</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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Wild Asian elephants exhibit strong capacity for innovation

The capacity for individual innovation is often seen as a...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



<p>Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



<p>The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



<p>At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.</p>



<p>"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



<p>The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.</p>



<p>The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a></em> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.</p>



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



<p>On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.</p>



<p>This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.</p>



<p>Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.</p>



<p>The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators.  Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas.  These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.</p>



<p>Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.</p>



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



<p>Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.</p>



<p>Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



<p>385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.</p>



<p>The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.</p>



<p>Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



<p>The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."</p>



<p>This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a></em> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.</p>



<p>Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet <em>Archaeopteris</em>: the first modern tree</h2>



<p>The star of this ancient forest is <em>Archaeopteris</em> – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur <em>Archaeopteryx</em>. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.</p>



<p>William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.</p>



<p>Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



<p>These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.</p>



<p>This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



<p>The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified <em>Eospermatopteris</em>, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.</p>



<p>All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



<p>Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.</p>



<p>Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."</p>



<p>The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



<p>In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.</p>



<p>Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



<p>Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.</p>



<p>Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.</p>



<p>These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.</p>



<p>The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em>Current Biology</em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



<p>Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?</p>



<p>The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What was acid rain?</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The science behind it</strong></h2>



<p>Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.</p>



<p>While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The crisis at its peak</strong></h2>



<p>During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Environmental devastation</strong></h2>



<p>The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.</p>



<p>By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.</p>



<p>Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Economic impact</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The solution: government action and technology</strong></h2>



<p>Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The Clean Air Act of 1990</strong></h2>



<p>The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Cap-and-trade success</strong></h2>



<p>Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.</p>



<p>The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Technology advances</strong></h2>



<p>Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.</p>



<p>The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today"><strong>Why we don't hear about it today</strong></h2>



<p>Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Success doesn't make news</strong></h2>



<p>There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Mission accomplished</strong></h2>



<p>The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone"><strong>Is it really gone?</strong></h2>



<p>The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.</p>



<p>EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What this teaches us</strong></h2>



<p>The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.</p>



<p>Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.</p>



<p>Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.</p>



<p>This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.</p>



<p>Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.</p>



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



<p><strong>Sources:</strong> <em>This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.</em></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Frequently Asked Questions</strong></h2>



<p><strong>1. Is acid rain completely gone?</strong> No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.</p>



<p><strong>2. How long did solving take?</strong> Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.</p>



<p><strong>3. What made the solution successful?</strong> Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.</p>



<p><strong>4. Do other countries have acid rain problems?</strong> Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.</p>



<p><strong>5. Could acid rain return?</strong> Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.</p>



<p><strong>6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"?</strong> The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a></p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>



<p></p>



<p>Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. </p>



<p>Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. </p>



<p>These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.</p>



<p>Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. </p>



<p>For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.</p>



<p>Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. </p>



<p>Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.</p>



<p>This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. </p>



<p>With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>-----</p>

What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



<p>A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. </p>



<p>Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. </p>



<p>Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. </p>



<p>Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. </p>



<p>The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.</p>



<p>Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.</p>



<p>Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.</p>



<p>This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. </p>



<p>The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the <em><a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

<p>Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. </p>



<p>The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



<p>Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. </p>



<p>Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.</p>



<p>Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. </p>



<p>They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).</p>



<p>Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.</p>



<p>Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.</p>



<p>This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.</p>

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.</p>



<p>"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.</p>



<p>"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.</p>



<p>To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.</p>



<p>"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."</p>



<p>"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."</p>



<p><em>Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?</p>



<p>One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ACS Reactions</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

How does salt makes things taste better?

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;</p>



<p>'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."</p>



<p>"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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<p>Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.</p>



<p>The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."</p>



<p>"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."</p>



<p>"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."</p>



<p>The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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<p>Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.</p>



<p>According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."</p>



<p>Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;</p>



<p>ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. </p>



<p>Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> </em>Staff Writer </p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.</p>



<p>"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."</p>



<p>Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.</p>



<p>"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."</p>



<p>Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.</p>



<p>In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.</p>



<p>The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.</p>



<p>The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.</p>



<p>The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. </p>



<p>Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.</p>



<p>The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.</p>



<p>At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.</p>



<p>"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."</p>



<p>The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.</p>



<p><em>Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."</p>



<p>The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.</p>



<p>"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Goddard</em></p>



<p><em>Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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