<p>If you’re a male gray frog trying to find a mate, you’d better have a fast and steady call. That’s what female treefrogs usually go for. But when the crowd gets loud and chaotic, things change. The males that don’t sound all that great? They suddenly have a shot.</p>



<p>In quiet situations where females only hear two males at once, their preferences are clear. They go for the one with the sharper, more rhythmic call. </p>



<p>But when four or even eight males are calling at once, things get messy. Female choices become unpredictable. This isn’t just a frog issue - it ties into a broader idea that scientists call “choice overload.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-frogs-face-chaos-in-the-chorus">Frogs face chaos in the chorus</h2>



<p>In nature, frogs gather in large, noisy groups called choruses. Picture a shallow pond in spring, with dozens of males calling out at the same time. It’s the frog equivalent of a dating scene in a packed nightclub.</p>



<p>The researchers found that the crowded conditions of these choruses might be too overwhelming for females to reliably pick the best mate. It’s not that they stop caring - it’s that they can’t tell who’s who.</p>



<p>Professor Jessie Tanner of the <a href="https://www.utk.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tennessee, Knoxville</a>, led a team studying how choice overload affects evolution.</p>



<p>“Because female mate choice can drive evolution, our results suggest that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-the-story-of-early-animal-evolution/">evolution</a> might happen more slowly than we thought before,” she said. </p>



<p>“Some males that are fairly unattractive could still mate, especially if they take advantage of crowded spaces where females might be less able to discriminate between attractive and unattractive males.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-when-choices-are-too-hard">What happens when choices are too hard?</h2>



<p>The idea of choice overload is pretty common in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/science-behind-predicting-and-changing-human-behavior/">human behavior</a>. You walk into a store to buy toothpaste and face 50 brands. You either freeze, grab something random, or walk away. Same goes for dating apps with endless swiping.</p>



<p>“We wanted to understand how having to make mating decisions in crowded environments, where choice overload could be a problem, might drive the evolution of calls,” Tanner explained. </p>



<p>“Since males that are chosen by females pass on their genes to the next generation, this mate choice can cause the population to change over time.”</p>



<p>When animals, like people, face too many options, their decision-making can break down. That opens up a chance for less attractive mates to get picked - not because they became more appealing, but because the chooser got overwhelmed.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-choice-overload-in-other-animals">Choice overload in other animals</h2>



<p>This isn’t just about frogs. Scientists are now looking at how this effect shows up in other animals. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumblebees-increasingly-stressed-over-the-past-century/">Bumblebees</a>, for instance, are on the list. So are wood roaches.</p>



<p>“Our lab is working to understand how choice overload and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogs-have-lungs-that-cancel-out-background-noise/">noise</a> may each contribute to the difficulty female treefrogs face in making mating decisions,” Tanner said. </p>



<p>“We are also working to understand whether this choice overload is something that occurs generally in many different kinds of animals or is more specific to individual species.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simultaneous-cricket-songs">Simultaneous cricket songs </h2>



<p>Tanner, who has a background in both psychology and biology, first got into animal behavior while studying mate choice as an undergrad. She later became interested in sound - especially how it plays into animal communication.</p>



<p>That led to earlier work on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-male-crickets-go-silent-how-females-adapt-and-respond/">crickets</a>. Like treefrogs, male crickets use sound to attract mates. A study on cricket mating showed that noisy environments might either block females from hearing calls or make them too confused to pick. It was hard to tell which was causing the problem.</p>



<p>“During that study, it became clear that our work was consistent with both the possibility that many simultaneous cricket songs created noise that made it hard for females to hear, and the possibility that the females were experiencing choice overload,” Tanner said. “Our current work looks to disentangle those ideas.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-average-becomes-good-enough">When average becomes good enough</h2>



<p>The research adds a new layer to how scientists think about evolution. Normally, stronger signals - like a faster frog call - are expected to win out and spread through the population over time. </p>



<p>But if crowded conditions keep females from consistently picking the top performers, evolution slows down. Mediocre traits stick around longer.</p>



<p>That changes the math for survival. In nature, being the best isn’t always enough - and sometimes, being just okay is good enough, especially if the crowd’s loud and the choices are many.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2025.0585" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a></em>.</p>



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Frogs settle for average mates when dating gets too noisy

If you’re a male gray frog trying to find a mate, you’d better have a fast and steady call. That’s what female treefrogs usually go for. But when the crowd gets loud and chaotic, things change. The males that don’t sound all that great? They suddenly have a shot. In quiet situations where females only hear two males at once, their preferences are clear. They go for the one with the sharper, more rhythmic call. But when four or even eight males are calling at once, things...

<p>Blackbirds, a common sight in many regions, carry with them a secret burden, one that may be more threatening than expected.&nbsp;</p>



<p>In a study from <a href="https://www.lunduniversity.lu.se/">Lund University</a>, biologists investigated the effects of diseases on blackbirds. The findings challenge prior assumptions and shedding new light on the everyday struggles faced by wild animals.</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



<p>For the study, birds were subjected to a simulated bacterial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/poor-sleep-increases-risk-of-infection/">infection</a>, a strategy devised to spur their immune responses.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This allowed researchers to measure and compare their activity levels against those of birds that did not undergo immune system stimulation. The team used miniature data loggers to meticulously track the birds over several weeks.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“We found that the birds whose immune system was stimulated had reduced activity for three weeks, which is much longer than we expected," said Arne Hegemann, the lead biologist of the study.</p>



<p>"We could also see that the 'sick' blackbirds stopped their activities almost an hour earlier in the evenings compared to the control group.”</p>



<h2 id="h-significant-impacts">Significant impacts</h2>



<p>It's a revelation that stands in stark contrast to previously held beliefs in the scientific community. Prior to this, it was widely assumed that the effects of a compromised immune system in birds would only take a day or two to dissipate.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, this research shows that not only does it take birds a significantly longer period to recover, but the disease also curtails the duration of their daily activity, rather than diminishing the intensity of activity throughout the day.</p>



<h2 id="h-study-implications">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“First of all, it is important to understand what happens to wild animals when they are affected by disease. Even mild ailments and short disease spans can have far-reaching consequences for animals, not least because it affects their everyday life," said Hegemann.</p>



<p>An intriguing yet unresolved question from the study pertains to the exact nature of the birds' reduced activity. Were they resting or simply remaining stationary? One thing, however, was clear – sick blackbirds turned in for the night considerably earlier.</p>



<h2 id="h-greater-consequences">Greater consequences</h2>



<p>“The difference is that when we humans are sick and have symptoms such as fever, reduced appetite or body pain, we may stay at home for a day or two and then return to normal life. Wild animals have the same symptoms but for them the consequences are greater," explained Hegemann.</p>



<p>"If small birds get sick and have 45 minutes less time per day to look for food, it can be the difference between life and death for both them and their young ones.”</p>



<p>The study not only improves our understanding of the impact of disease on blackbirds but also raises awareness about the unseen trials faced by wildlife on a daily basis.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-blackbirds">More about blackbirds</h2>



<p>Blackbirds are more than just common garden birds; they play a significant role in ecosystems by controlling insect populations.</p>



<h3 id="h-physical-characteristics">Physical characteristics</h3>



<p>Males are easily recognizable by their all-black plumage and bright yellow eyes, as well as a yellow-orange beak. In contrast, females have a brown body with a slightly rufous hue on the chest and throat. Their beaks are brownish-pink, and they have a faint mottled pattern.</p>



<h3 id="h-habitat-and-distribution">Habitat and distribution</h3>



<p>Blackbirds are primarily found across Europe, Asia, and North Africa. They have also been introduced to Australia and New Zealand. They are versatile in terms of habitat, thriving in woods, gardens, parks, and hedges.</p>



<p>While they are generally not migratory, blackbirds in the colder regions of Europe and Asia will move south to warmer areas during the winter months.</p>



<h3 id="h-diet">Diet</h3>



<p>These birds are omnivorous. Their diet mainly consists of insects, worms, and berries, but they also feed on fruits, seeds, and other small creatures.</p>



<h3 id="h-behavior-and-breeding">Behavior and breeding</h3>



<p>Blackbirds are known for their melodious songs, especially the males, who sing from high perches to mark their territory and attract females.</p>



<p>They usually breed between March and July. The female builds the nest, which is often a cup shape made of grass and mud.</p>



<p>Typically, a pair of blackbirds will produce 2-3 broods a year, with each brood consisting of 3-5 eggs.</p>



<p></p>



<h3 id="h-song">Song</h3>



<p>One of the most distinguishable features of the blackbird is its song. The male's melodious and varied song can often be heard during early morning and late evening, especially during the breeding season. Their song is known to be pleasing to the ear.</p>



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When blackbirds get sick, it takes weeks for them to recover

Blackbirds, a common sight in many regions, carry with them...

<p>The origin of humanity has been a topic of debate for many years, and a recent discovery in Turkey has added a new piece to the puzzle. Historically, the most widely accepted belief has been that the birthplace of apes and humans was Africa. However, an ancient ape skull found in Turkey is now challenging this narrative.</p>



<p>The age of the ape skull, named Anadoluvius turkae, could change our understanding of the evolutionary journey of humans.</p>



<h2 id="h-time-gap">Time gap</h2>



<p>The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sabertooth-skull-offers-new-clues-about-the-extinct-mammal/">skull</a> is estimated to be around 8.7 million years old. The significance of this timeframe lies in the fact that, up until now, there has not been any trace of early hominins, including humans and African apes, in Africa until seven million years ago.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This time gap has opened a new discussion among scientists: did our ancestors, the precursors of African apes and humans, first evolve in Europe before making their way to Africa?</p>



<h2 id="h-skull-discovery">Skull discovery&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The skull was discovered in 2015, but the debate around its significance gained momentum after it was described in a recent publication in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s42003-023-05210-5"><em>Communications Biology</em></a>.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Professor David Begun is a paleoanthropologist at the <a href="https://www.utoronto.ca/">University of Toronto</a> and the co-senior author of the study.</p>



<p>The skull was recovered from the Çorakyerler fossil locality near Cankiri, a city in Turkey about 87 miles north of Ankara.</p>



<p>“The completeness of the fossil allowed us to do a broader and more detailed analysis using many characters and attributes that are coded into a program designed to calculate evolutionary relationships,” said Professor Begun.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“The face is mostly complete, after applying mirror imaging. The new part is the forehead, with bone preserved to about the crown of the cranium. Previously described fossils do not have this much of the brain case.”</p>



<h2 id="h-anadoluvius-lifestyle">Anadoluvius lifestyle</h2>



<p>The researchers say Anadoluvius was about the size of a large male chimpanzee (50-60 kg) – very large for a chimp and close to the average size of a female gorilla (75-80 kg). The ape lived in a dry forest setting, and probably spent a great deal of time on the ground.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“We have no limb bones but judging from its jaws and teeth, the animals found alongside it, and the geological indicators of the environment, Anadoluvius probably lived in relatively open conditions, unlike the forest settings of living great apes,” said study lead author Ayla Sevim-Erol.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“More like what we think the environments of early humans in Africa were like. The powerful jaws and large, thickly enameled teeth suggest a diet including hard or tough food items from terrestrial sources such as roots and rhizomes.”</p>



<h2 id="h-early-hominines">Early hominines</h2>



<p>Anadoluvius and other fossil apes from nearby Greece (Ouranopithecus) and Bulgaria (Graecopithecus) form a group that come closest in many details of anatomy and ecology to the earliest known hominins, or humans.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The new fossils are the best-preserved specimens of this group of early hominines and provide the strongest evidence to date that the group originated in Europe and later dispersed into Africa.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The study’s detailed analysis also reveals that the Balkan and Anatolian apes evolved from ancestors in western and central Europe.</p>



<h2 id="h-hominin-evolution">Hominin evolution</h2>



<p>"Our findings further suggest that hominins not only evolved in western and central Europe but spent over five million years evolving there and spreading to the eastern Mediterranean before eventually dispersing into Africa, probably as a consequence of changing environments and diminishing forests," said Professor Begun.</p>



<p>However, while these findings are monumental, Professor Begun is cautious about their implications.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"This new evidence supports the hypothesis that hominins originated in Europe and dispersed into Africa along with many other mammals between nine and seven million years ago, though it does not definitively prove it," said Professor Begun.&nbsp;</p>



<p>For a more comprehensive and&nbsp; understanding, Begun emphasizes the importance of additional fossils dating back seven to eight million years from both continents, Europe and Africa.</p>



<h2 id="h-opposing-views">Opposing views</h2>



<p>Not everyone in the scientific community agrees with this new theory. Professor Chris Stringer, a leader in human evolution research at the <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/">Natural History Museum in London</a>, believes that the narrative remains largely unchanged.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"This has been a long-running debate regarding great ape and our origins," said Professor Stringer. He references a recent paper in the journal <em>Science</em> which concluded, "Current evidence suggests that hominins originated in Africa from Miocene ape ancestors, unlike any living species."</p>



<p>With two opposing perspectives, what remains clear is that the story of our evolutionary past is still unfolding. This discovery might be a piece of the puzzle, but whether it’s a cornerstone or just another fragment remains to be seen.</p>



<p><em>Image Credit: Sevim-Erol, A., Begun, D.R., Sözer, Ç.S. et al.</em></p>



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Did humans first evolve in Europe? Ape skull sparks new debate

The origin of humanity has been a topic of debate...

Red,Fox,,Vulpes,Vulpes,,Small,Young,Cubs,Near,Den,Curiously

<p>In a world constantly grappling with the dangers of climate change, another major challenge is flying under the radar: the pervasive spread of invasive alien species (IAS).&nbsp;</p>



<p>The threat posed by invasive species is alarmingly emphasized in a landmark report by the <a href="https://www.ipbes.net/node/36759">Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services</a> (IPBES).</p>



<p>The report reveals a staggering number: over 37,000 alien species have been introduced across the globe due to human activities.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-invasive-alien-species">Invasive alien species&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Among these, over 3,500 are invasive and pose a substantial risk to nature, human well-being, economies, and food security. Such species have traditionally been overlooked, which can lead to irreversible damages.</p>



<p>“Invasive alien species are a major threat to biodiversity and can cause irreversible damage to nature, including local and global species extinctions, and also threaten human wellbeing,” said Professor Helen Roy.</p>



<p>However, it's crucial to note that not all alien species are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-many-invasive-plant-species-are-in-the-world/">invasive</a>. In fact, only specific subsets, roughly 6% of alien plants and 14% of alien vertebrates, among others, are known to be invasive.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-cause-for-concern">Cause for concern</h2>



<p>One of the biggest concerns is their ability to adversely affect those most dependent on nature, such as Indigenous Peoples and local communities. For them, invasive species threaten not just their quality of life but also their cultural identities.</p>



<p>Another significant cause for concern is the economic aftermath. The report indicates that by 2019, the global economic cost had exceeded $423 billion annually, showcasing a drastic increase over the decades.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-local-extinctions">Local extinctions&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Historically, many of these alien species were introduced due to their perceived benefits. But the negative impacts of those that become invasive are profound, both for nature and humans.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Professor Anibal Pauchard noted that invasive species have factored in 60% of global animal and plant extinctions recorded, with at least 218 invasive species accounting for over 1,200 local extinctions.</p>



<h2 id="h-adverse-impacts">Adverse impacts&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Examples of these adverse impacts are numerous: from the transformation of habitats by North American beavers to the damage caused to commercial shellfish beds by the European shore crab.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The implications are far-reaching, affecting food supplies, health (such as the spread of malaria by invasive mosquitoes), and even livelihoods.</p>



<h2 id="h-global-impact-from-alien-species">Global impact from alien species</h2>



<p>Highlighting the global nature of this issue, Pauchard emphasized that biological invasions should not be regarded as a localized problem.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“It would be an extremely costly mistake to regard biological invasions only as someone else’s problem,” said Pauchard. “Although the specific species that inflict damages vary from place to place, these are risks and challenges with global roots but very local impacts, facing people in every country, from all backgrounds and in every community – even Antarctica is being affected.”</p>



<p>The impact is genuinely global, even touching remote regions like Antarctica. However, the majority of negative impacts are concentrated on land, especially forests, with islands being particularly vulnerable.</p>



<h2 id="h-study-implications">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



<p>So what does the future hold? Professor Roy suggests that under 'business-as-usual' conditions, the total number of alien species will continue its upward trend, spurred on by increasing global trade and human travel.&nbsp;</p>



<p>But this scenario may not even capture the full picture, with multiple drivers of change predicted to intensify, amplifying the impact of invasive species.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Climate change, in particular, could exacerbate the situation, with invasive plants potentially resulting in more intense wildfires, leading to increased CO2 emissions.</p>



<p>However, the news isn't all grim. The report suggests that with targeted and effective management, the threat from invasive alien species can be mitigated.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-prevention-is-the-best-option">Prevention is the best option</h2>



<p>Professor Pauchard optimistically points out that prevention remains the most cost-effective option, with other strategies such as eradication, containment, and ecosystem restoration also showing promise in specific contexts.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“The good news is that, for almost every context and situation, there are management tools, governance options and targeted actions that really work,” said Pauchard.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Prevention is absolutely the best, most cost-effective option – but eradication, containment and control are also effective in specific contexts. Ecosystem restoration can also improve the results of management actions and increase the resistance of ecosystems to future invasive alien species. Indeed, managing invasive alien species can help to mitigate the negative effects of other drivers of change.”</p>



<p>The report applauds efforts such as the Australasia's border biosecurity measures, which reduced the spread of the brown marmorated stink bug.</p>



<h2 id="h-insufficient-measures">Insufficient measures</h2>



<p>Though efforts to tackle this issue exist, the current measures remain vastly insufficient. While 80% of countries have set targets related to managing invasive species, only 17% have established laws or regulations addressing the issue.&nbsp;</p>



<p>A silver lining is that with proper tools and governance options, managing these species becomes achievable. Professor Peter Stoett urges for a cohesive, integrated approach across countries and sectors, emphasizing the importance of public engagement and coherent policies.</p>



<h2 id="h-global-biodiversity-framework">Global Biodiversity Framework&nbsp;</h2>



<p>With the Global Biodiversity Framework committing to a 50% reduction in the introduction and establishment of invasive species by 2030, this IPBES report provides invaluable insights and tools to achieve this goal.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“The immediate urgency of invasive alien species, with extensive and growing harm to nature and people, makes this report so valuable and timely,” said Dr. Anne Larigauderie, the Executive Secretary of IPBES.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“The Governments of the world agreed, in December last year, as part of the new Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, to reduce the introduction and establishment of priority invasive alien species by at least 50% by 2030."&nbsp;</p>



<p>"This is a vital, but also very ambitious commitment. The IPBES Invasive Alien Species Report provides the evidence, tools and options to help make this commitment more achievable.”</p>



<h2 id="h-a-substantial-threat">A substantial threat</h2>



<p>Inger Andersen, executive director of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), reiterated that invasive alien species pose a substantial threat to livelihoods and food security around the world.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"They can, for example, manifest as destructive crop or forest pests or displace species targeted by fisheries. They are an important driver of biodiversity loss and hence a threat to the various ecosystem services that support agricultural production and sustainable livelihoods," said Andersen.</p>



<p>"The information contained in this report will contribute greatly to efforts to combat the spread of invasive alien species and to meeting Target 6 of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework."</p>



<p>"It will be especially valuable for all of us who work to integrate the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity into the world’s agrifood systems to enhance their productivity and resilience."</p>



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37,000 invasive alien species are wreaking havoc around the world

In a world constantly grappling with the dangers of climate...

<p>Forests are commonly viewed as ideal habitats for most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conservation-efforts-are-not-enough-to-save-antarctic-wildlife/">wildlife</a>, especially forest-dwelling creatures. It would seem that farms are less hospitable environments for wild animals, but a surprising new study has provided a twist in this narrative. </p>



<p>The research suggests that diversified farms create habitats that help bridge the gap between wildlife conservation and food security.</p>



<h2 id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



<p>Over the course of 18 years, researchers from <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/">Stanford University</a> found that many forest-dependent bird populations in Costa Rica are efficiently supported by diversified farms with varied crops and tree patches.</p>



<p>One particularly interesting finding of the study was that bird populations on diversified farms were increasing as bird populations in natural forests were declining.</p>



<p>The Stanford team, led by Nicholas Hendershot, conducted a comparative analysis of bird populations across different landscapes: forests, diversified farms, and intensive agriculture.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-tracking-the-health-of-ecosystems">Tracking the health of ecosystems&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Surprisingly, the steepest declines in bird populations were recorded in forests, followed by intensiveagricultural regions, which were often populated by invasive species.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Birds are kind of a proxy we use to track the health of ecosystems. And the birds we’re seeing today aren’t the same as we saw 18 to 20 years ago. This paper really documents this pattern,” said Hendershot.</p>



<h2 id="h-study-implications">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The study implies that while diversified farming can be a tool for biodiversity conservation, biodiversity in turn plays a significant role in ensuring food security.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Birds, with their varied dietary patterns, help in controlling pests by feeding on insects and assist in pollinating crops.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Identity does seem to matter a lot for pest control and other ecosystem services birds provide. These species are not interchangeable,” said Hendershot.</p>



<p>“We need a constant stream of pollinators servicing farms. About three-quarters of the world’s crops require pollinators to some extent, and that 75% is our most nutritious food – think of all the vitamins and minerals packed into fruits, nuts, and veggies,” said study co-author Gretchen Daily.</p>



<p>"We need a constant stream of birds, bats, and other wildlife to help control pests: they suppress the vast majority naturally. And we need to start building flood protection, water purification, carbon storage, and many other vital benefits back into agricultural landscapes, way beyond what can be achieved in protected areas alone.”</p>



<h2 id="h-diversified-farms">Diversified farms&nbsp;</h2>



<p>While protected forests play a crucial role in biodiversity conservation, diversified farms offer more than just food production. They act as bridges, connecting fragmented forested areas.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Diversified farms have shown immense potential in supporting biodiversity. “I’m always surprised by how important how you manage a farm is for biodiversity,” said Hendershot.</p>



<p>“We believe the findings of our research are new to science, but in a sense, it merely confirms what Indigenous communities around the world have already known for a long time, which is that humans can and should have reciprocal relationships with the rest of the local ecological community they are part of,” said study co-author Professor Tadashi Fukami.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-beacon-of-hope">Beacon of hope&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Costa Rica stands as a beacon of hope and a success story in terms of conservation. With rapid deforestation in the 1980s and 90s, the nation has made a remarkable comeback.&nbsp;</p>



<p>By implementing the world's premier payment for ecosystem services (PES) program, forests now cover almost 60% of Costa Rica, a significant leap from the 40% in 1987.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The country is working towards doubling its protected forest cover and launching a new PES to motivate farmers to embrace best management practices.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This study will serve as an important guide for Costa Rica's policymakers by demonstrating the long-term benefits of diversified farming. “We need to recognize the vital work many farmers are doing that supports biodiversity," said Daily.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2303937120"><em>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</em></a>,&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-diversified-farms">More about diversified farms&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Diversified farming refers to a type of agriculture that involves growing a variety of crops and/or raising multiple species of livestock in the same space.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This farming strategy is in contrast to monoculture, where only one crop or animal species is cultivated over an extended area. Here are some key points about diversified farms:</p>



<h3 id="h-resilience">Resilience</h3>



<p>Diversified farms can be more resilient to pests, diseases, and market fluctuations. If one crop or livestock fails or its market price drops, there are other products that can compensate.</p>



<h3 id="h-soil-health">Soil health</h3>



<p>Different crops have different nutrient requirements and pest profiles. By rotating crops, farmers can reduce the chance of depleting the soil or encouraging the proliferation of a specific pest.</p>



<h3 id="h-ecosystem-services">Ecosystem services</h3>



<p>Diverse ecosystems often provide more ecosystem services like pollination, pest control, and water filtration.</p>



<h3 id="h-economic-stability">Economic stability</h3>



<p>By producing a range of products, farmers can access different markets and revenue streams, potentially smoothing out their income over the year.</p>



<h3 id="h-integrated-pest-management">Integrated pest management</h3>



<p>With a mix of crops and animals, some pests that might thrive in a monoculture setting might be naturally controlled in a diverse farm.</p>



<h3 id="h-reduced-chemical-input">Reduced chemical input</h3>



<p>By mimicking natural ecosystems, diversified farms can often reduce the need for chemical inputs like fertilizers and pesticides.</p>



<h3 id="h-consumer-demand">Consumer demand</h3>



<p>There's growing consumer demand for diverse, local, and sustainably grown products. Diversified farms can often better meet this demand.</p>



<h3 id="h-local-food-systems">Local food systems</h3>



<p>Diversified farms often play a crucial role in local food systems, providing a variety of produce and products throughout the seasons.</p>



<h3 id="h-biodiversity">Biodiversity</h3>



<p>These farms can support a greater variety of wildlife and beneficial insects because of the diverse habitats and food sources they provide.</p>



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Diversified farms can support both food security and wildlife conservation

Forests are commonly viewed as ideal habitats for most wildlife,...

<p>At the core of Earth's biodiversity lies a fundamental question: Why do certain species thrive in abundance, while other species are dangerously rare? A recent groundbreaking study has shed light on this mystery, offering new insights into a debate that has been ongoing since the time of Darwin.</p>



<p>A pattern, long observed in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/citizen-scientists-gain-a-stronger-connection-with-nature/">nature</a>, has become more evident with over a century's worth of data: Most species are, intriguingly, rare, yet not exceedingly so. Meanwhile, only a select few species dominate in numbers.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-species-distribution">Species distribution&nbsp;</h2>



<p>This phenomenon, known as the global species abundance distribution (gSAD), has been documented more conclusively for certain species, like birds.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, when it comes to insects and several others, the clarity fades. This was the primary discovery made by an international team led by the <a href="https://www.idiv.de/en/index.html">German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research</a> (iDiv).</p>



<p>The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41559-023-02173-y"><em>Nature Ecology and Evolution</em></a>, highlights the vital role of biodiversity monitoring in capturing the diverse essence of life on our planet.</p>



<p>The enigma of species distribution is not new. Charles Darwin, over 150 years ago, pondered in his revolutionary work, "The Origin of Species": “Who can explain why one species ranges widely and is very numerous, and why another allied species has a narrow range and is rare?”&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-two-primary-models">Two primary models</h2>



<p>This query sparked the exploration of the gSAD, leading to the proposition of two primary models in the last century.</p>



<p>The first, introduced by R. A. Fisher - a renowned statistician and biologist - asserted that a vast majority of species are exceptionally rare. This perspective, known as the log-series model, implies that common species are a minority.&nbsp;</p>



<p>On the other hand, F. W. Preston, both an engineer and ecologist, brought forth the log-normal model, suggesting that truly rare species are few and far between, with most exhibiting an intermediate level of abundance. Yet, until this recent study, the scientific community remained divided on which model truly depicted Earth’s gSAD.</p>



<h2 id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



<p>To address this conundrum, the researchers analyzed data from the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF), which contains over a billion species observations spanning from 1900 to 2019.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Dr. Corey Callaghan, the study's lead author, extolled the GBIF database, acknowledging its significance in "bringing together both data collected from professional and citizen scientists all over the world.” The data was meticulously categorized into 39 species groups, from birds to mammals, each with its unique gSAD.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The analysis revealed a potential universal pattern: most species are rare, but not exceedingly so, a finding consistent with Preston's log-normal model. However, the complete gSAD picture emerged only for specific groups, like birds and cycads. For others, the data remained limited.</p>



<p>Professor Henrique Pereira, the study's senior author, remarked on the intriguing shift witnessed with increasing data: “You start seeing that there are, in fact, more rare species than very rare species. This shift, evident for birds and cycads, illustrates the unveiling of the full species abundance distribution as Preston envisaged."</p>



<p>Yet, as Callaghan emphasized, there's a vast expanse of biodiversity yet to be charted. "Even though we have been recording observations for decades, we have only lifted the veil for a few species groups,” he said.</p>



<h2 id="h-study-implications">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



<p>While the new study has made strides in unveiling gSADs for varied species, it has also opened doors to another profound question: Just how many species inhabit our planet? It appears that while some groups, like birds, have been exhaustively documented, others, including insects and cephalopods, remain shrouded in mystery.</p>



<p>These recent revelations not only bring us closer to answering Darwin’s question but also hint at the possible ecological and evolutionary mechanisms shaping species' rarity and abundance. Yet, this challenge will become much more complicated as human actions continue to reshape Earth's biodiversity.</p>



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Nature's puzzle: Why are some species rare and others are common?

At the core of Earth's biodiversity lies a fundamental question:...

<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-show-signs-of-cognitive-sophistication/">Ants</a> forage for food either individually or in groups, by recruiting other members of their colonies to help search for and transport food back to their nests. Now, a team of biologists led by the <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/">University of California, Los Angeles</a> (UCLA) has found that ants’ foraging strategies play a larger role in how they build their nests than innate, evolutionary “blueprints” do.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to the experts, when building their nests, ants reach a balance between architectural constraints and transportation efficiency, a finding which could help humans design more efficient transportation networks tailored to a variety of specific needs.</p>



<h2 id="h-focus-of-the-research">Focus of the research&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Scientists have long thought that the way ants build their nests is more influenced by the evolutionary history of each individual species than current ecological conditions.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, the new study has revealed that the environments in which ants live and the ways they transport food are actually the main factors dictating how each species builds its own specific types of nests.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



<p>These findings could have major implications for the ways humans could design more efficient transportation systems.&nbsp;</p>



<p>For instance, congestion on Southern California’s freeways could be improved if there were dedicated lanes or roads for trucks traveling to and from major logistics hubs such as ports, distribution centers, and warehouses.</p>



<p>“Ants deal with the same issues we deal with when it comes to living in crowded spaces,” said lead author Sean O’Fallon, a doctoral student in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at UCLA. “We’re densely packed in cities, and ideally we should be densely connected, but there are constraints to how closely packed together we can be. There’s only so much space to construct buildings and roads.”</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



<p>To better understand how ants build their nests, the researchers analyzed data from 439 nests representing 31 different ant species.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While information about 397 of these nests came from previously published studies, the authors also collected data from 42 additional nests located at the Archbold Biological Reserve near Venus, Florida.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The analyses revealed that nest structures were largely determined by factors such as whether ants foraged alone or in teams, as well as the techniques they used to recruit other ants to help locate and carry food.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Thus, the ants’ behavior and activity seemed to play bigger roles in nest construction than any innate evolutionary template.</p>



<p>“You can think of the nest itself as a transportation network - it’s where ants live, but it’s also a kind of highway network they move things in and out of,” said senior author Noa Pinter-Wollman, a professor of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at UCLA.</p>



<h2 id="h-common-foraging-strategies">Common foraging strategies&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The scientists investigated four common foraging strategies employed by ants. While in some species, individual ants forage for food, in others, an ant brings food to the nest as a way of recruiting other ants to accompany it to the food source.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Ants may also form a continuous trail between the food source and the nest which can persist for months, or they leave pheromone trails that other members of their colony can follow in large numbers (a phenomenon known as “mass recruitment”).</p>



<h2 id="h-nest-chambers">Nest chambers</h2>



<p>Ants’ nests consist of a tunnel connected to an entrance chamber, where ants “enlist” other conspecifics to help them find and transport food.&nbsp;</p>



<p>From this entrance chamber, more tunnels lead down to other chambers, which are connected by yet more tunnels to even deeper chambers. Different chambers have different purposes, such as food and waste storage or rearing offspring.</p>



<p>The scientists discovered that in ant species that use mass recruitment to forage, the nests’ entrance chambers were bigger than they were in other species’ nests, in order to allow a larger number of insects to interact.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-network-density">Network density&nbsp;</h2>



<p>However, they also expected that nests for mass recruitment foragers would have greater network density – i.e. larger number of connections between chambers – than other species’ nests, to facilitate more movements of ants and resources throughout the nest.</p>



<p>Surprisingly though, the investigations revealed that, for ants representing all four foraging strategies, network density was relatively low, even in the case of large nests with hundreds of chambers. In fact, nests with the most chambers tended to have the lowest network density.</p>



<h2 id="h-study-implications">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Although further research is needed to elucidate this phenomenon, the researchers assume that this could simply reflect an architectural constraint, since too many tunnels between chambers can weaken the structural integrity of the nest, causing the entire system to collapse.</p>



<p>“Ants have to balance the efficiency of highly connected nests with architectural stability. On one hand, they want transportation to be faster, but if they start making too many connections, the nest will crumble” Pinter-Wollman concluded.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2022.0146"><em>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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Ant nests could help humans build better transportation systems

Ants forage for food either individually or in groups, by...

<p>When it comes to colossal appetites in the reptile kingdom, pythons often steal the limelight. Their infamous capability to swallow prey much larger than their heads has made headlines worldwide. </p>



<p>But what if there was a diminutive contender with an appetite so voracious it could out-eat even the mighty python? Enter the Gans’ egg-eating snake, <em>Dasypeltis gansi</em> – an unassuming African snake species with a penchant for <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/Gans-egg-eater-snake_credit-Bruce-Jayne_2big.jpg">gobbling up eggs whole</a>.</p>



<p>In a recent study led by Biologist Bruce Jayne from the <a href="https://www.uc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cincinnati</a>, it was revealed that this little snake's appetite is unparalleled in the realm of reptiles. "They probably would hold the Guinness world record," commented Jayne, who is a professor of biological sciences in UC's College of Arts and Sciences.</p>



<h2 id="h-studying-the-gans-egg-eating-snake">Studying the Gans’ egg-eating snake</h2>



<p>Although <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-can-pythons-eat-prey-as-large-as-a-deer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pythons</a> may be giants in the world of snakes, the spotlight in this study shines brightly on <em>Dasypeltis gansi</em>. “It’s spectacular but on a small scale,” Jayne added. "People focus on big snakes eating big things, but if you correct for their size, these little guys are pretty scary.”</p>



<p>Published in the <a href="https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/jzo.13102">Journal of Zoology</a>, the study delves into the eating habits of the Gans’ egg-eating snake. Named in honor of herpetologist Carl Gans, this snake, which reaches lengths of approximately three feet, has an anatomy quite unique from its counterparts. </p>



<p>While it might be slimmer than many of its egg-devouring peers in the U.S., such as the notorious chicken coop-raiding black rat snake, the Gans’ snake is in a league of its own. This is thanks to the stretchy skin between its left and right lower jawbones. It enables the snake to <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/Gans-egg-eater-snake_credit-Bruce-Jayne_3medium.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">consume eggs significantly larger than its head</a>. </p>



<p>Jayne observed, “They can consume prey three to four times bigger than snakes that are generalists such as the black rat snake.”</p>



<p><a href="https://youtu.be/cz0-G75xxjQ" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Click here to watch the Gans’ egg-eating snake in action...</a></p>



<h2>Burmese python vs. Dasypeltis gansi is no contest</h2>



<p>Once consumed, the snake undergoes an intricate process. It contorts its spine to crack the egg, savoring the gooey contents within, and eventually regurgitating the empty, shattered shell.</p>



<p>To put things into perspective, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-can-pythons-eat-prey-as-large-as-a-deer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Burmese python</a>, one of the most massive snakes on Earth, has shown remarkable eating abilities in previous research. Jayne's <a href="https://www.uc.edu/news/articles/2022/09/uc-study-explains-how-burmese-pythons-can-eat-deer-other-big-prey.html">earlier studies</a> illustrated that adult Burmese pythons could ingest deer weighing over 70 pounds and even 100-pound alligators. </p>



<p>Yet, when the cross-sectional area of the prey is considered, the unassuming Gans’ egg-eater can consume prey more than double that of a Burmese python of a similar weight.</p>



<h2>Evolution in action</h2>



<p>What drives such an evolutionary marvel? According to Jayne, this incredible ability serves as an effective survival strategy for the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snakes-had-an-evolutionary-explosion-after-dinosaur-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">snake</a>. While many prey animals, such as birds, mice, and rats, provide more calories due to their elongated shapes, bird eggs are almost spherical. This poses a challenge as it offers lesser mass per cross-sectional area. </p>



<p>"One likely reason this extreme gape evolved in African egg-eating snakes is that they specialize on a prey shape with a modest amount of mass per cross-sectional area,” Jayne explained. "That puts a premium on having a wide mouth."</p>



<p>Evolution has also played its part in the snake's dental anatomy. As a specialist in egg-eating, the Gans’ snake has a soft mouth and very few teeth, which might otherwise impede its ability to grip a smooth-shelled egg effectively.</p>



<p>However, don’t be fooled by its gentle eating habits. When threatened, this snake can put on quite the performance. Taking a cue from the venomous saw-scaled vipers, the Gans’ egg-eater is adept at mimicking these dangerous counterparts to fend off potential predators. </p>



<p>“They put on quite a show, making a hissing sound by rubbing their scales together. They’ll flatten their heads and strike,” said Jayne. “It’s comical because it’s all bluff. They’re toothless wonders.”</p>



<p>In the grand tapestry of nature, it's often the quiet achievers that surprise us the most. In the case of the Gans' egg-eating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/venomous-snake-bites-are-more-likely-to-occur-in-warmer-weather/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">snake</a>, it might be small, but its appetite is mighty, teaching us that size doesn't always matter.</p>



<h2>More about Gans’ egg-eaters (Dasypeltis gansi)</h2>



<p>When we think about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/venomous-snake-bites-are-more-likely-to-occur-in-warmer-weather/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">snakes</a>, the image often conjured is of a slithering, venomous creature or a massive python consuming large mammals. Rarely do we imagine a small, harmless snake with a penchant for eggs. </p>



<p>Enter <em>Dasypeltis gansi</em>. It is a fascinating species that has caught the attention of herpetologists and nature enthusiasts alike.</p>



<h3>A name with historical ties</h3>



<p><em>Dasypeltis gansi</em>, often referred to as Gans' egg-eating snake, pays homage to the renowned herpetologist Carl Gans. This name is a fitting tribute to a man who dedicated his life to studying reptiles, given the unique characteristics of this snake species.</p>



<h3>A unique dietary habit</h3>



<p>What sets <em>Dasypeltis gansi</em> apart from other snakes is its singular diet: eggs. Unlike its carnivorous cousins, this snake doesn't hunt live prey. Instead, it searches for bird eggs, consuming them whole. </p>



<p>Once it locates an egg, it swallows it, employing its specialized vertebral structure to crack the egg within its body. After extracting the nutritious contents, the snake regurgitates the empty shell, ready to hunt for its next meal.</p>



<h3>An anatomical wonder</h3>



<p>As mentioned previously, the anatomy of <em>Dasypeltis gansi</em> is a marvel tailored for its egg-centric diet. It has a stretchy skin between its left and right lower jawbones, enabling it to swallow eggs significantly larger than its head. This ability to consume eggs much bigger than its mouth would suggest is a testament to nature's ability to evolve based on dietary needs.</p>



<p>While many snakes have developed intricate venom systems or powerful muscles to subdue their prey, <em>Dasypeltis gansi</em> has evolved a soft mouth and few teeth. These adaptations ensure nothing hinders its ability to grip and swallow the smooth-shelled eggs.</p>



<h3>Size and habitat</h3>



<p><em>Dasypeltis gansi</em> is a modest-sized snake, growing to about three feet in length. Despite its size, its egg-eating prowess surpasses even some of the larger snake species. </p>



<p>Native to Africa, this species thrives in various habitats. They move from woodlands to savannas, always on the lookout for bird nests.</p>



<h3>A master of defense</h3>



<p>Although harmless, <em>Dasypeltis gansi</em> is no easy prey. When threatened, it mimics venomous snakes to deter potential predators. </p>



<p>By flattening its head and hissing, often by rubbing its scales together, it creates an illusion of being a venomous threat. This act of mimicry is a classic example of nature's deceptive tactics for survival.</p>



<h3>A significant contribution to the ecosystem</h3>



<p>While some might view the consumption of eggs as detrimental, <em>Dasypeltis gansi</em> plays a vital role in its ecosystem. By keeping bird populations in check, it ensures a balanced environment. Furthermore, its presence provides a food source for larger predators, ensuring the circle of life continues unhindered.</p>



<p>In summary, <em>Dasypeltis gansi</em>, the egg-eating snake, is a remarkable testament to nature's adaptability and the intricate balance of the food chain. Its unique dietary habits, combined with its ability to mimic more dangerous species, make it a fascinating subject of study. It is also a reminder that nature is full of surprises, often hidden in the smallest of creatures.</p>



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These snakes are the true eating champions, not Burmese pythons

When it comes to colossal appetites in the reptile kingdom,...

White-necked,Jacobin,(florisuga,Mellivora),Is,A,Large,And,Attractive,Hummingbird

<p>Every year, National Hummingbird Day sweeps in with the delicate flutter of iridescent wings, offering bird enthusiasts and nature lovers alike the chance to honor one of Earth’s most captivating creatures.</p>



<p>But what precisely defines this day? And why does the hummingbird, above all other bird species, deserve its own national celebration? Let's uncover the wonders behind this special occasion.</p>



<h2 id="h-origins-how-it-all-began">Origins: How it all began</h2>



<p>Established in 1996 by birding enthusiast Penny Elliston, National Hummingbird Day celebrates these tiny wonders on the <a href="https://www.audubon.org/features/celebrate-hummingbirds" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">first Saturday of September each year</a>. Elliston initiated this day with the hope of raising awareness about the importance of these birds in ecosystems and inspiring communities to engage in hummingbird conservation.</p>



<h2>Why celebrate hummingbirds?</h2>



<p>The reasoning behind dedicating an entire day to these creatures is manifold.</p>



<h3>Ecological impact</h3>



<p>Hummingbirds act as vital pollinators for various plants. As they sip nectar, their heads brush against the flower's reproductive parts, transferring pollen and facilitating the process of fertilization.</p>



<h3>Cultural significance</h3>



<p>Across various cultures, hummingbirds symbolize love, beauty, and resilience. Their ability to hover and fly backward has led many to view them as symbols of timelessness and adaptability.</p>



<h3>Biological wonders</h3>



<p>Their rapid wing beats, exceptional flight agility, and iridescent colors make hummingbirds a subject of fascination. They push the boundaries of what we understand about avian physiology and behavior.</p>



<h2>How to celebrate</h2>



<h3>Bird watching expeditions</h3>



<p>Many bird enthusiasts and nature clubs organize hummingbird watching trips. Joining these can offer insights into hummingbird behavior and habitats.</p>



<h3>Gardening for hummingbirds</h3>



<p>Planting native flowers and shrubs that attract hummingbirds can be both a way to celebrate and a conservation effort. Plants like trumpet vine, bee balm, and salvia often serve as hummingbird magnets.</p>



<h3>Educational workshops</h3>



<p>Various parks, nature reserves, and institutions conduct workshops on hummingbird biology, photography, and conservation.</p>



<h3>Adopt a hummingbird</h3>



<p>Some organizations offer symbolic hummingbird adoptions. The funds often go towards hummingbird research and conservation efforts.</p>



<h3>Share on social media</h3>



<p>Spreading love and information about hummingbirds through platforms like Instagram, Twitter, and Facebook can raise awareness and foster appreciation among a broader audience.</p>



<h2>Conservation efforts and challenges</h2>



<p>While National Hummingbird Day is a celebration, it also serves as a reminder of the challenges these birds face. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-will-not-be-able-to-retreat-to-high-altitudes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Habitat loss</a>, climate change, and the use of pesticides in gardens can threaten hummingbird populations. On this day, many organizations emphasize the importance of creating hummingbird-friendly habitats, reducing chemical use in gardens, and supporting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-have-evolved-to-survive-harsh-environments/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation initiatives</a>.</p>



<p>In summary, National Hummingbird Day is not just about admiration but also about action. While we marvel at the wonders of these aerial acrobats, we must also pledge to ensure that future generations witness their mesmerizing flights. By participating actively in this day, we can spread awareness, foster love for nature, and contribute to the preservation of these remarkable birds.</p>



<h2>More about hummingbirds</h2>



<p>Hummingbirds, with their iridescent feathers and rapid wing beats, rank among the natural world's most enchanting creatures. These tiny dynamos, often no larger than the palm of your hand, display feats of aerial acrobatics unrivaled in the bird kingdom. Let's dive into the mesmerizing universe of these remarkable birds.</p>



<h3>Physical characteristics: More than meets the eye</h3>



<p>The first thing that captures our attention when observing a hummingbird is undoubtedly its dazzling plumage. These feathers can reflect sunlight in a prism of colors, producing hues that seem almost otherworldly. This shimmering effect results from microscopic platelets in the feathers that refract light, rather than from pigments.</p>



<p>Hummingbirds generally range in size from 7.5 to 13 cm in length. The Bee Hummingbird, found in Cuba, is the smallest bird species in the world, weighing a mere 2 grams. They possess a long, specialized bill that aids in extracting nectar from deep within flowers. Their tongue is tube-shaped, allowing them to lap up nectar efficiently.</p>



<p>Beyond their radiant colors, hummingbirds boast some of the most specialized adaptations in the bird world. Their uniquely ball-and-socket jointed wings allow for a full 180-degree range of motion. This evolutionary feature enables them to hover in mid-air by flapping their wings in a figure-eight pattern, a capability few other birds possess.</p>



<h3>High-energy lives in the fast lane</h3>



<p>Hummingbirds lead lives of ceaseless activity. Their wings can beat up to 80 times per second, and their hearts can race at an astonishing 1,200 beats per minute. Such rapid movement requires a tremendous amount of energy.</p>



<p>To sustain this high-energy lifestyle, hummingbirds consume up to half their body weight in food daily. Their primary energy source? <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sipping-on-nectar-hummingbirds-consume-a-surprising-amount-of-alcohol/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nectar</a>. This sugary fluid provides them with the fast-burning fuel needed for their turbo-charged lives. But nectar alone isn't enough. Hummingbirds also snack on insects and spiders for essential proteins, vitamins, and fats.</p>



<p>With such a high metabolism, these birds are constantly on the edge of starvation. Remarkably, they can slow their metabolic rate at night, entering a state akin to hibernation called torpor. This adaptation allows them to conserve energy when food is scarce.</p>



<h3>Hummingbirds are migratory marvels</h3>



<p>Many species of hummingbirds embark on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/do-hummingbirds-migrate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">long-distance migrations</a>, a demanding journey that seems almost impossible for such tiny creatures. For instance, the Ruby-throated Hummingbird, which breeds in North America, makes a nonstop flight of 18-20 hours across the Gulf of Mexico to winter in Central America.</p>



<p>Such feats demand an efficient fuel storage system. Before migration, hummingbirds double their body weight, storing fat as an energy reserve. This stored fat then powers their long, strenuous flights.</p>



<h3>Intricate courtship and reproduction</h3>



<p>The courtship rituals of hummingbirds are a sight to behold. Males often woo potential mates with impressive aerial displays, diving and soaring in U-shaped patterns while emitting distinctive calls. Some species even have specialized feathers that produce a musical hum during these dives.</p>



<p>Once a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-hummingbirds-mimic-males-to-avoid-violence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">female</a> selects her mate, the pair's involvement usually ends. The female alone constructs the nest, incubates the eggs, and feeds the chicks. Hummingbird nests, often no bigger than a walnut, consist of spider webs, lichen, and plant material, providing a soft, stretchable home for the growing chicks.</p>



<h3>Crucial role in ecosystems</h3>



<p>Hummingbirds play several crucial roles in the ecosystems they inhabit, most notably as pollinators and as members of the food web. Here's a more detailed look at their ecological contributions:</p>



<h4>Pollinators</h4>



<p>Hummingbirds are primary pollinators for a wide range of flowering plants, especially those with tubular, brightly colored flowers.</p>



<p>As a hummingbird feeds on nectar, its head comes into contact with the flower's anthers, picking up pollen. When the bird visits the next flower, some of this pollen is transferred to the flower's stigma, facilitating pollination. This symbiotic relationship provides hummingbirds with food and plants with an efficient means of reproduction.</p>



<p>Some plants are specifically adapted to hummingbird pollination, with their flower shapes, colors, and blooming times catering precisely to the preferences and behaviors of these birds.</p>



<h4>Predator and prey dynamics</h4>



<p>While hummingbirds consume nectar for energy, they also eat insects and spiders for proteins, fats, and other essential nutrients. Thus, they play a role in controlling the populations of these small creatures.</p>



<p>Conversely, hummingbirds are prey for various animals, including larger birds, spiders, praying mantises, and even some species of fish that can catch them as they skim over water. Their presence supports the diets of these predators.</p>



<h4>Seed dispersal</h4>



<p>Although this is not a direct role played by hummingbirds, their pollination activity indirectly aids in seed production for various plants. More pollination often means more seeds, which leads to the propagation of numerous plant species.</p>



<h4>Niche specification</h4>



<p>Within ecosystems, different species often evolve to fill specific niches to reduce competition for resources. In many habitats, hummingbirds have evolved alongside specific plants, creating a mutual reliance. This specialization reduces competition between hummingbirds and other nectar-feeding animals, ensuring that multiple species can coexist and thrive.</p>



<h4>Indicator species</h4>



<p>Due to their high metabolic rate and sensitivity to environmental changes, hummingbirds can serve as indicator species. A decline in hummingbird populations can signal changes in the ecosystem, whether due to habitat destruction, pollution, or other factors.</p>



<h4>Cultural and economic impact</h4>



<p>Beyond the natural ecosystem, hummingbirds play a role in human-affected ecosystems as well. Many people set up feeders or plant gardens specifically to attract these birds, fostering a sense of connection with nature and promoting local ecotourism.</p>



<p>Hummingbirds, in their diminutive size, encapsulate a universe of wonders. From their breathtaking aerial displays to their vibrant, shimmering colors, these birds continue to captivate and inspire. </p>



<p>On this National Hummingbird Day, by understanding and appreciating their intricacies, we grow more connected to the myriad marvels of the natural world.</p>



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National Hummingbird Day: Celebrating nature's aerial acrobats

Every year, National Hummingbird Day sweeps in with the delicate...

<p>Scientists have long known that orchids deceive their pollinators to visit their flowers by imitating food sources, breeding grounds, or even mates, without in fact offering anything in return.&nbsp;This strategy is also used by the fungi-eating, non-photosynthetic orchid genus <em>Gastrodia </em>which, in order to attract fruit flies, emits a smell resembling the flies’ typical diet of fermented fruits or decaying mushrooms.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The fruit flies are lured into the orchid’s flowers, where they get trapped for a short period of time and get pollen attached to their backs, which they afterwards transport to other orchids of the same species – a deceptive relationship benefitting only one partner.</p>



<h2 id="h-nursery-pollination">Nursery pollination&nbsp;</h2>



<p>However, as a new study conducted by <a href="https://www.kobe-u.ac.jp/en/index.html">Kobe University</a> in Japan has recently showed, a certain species of this genus, <em>Gastrodia foetida</em>, engage in a rather different relationship with the flies: they offer their flowers to fungi-eating fruit flies in exchange for pollination.</p>



<p>This is the first evidence for nursery pollination – i.e. a plant offering a breeding ground to its pollinator - in orchids. This peculiar plant-animal relationship hints at an evolutionary transition towards mutualistic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/symbiotic-relationships/">symbiosis</a>.</p>



<h2 id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



<p><em>G. foetida</em> has particularly fleshy petals which decompose and fall off a few days after pollination. Before this though, fruit flies frequently lay their eggs into the plant’s flowers, offering their larvae the opportunity to fully develop into adult flies in this environment.</p>



<p>“The most intriguing aspect is that, contrary to its common name as the ‘fruit’ fly,&nbsp;<em>Drosophila bizonata</em>, a species specialized in mushroom-feeding, predominantly utilizes decaying&nbsp;<em>Gastrodia foetida&nbsp;</em>flowers as brood sites,” said study author Kenji Suetsugu, a biologist at Kobe.</p>



<h2 id="h-a-prime-target">A prime target</h2>



<p>“A possible explanation is the fact that&nbsp;<em>Gastrodia foetida&nbsp;</em>is a non-photosynthetic orchid that feeds on fungi. These non-photosynthetic orchids often exhibit chemical resemblance to the fungi they assimilate, underlining the age-old adage ‘You are what you eat.’ As a plant that feeds on mushrooms,&nbsp;<em>G. foetida</em>&nbsp;likely tastes similar to a mushroom, making it a prime target for the mushroom-specialized fruit fly.”</p>



<p>These findings reveal a new type of nursery pollination system that goes beyond the mere deceptive strategies commonly found in this genus.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-mutualistic-symbiosis">Mutualistic symbiosis</h2>



<p>As Suetsugu argues, this relationship is neither obligatory nor specific since the fruit flies also lay fully developing eggs on fungi. This suggests an important transition from a deceptive relationship towards mutualistic symbiosis, most likely driven by the low cost to the plant (since its petals are not needed anymore after pollination).</p>



<p>“This study represents the first evidence of nursery pollination in orchids, comprising nearly 30,000 species, and being the most diverse plant group in the world," said Suetsugu.</p>



<p>"In addition, it contributes vital understanding to the intricate and mutually beneficial relationships that can develop in nature. The understanding of how plants can offer genuine benefits rather than merely deceiving pollinators could impact the broader study of plant-animal interactions and their evolutionary dynamics."</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ecy.4152"><em>Ecology</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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Fungi-eating orchids assist fruit flies with reproduction

Scientists have long known that orchids deceive their pollinators to...

<p>In a new study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.adf2160"><em>Science</em></a>, researchers have revealed that mutation rates in whales are much higher than previously reported, aligning more closely with those of other mammals such as humans.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This key finding has significant implications for our understanding of evolution, adaptation, and the historical population sizes of whales before the onset of industrial whaling.</p>



<h2 id="h-pedigree-method">Pedigree method&nbsp;</h2>



<p>For the study, an international team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.rug.nl/?lang=en">University of Groningen</a> used a novel approach called the pedigree method to estimate mutation rates in wild whale populations. The method involves analyzing the genomes of parent-offspring trios to identify new mutations in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honeybee-pollination-produces-plant-offspring-vastly-inferior-to-plants-pollinated-by-other-species/">offspring</a>.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Although the pedigree method has been previously used in zoo animals and a few wild animals, such as a single wolf pair and their cubs, its application in wild populations has been limited. This is due to the challenges associated with obtaining tissue samples from both parents and their offspring.</p>



<p>Marcos Suárez-Menéndez, the study's first author, noted, "The method has only been used on a handful of animals that are living in the wild... It is uncertain if this reflects the mutation rates in the wild where the conditions are very different."&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



<p>Nevertheless, the team successfully applied the pedigree method to whales, using skin biopsy samples collected over thirty years of collaboration.</p>



<p>The study's corresponding author, Per Palsbøll, Professor of Marine Evolution and Conservation at the University of Groningen, emphasized the limitations of the traditional phylogenetic method, which relies on fossil data and DNA comparisons to estimate when species diverged and the number of mutations that have occurred since. "However, the fossil record is not that exact. And some mutations may have disappeared over time," Palsbøll explained.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The results showed that the mutation rates in whales are similar to the rates seen in smaller mammals such as humans, apes, and dolphins.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"And just like in humans, most new mutations originate from the father. So, whales are very similar to us in this respect," said Suárez-Menéndez.</p>



<p>The study's findings also shed light on the number of humpback whales in the North Atlantic before commercial whaling.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Using the newly determined mutation rates, the researchers concluded that the pre-whaling population was 86 percent lower than earlier estimates based on the phylogenetic method.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Our new mutation rates suggested that some 20,000 humpback whales lived in the North Atlantic before commercial whaling, in contrast to the previous estimate of 150,000," said Palsbøll.</p>



<p>Moreover, the study provided insights into Peto's paradox, an observation that the incidence of cancer does not correlate with the number of cells in an organism at the species level.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-study-implications">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The finding that whales have human-like mutation rates contradicts the hypothesis that a slower mutation rate, due to lower metabolic rates in whales, protects these large sea mammals against cancer.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This suggests that other mechanisms, such as an increased number of copies of the p53 gene, which protects against cancer, may be at play in whales.</p>



<p>"Our study revealed that the mutation rate in whale mitochondrial DNA is also much higher than earlier estimates based on the phylogenetic method," said Suárez-Menéndez.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-long-term-research-projects">Long-term research projects&nbsp;</h2>



<p>This observation was made possible by using a slightly different maternal pedigree method and four decades of sighting data of humpback cow and calf pairs in the Gulf of Maine, directed by senior author Jooke Robbins at the Center for Coastal Studies.</p>



<p>Ultimately, the study underscores the importance of long-term ecological research projects.</p>



<p>"It is difficult to acquire sustained funding for these kinds of long-term ecological studies," said Palsbøll. "However, we wouldn’t have been able to do this research without the sustained commitment and dedication of the many colleagues who recorded all the sightings and collected the samples that our study relied on."</p>



<p>The research not only provides a more accurate estimate of mutation rates in whales and their pre-whaling population sizes but also challenges previous assumptions about cancer protection mechanisms in large mammals.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Additionally, it demonstrates the feasibility of estimating mutation rates in wild animals, contributing to a broader understanding of genetics, genomics, and conservation.</p>



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Mutation rates in whales are much higher than expected

In a new study published in the journal Science, researchers...

Digital,Painting,Of,Polar,Bear,Family,At,Sunset

<p>New research published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.adh2280"><em>Science</em></a> has quantified the link between greenhouse gas emissions and the survival of polar bear populations, paving the way for greater protections under the Endangered Species Act.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The study, which was a collaboration between the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/">University of Washington </a>&nbsp;and Polar Bears International, combines past and new research to provide a quantitative link between greenhouse gas emissions and polar bear survival rates.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-studying-polar-bear-survival">Studying polar bear survival</h2>



<p>As the Arctic warms, polar bears have increasingly limited access to sea ice, their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hunting-can-help-stabilize-wildlife-populations/">hunting</a> platform. They are forced to fast during ice-free summer months. This threatens the survival of adult bears, as well as their ability to successfully raise cubs.</p>



<p>“Until now, scientists hadn’t offered the quantitative evidence to relate greenhouse gas emissions to population decline,” said second author Cecilia Bitz, a UW professor of atmospheric sciences.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-direct-link-confirmed">Direct link confirmed</h2>



<p>Professor Bitz's data analysis for the new report shows a direct link between cumulative greenhouse gas emissions and polar bear demographic changes. The results largely explain recent declining trends in some polar bear subpopulations, such as in western Hudson Bay.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The confirmation of this link has significant policy implications, as it enables a formal assessment of how future proposed actions would impact polar bears.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“I hope the U.S. government fulfills its legal obligation to protect polar bears by limiting greenhouse gas emissions from human activity,” said Professor Bitz. “I hope investments are made into fossil fuel alternatives that exist today, and to discover new technologies that avoid greenhouse gas emissions.”</p>



<h2 id="h-endangered-species">Endangered species</h2>



<p>In 2008, polar bears became the first species listed under the Endangered Species Act because of the threat of climate change.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The biological link between warming and polar bear survival was clear, and scientists projected that up to two-thirds of the world’s polar bears could disappear by mid-century.</p>



<p>Still yet, the ESA required specific proof of how a proposed project’s greenhouse gas emissions would affect a species’ survival before it could be fully implemented for species threatened by climate change.</p>



<h2 id="h-cub-survival-rates">Cub survival rates&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“We’ve known for decades that continued warming and sea ice loss ultimately can only result in reduced distribution and abundance of polar bears,” said lead author Steven Amstrup, chief scientist emeritus at Polar Bears International and adjunct professor at the University of Wyoming.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Until now, we’ve lacked the ability to distinguish impacts of greenhouse gases emitted by particular activities from the impacts of historic cumulative emissions. In this paper, we reveal a direct link between anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions and cub survival rates.”</p>



<h2 id="h-advances-in-climate-science">Advances in climate science</h2>



<p>This new paper, published in the 50th anniversary year of the Endangered Species Act and the 15-year anniversary of the listing of polar bears, brings new science to fill this knowledge gap.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Advances in climate science now enable precise links to be established between emissions and species survival.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Professor Bitz co-authored a 2020 Nature Climate Change study that modeled polar bear survival against sea ice decline, connecting polar bear fasting to ice-free days and calculating the annual fasting limits that lead to mortality.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This study considered not just adult polar bear survival, but also its recruitment success, meaning its ability to have cubs and raise them to the age of independence.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-cumulative-greenhouse-gas-emissions">Cumulative greenhouse gas emissions</h2>



<p>The new paper links ice-free days and polar bear fasting limits to cumulative greenhouse gas emissions.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The experts found that the hundreds of power plants in the U.S. will emit more than 60 gigatons of greenhouse gas emissions over their 30-year lifespans, reducing polar bear cub survival in the southern Beaufort Sea population by about four percent.</p>



<p>“Overcoming the challenge of the Bernhardt Opinion is absolutely in the realm of climate research,” said Professor Bitz. “When the memo was written in 2008, we could not say how human-generated greenhouse gas emissions equated to a decline in polar bear populations."</p>



<p>"But within a few years we could directly relate the quantity of emissions to climate warming and later to Arctic sea ice loss as well. Our study shows that not only sea ice but polar bear survival can be directly related to our greenhouse gas emissions.”</p>



<h2 id="h-study-implications">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The study’s implications extend beyond polar bears and sea ice, the authors say. The same method of analysis can be adapted for other species and species habitat with direct connections to global warming, such as coral reefs, the endangered Key deer that reside in the Florida keys, or beach-nesting species affected by rising sea levels.</p>



<p>“Polar bears are beautiful creatures, and I hope they survive global warming. However, the health and well-being of humans, especially the most vulnerable, is of the utmost importance,” said Professor Bitz.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“All of us have experienced heat extremes in the last few years. The harm is inescapable. Everything governments and industries can do to reduce greenhouse gas emissions matters and will help avoid the worst consequences. I’m excited to see the innovative proposals for the Inflation Reduction Act - I hope they stimulate the healthier future that polar bears, and all of us, need.”</p>



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<h2>More about polar bears</h2>



<p>Polar bears, often referred to as the kings of the Arctic, are iconic animals that captivate the imagination of many. Majestic and powerful, these bears are uniquely adapted to life in the extreme cold conditions of the Arctic region.</p>



<h3>Physical features</h3>



<p>A polar bear's striking white fur offers it more than just camouflage amidst the snow and ice. This fur also provides a thick layer of insulation against the cold, while its black skin underneath absorbs and retains the sun's warmth. </p>



<p>Additionally, a thick layer of blubber, sometimes measuring up to 4 inches, gives the bear buoyancy in water and acts as another layer of insulation.</p>



<h3>Diet and hunting techniques</h3>



<p>Polar bears are carnivorous, with seals, especially ringed and bearded seals, being their primary source of food. Their keen sense of smell, which can detect a seal from nearly a mile away, aids them in their hunt. </p>



<p>Using their massive front limbs, they can swim for miles or break through thick layers of ice to catch their prey. The bear will often wait patiently by a seal's breathing hole, ready to snatch it as it emerges.</p>



<h3>Habitat and distribution</h3>



<p>The ice-covered waters of the Arctic Circle serve as the primary habitat for polar bears. These bears do not hibernate like other bear species. </p>



<p>Instead, they are continuously active, often wandering large distances in search of food. Polar bears are found across five nations: the U.S. (in Alaska), Canada, Russia, Greenland, and Norway.</p>



<h3>Threats and conservation</h3>



<p>Unfortunately, as mentioned previously in this article, polar bears face significant threats. This is primarily due to climate change. </p>



<p>The melting of Arctic ice reduces the bears' hunting grounds and makes it challenging for them to find food. As a result, many bears are now found malnourished, and some even resort to cannibalism.</p>



<p>Conservation efforts are underway to protect polar bears and their habitats. Measures include setting up protected areas, reducing human-bear conflicts, and taking steps to address climate change. Researchers and conservationists continue to monitor polar bear populations and health to devise strategies to help them thrive in a changing world.</p>



<p>In summary, polar bears are a testament to nature's ability to adapt and survive in harsh conditions. Their plight serves as a stark reminder of the impacts of climate change, urging us to take collective action for their survival.</p>



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Study confirms direct link between polar bear survival and harmful emissions

New research published in the journal Science has quantified the...

<p>In a recent study published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10764-023-00381-8"><em>International Journal of Primatology</em></a>, scientists have revealed that male crested macaques (Macaca nigra) are more likely to respond to the screams of their own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honeybee-pollination-produces-plant-offspring-vastly-inferior-to-plants-pollinated-by-other-species/">offspring</a> during combative conflicts.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The research was led by behavioral ecologist Professor Anja Widdig from <a href="https://www.uni-leipzig.de/en">Leipzig University</a> and the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, as part of the <a href="https://macaca-nigra.org/">Macaca Nigra Project</a> (MNP).</p>



<p>The study was conducted over a period of 24 months, from 2008 to 2010, in the Tangkoko Nature Reserve on Sulawesi, Indonesia. The research is featured in a special issue of the journal dedicated to crested macaques, marking the 17th anniversary of the MNP.</p>



<h2 id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



<p>Primate infants are known to be dependent on help for survival, especially during their first year. While mothers bear the main burden of parental care, the survival of offspring is essential for males as well, for the transmission of their genes. This led the researchers to question how males respond when infants scream for help during conflicts.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Many primate species live in groups of several males and females. Promiscuous mating raises the question of whether males can even recognize their genetic offspring. The aim of this behavioral study was therefore to investigate how males respond when infants scream for help," explained Professor Widdig.</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The team observed conflicts involving infant crested macaques, who often scream to solicit support. During over 3,600 hours of observation across three study groups, more than 2,600 infant screams for help were registered and analyzed in relation to the responses of male crested macaques.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered">What the researchers discovered&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Interestingly, the researchers found that males were more inclined to respond to an infant's screams if they were the father, a friend of the infant, or a friend of the mother.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Additionally, high dominance rank males, or those likely to have sired many of the infants themselves, were more likely to react to screaming offspring, as were infants and mothers of low dominance rank, who are particularly dependent on help.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Notably, the presence of the mother at the conflict site did not influence the males' response to the infants' screams.</p>



<h2 id="h-investing-support">Investing support</h2>



<p>The results suggest that male crested macaques might possess some cues to gauge which infants they have fathered. However, they generally seem to intervene infrequently and even help unrelated infants.&nbsp;</p>



<p>For example, the data showed that infants screaming for help were mainly involved in conflicts with adult males or females from their social group (42 and 46% respectively), suggesting that males might assess the risk of intervention to avoid potential conflicts with rivals.</p>



<p>“Although previous studies on this primate species have found that fathers do not specifically establish social relationships with their offspring, this study shows that fathers do invest in supporting their offspring, albeit in a very limited way.”&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-parental-care-is-limited">Parental care is limited</h2>



<p>This confirms findings from other studies that males form social bonds with or tolerate their young at feeding sites, but rarely actively support them in conflict situations.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The researchers believe that any form of paternal care in crested macaques is subtle and limited to certain situations, potentially evolving due to high infant mortality rates.</p>



<p>The reasons for this paternal restraint are multifaceted. It could be that crested macaque offspring do not benefit from spatial associations and social bonds with their fathers, so neither invest in such relationships daily.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-defending-their-alpha-status">Defending their alpha status</h2>



<p>Another explanation could be the lack of time; fathers might be unable to spend much time with their offspring as they can only defend their alpha status for an average of twelve months.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This leads males to invest their time in mating with as many fertile females as possible before migrating to another group.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“It is still unclear whether the support of young macaques by unrelated males is actually an active male strategy or a misjudgement of paternity by the male," said Professor Widdig.</p>



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Male crested macaques respond to the screams of infants during conflict

In a recent study published in the International Journal of...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



<p>Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



<p>The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



<p>At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.</p>



<p>"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



<p>The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.</p>



<p>The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a></em> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.</p>



<p>—–</p>



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



<p>On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.</p>



<p>This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.</p>



<p>Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.</p>



<p>The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators.  Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas.  These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.</p>



<p>Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



<p>Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.</p>



<p>Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



<p>385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.</p>



<p>The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.</p>



<p>Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



<p>The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."</p>



<p>This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a></em> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.</p>



<p>Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet <em>Archaeopteris</em>: the first modern tree</h2>



<p>The star of this ancient forest is <em>Archaeopteris</em> – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur <em>Archaeopteryx</em>. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.</p>



<p>William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.</p>



<p>Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



<p>These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.</p>



<p>This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



<p>The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified <em>Eospermatopteris</em>, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.</p>



<p>All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



<p>Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.</p>



<p>Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."</p>



<p>The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



<p>In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.</p>



<p>Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



<p>Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.</p>



<p>Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.</p>



<p>These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.</p>



<p>The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em>Current Biology</em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



<p>Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?</p>



<p>The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What was acid rain?</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The science behind it</strong></h2>



<p>Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.</p>



<p>While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The crisis at its peak</strong></h2>



<p>During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Environmental devastation</strong></h2>



<p>The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.</p>



<p>By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.</p>



<p>Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Economic impact</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The solution: government action and technology</strong></h2>



<p>Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The Clean Air Act of 1990</strong></h2>



<p>The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Cap-and-trade success</strong></h2>



<p>Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.</p>



<p>The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Technology advances</strong></h2>



<p>Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.</p>



<p>The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today"><strong>Why we don't hear about it today</strong></h2>



<p>Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Success doesn't make news</strong></h2>



<p>There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Mission accomplished</strong></h2>



<p>The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone"><strong>Is it really gone?</strong></h2>



<p>The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.</p>



<p>EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What this teaches us</strong></h2>



<p>The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.</p>



<p>Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.</p>



<p>Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.</p>



<p>This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.</p>



<p>Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.</p>



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



<p><strong>Sources:</strong> <em>This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.</em></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Frequently Asked Questions</strong></h2>



<p><strong>1. Is acid rain completely gone?</strong> No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.</p>



<p><strong>2. How long did solving take?</strong> Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.</p>



<p><strong>3. What made the solution successful?</strong> Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.</p>



<p><strong>4. Do other countries have acid rain problems?</strong> Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.</p>



<p><strong>5. Could acid rain return?</strong> Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.</p>



<p><strong>6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"?</strong> The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a></p>



<p>-----</p>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>



<p></p>



<p>Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. </p>



<p>Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. </p>



<p>These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.</p>



<p>Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. </p>



<p>For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.</p>



<p>Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. </p>



<p>Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.</p>



<p>This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. </p>



<p>With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>-----</p>

What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



<p>A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. </p>



<p>Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. </p>



<p>Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. </p>



<p>Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. </p>



<p>The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.</p>



<p>Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.</p>



<p>Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.</p>



<p>This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. </p>



<p>The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the <em><a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

<p>Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. </p>



<p>The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.</p>



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<p>Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. </p>



<p>Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.</p>



<p>Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. </p>



<p>They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).</p>



<p>Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.</p>



<p>Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.</p>



<p>This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.</p>

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.</p>



<p>"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.</p>



<p>"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.</p>



<p>To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.</p>



<p>"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."</p>



<p>"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."</p>



<p><em>Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?</p>



<p>One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ACS Reactions</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

How does salt makes things taste better?

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;</p>



<p>'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."</p>



<p>"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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<p>Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.</p>



<p>The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."</p>



<p>"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."</p>



<p>"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."</p>



<p>The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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<p>Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.</p>



<p>According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."</p>



<p>Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;</p>



<p>ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. </p>



<p>Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> </em>Staff Writer </p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.</p>



<p>"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."</p>



<p>Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.</p>



<p>"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."</p>



<p>Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.</p>



<p>In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.</p>



<p>The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.</p>



<p>The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.</p>



<p>The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. </p>



<p>Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.</p>



<p>The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.</p>



<p>At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.</p>



<p>"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."</p>



<p>The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.</p>



<p><em>Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."</p>



<p>The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.</p>



<p>"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Goddard</em></p>



<p><em>Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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