If you’re a male gray frog trying to find a mate, you’d better have a fast and steady call. That’s what female treefrogs usually go for. But when the crowd gets loud and chaotic, things change. The males that don’t sound all that great? They suddenly have a shot.



In quiet situations where females only hear two males at once, their preferences are clear. They go for the one with the sharper, more rhythmic call. 



But when four or even eight males are calling at once, things get messy. Female choices become unpredictable. This isn’t just a frog issue - it ties into a broader idea that scientists call “choice overload.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-frogs-face-chaos-in-the-chorus">Frogs face chaos in the chorus</h2>



In nature, frogs gather in large, noisy groups called choruses. Picture a shallow pond in spring, with dozens of males calling out at the same time. It’s the frog equivalent of a dating scene in a packed nightclub.



The researchers found that the crowded conditions of these choruses might be too overwhelming for females to reliably pick the best mate. It’s not that they stop caring - it’s that they can’t tell who’s who.



Professor Jessie Tanner of the <a href="https://www.utk.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tennessee, Knoxville</a>, led a team studying how choice overload affects evolution.



“Because female mate choice can drive evolution, our results suggest that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-the-story-of-early-animal-evolution/">evolution</a> might happen more slowly than we thought before,” she said. 



“Some males that are fairly unattractive could still mate, especially if they take advantage of crowded spaces where females might be less able to discriminate between attractive and unattractive males.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-when-choices-are-too-hard">What happens when choices are too hard?</h2>



The idea of choice overload is pretty common in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/science-behind-predicting-and-changing-human-behavior/">human behavior</a>. You walk into a store to buy toothpaste and face 50 brands. You either freeze, grab something random, or walk away. Same goes for dating apps with endless swiping.



“We wanted to understand how having to make mating decisions in crowded environments, where choice overload could be a problem, might drive the evolution of calls,” Tanner explained. 



“Since males that are chosen by females pass on their genes to the next generation, this mate choice can cause the population to change over time.”



When animals, like people, face too many options, their decision-making can break down. That opens up a chance for less attractive mates to get picked - not because they became more appealing, but because the chooser got overwhelmed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-choice-overload-in-other-animals">Choice overload in other animals</h2>



This isn’t just about frogs. Scientists are now looking at how this effect shows up in other animals. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumblebees-increasingly-stressed-over-the-past-century/">Bumblebees</a>, for instance, are on the list. So are wood roaches.



“Our lab is working to understand how choice overload and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogs-have-lungs-that-cancel-out-background-noise/">noise</a> may each contribute to the difficulty female treefrogs face in making mating decisions,” Tanner said. 



“We are also working to understand whether this choice overload is something that occurs generally in many different kinds of animals or is more specific to individual species.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simultaneous-cricket-songs">Simultaneous cricket songs </h2>



Tanner, who has a background in both psychology and biology, first got into animal behavior while studying mate choice as an undergrad. She later became interested in sound - especially how it plays into animal communication.



That led to earlier work on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-male-crickets-go-silent-how-females-adapt-and-respond/">crickets</a>. Like treefrogs, male crickets use sound to attract mates. A study on cricket mating showed that noisy environments might either block females from hearing calls or make them too confused to pick. It was hard to tell which was causing the problem.



“During that study, it became clear that our work was consistent with both the possibility that many simultaneous cricket songs created noise that made it hard for females to hear, and the possibility that the females were experiencing choice overload,” Tanner said. “Our current work looks to disentangle those ideas.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-average-becomes-good-enough">When average becomes good enough</h2>



The research adds a new layer to how scientists think about evolution. Normally, stronger signals - like a faster frog call - are expected to win out and spread through the population over time. 



But if crowded conditions keep females from consistently picking the top performers, evolution slows down. Mediocre traits stick around longer.



That changes the math for survival. In nature, being the best isn’t always enough - and sometimes, being just okay is good enough, especially if the crowd’s loud and the choices are many.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2025.0585" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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Frogs settle for average mates when dating gets too noisy

If you’re a male gray frog trying to find a mate, you’d better have a fast and steady call. That’s what female treefrogs usually go for. But when the crowd gets loud and chaotic, things change. The males that don’t sound all that great? They suddenly have a shot. In quiet situations where females only hear two males at once, their preferences are clear. They go for the one with the sharper, more rhythmic call. But when four or even eight males are calling at once, things...

In a new study led by <a href="https://www.rutgers.edu/">Rutgers University</a>, researchers have discovered that coastal fisheries are surprisingly resilient to marine heat waves. The experts report that prolonged periods of warm <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-temperatures-hit-a-record-high-this-week-with-the-worst-heat-still-to-come/">ocean temperatures</a> have not had a lasting effect on the fish communities that feed most of the world.



Study lead author Alexa Fredston conducted the research as a postdoctoral associate in the Global Change Research Group, part of the Department of Ecology, Evolution and Natural Resources in the Rutgers School of Environmental and Biological Sciences (SEBS).



“There is an emerging sense that the oceans do have some resilience, and while they are changing in response to climate change, we don’t see evidence that marine heat waves are wiping out fisheries,” said Fredston.



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers analyzed the impacts of 248 marine heat waves on commercially important fish such as flounder and rockfish.&nbsp;



They used data from long-running trawl surveys of continental shelf ecosystems in North America and Europe between 1993 and 2019.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



The study showed that, in general, the marine heat waves did not have destructive effects on regional fish communities.&nbsp;



In some cases, the team found that prolonged periods of heat were linked to declines in biomass, which refers to the total quantity of fish in a given area.



<h2 id="h-natural-variability">Natural variability&nbsp;</h2>



Overall, however, the effects of marine heat waves are not distinguishable from the natural variability in these ecosystems, said the researchers.



“The oceans are highly variable, and fish populations vary quite a lot,” said Fredston, who is now an assistant professor of ocean sciences at University of California, Santa Cruz. “Marine heat waves can drive local change, but there have been hundreds of marine heat waves with no lasting impacts.”



<h2 id="h-fish-species-distribution">Fish species distribution&nbsp;</h2>



In addition to looking at biomass, the researchers examined whether marine heat waves have altered the species found in various fish communities. This transition may include the loss of cold water fish and an increase in fish that are associated with warmer temperatures.



In a process ķnown as tropicalization, heat-seeking fish can expand their habitats into temperate waters as the oceans warm.&nbsp;



The results showed that marine heatwaves were not consistently associated with tropicalization or the loss of cold-affiliated species in these ecosystems.



<h2 id="h-resilient-fisheries">Resilient fisheries</h2>



The findings suggest that fish seek refuge by moving to areas with cooler water during marine heat waves, which the researchers defined as periods of more than five days with extreme sea bottom temperatures for that region and season.



On the other hand, the experts identified examples of marine heat waves that did have profound impacts on fish communities. The 2014-2016 marine heat wave in the Northeast Pacific known as “the Blob” is one of the largest on record.



The experts report that while The Blob led to a 22 percent loss of biomass in the Gulf of Alaska, a 2012 marine heat wave in the Northwest Atlantic led to a 70 percent biomass gain.&nbsp;



According to the researchers, these changes were not substantial compared to natural variability in biomass, and similar effects were not seen after most other marine heat waves.



“We found that these negative impacts are unpredictable and that other heat waves had no strong impacts,” said study co-author Malin Pinsky, an associate professor in the Department of Ecology, Evolution and Natural Resources and director of the Global Change Research Group at SEBS. “This means that each heat wave that hits is like rolling the dice: Will it be a bad one or not? We don't know until it happens.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06449-y">Nature</a>.



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Coastal fisheries quickly bounce back from marine heat waves

In a new study led by Rutgers University, researchers have...

When we imagine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-were-going-strong-when-the-deadly-asteroid-struck/">dinosaurs</a>, iconic species like Tyrannosaurus and Triceratops often come to mind. Yet, during the reign of dinosaurs in North America, they had quite different relatives ruling territories in Europe.



<h2 id="h-the-late-cretaceous-european-archipelago">The Late Cretaceous European Archipelago</h2>



During the Late Cretaceous period (100 to 66 million years ago), Europe was a massive archipelago dotted with both big and tiny islands, submerged in what is known as the Late Cretaceous European Archipelago.&nbsp;



The species of dinosaurs living on these islands greatly differed from their counterparts on larger land masses, often being notably smaller in size. This includes not just the carnivorous theropods, but also the armored ankylosaurs, the elongated sauropods, the duck-billed hadrosaurs, and the rhabdodontids.



<h2 id="h-the-rhabdodontidae-family">The Rhabdodontidae family</h2>



The Rhabdodontidae family stands out as one of the most notable European dinosaur clusters.&nbsp;



This family is often associated with the frequently observed medium-sized herbivores of that period. Characteristically, rhabdodontids measured somewhere between two and six meters in length.&nbsp;



Now, an international team of researchers from the <a href="https://uni-tuebingen.de/en/">University of Tübingen</a> in Germany, <a href="https://www.elte.hu/en/">Eötvös Loránd&nbsp;University</a> (ELTE)&nbsp;in Hungary, and the <a href="http://www.unibuc.ro/">University of Bucharest</a> in Romania has investigated in more detail this peculiar group of dinosaurs.



<h2 id="h-new-details-about-rhabdodontids">New details about rhabdodontids</h2>



“They were probably habitually bipedal herbivores, characterized by a rather stocky build, with strong hind limbs, short forelimbs, a long tail, and a comparatively large, triangular skull that tapers anteriorly and ends in a narrow snout,” said lead author Felix Augustin, a doctoral student in Vertebrate Paleontology at Tübingen.



“They had a relatively robust skull with strong jaws, large teeth and a pointy beak that was covered in keratin, demonstrating that these dinosaurs were well-adapted to eating tough plants.”&nbsp;



Evidence from some fossil findings suggests that they might have been social creatures, often found in groups.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-distribution">Distribution&nbsp;</h2>



Although they most likely faced an earlier extinction in Western Europe, around 69 million years ago, potentially due to shifts in their plant diet, their presence persisted in Eastern Europe, lasting till the end of the Cretaceous period, about 66 million years ago.



Rhabdodontid fossils present a unique trait – they have solely been discovered in Europe and specifically in strata dating between 86 and 66 million years, suggesting that these creatures were exclusive to the Late Cretaceous European Archipelago.



As of now, this group is represented by nine distinct species distributed across five European nations: France, Spain, Austria, Hungary, and Romania.



“The first rhabdodontid species was scientifically named more than 150 years ago and the last one as recently as November 2022, so, although the group looks back to a long research history, we still have much to learn about it,” Augustin explained.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-many-features-remain-a-mystery">Many features remain a mystery&nbsp;</h2>



“Generally, our portraying of the world of dinosaurs is heavily biased towards the well-known North-American and Asian dinosaur faunas.”



Europe’s Late Cretaceous period is not as rich in dinosaur fossils as North America or Asia. To date, a full skeletal structure of a rhabdodontid remains elusive.&nbsp;



Despite their prevalence in Europe during the Upper Cretaceous, many of their features, such as their precise body dimensions, movement patterns, and dietary habits, remain a mystery.



“In the past decades, a wealth of new, and often well-preserved, rhabdodontid fossils has been discovered throughout Europe, the majority of which still remains to be studied," said Augustin.



"A joint research project is currently underway to study the available fossil material in order to gain new insights into the evolution and lifestyle of these fascinating yet still poorly known dinosaurs."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.3897/fr.26.108967">Fossil Record</a>.



Image Credit: Peter Nickolaus



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Scientists shed new light on Europe’s enigmatic dinosaurs

When we imagine dinosaurs, iconic species like Tyrannosaurus and Triceratops...

A new study published by <a href="http://english.sciencep.cas.cn/bi/">China Science Press</a> has revealed that 90 percent of flowering plant species rely on animal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weevils-the-unknown-and-underappreciated-pollination-heroes/">pollination</a>. This research represents the most accurate estimate to date on the proportion of flowering plants that rely on animal pollinators.



The study was led by Professor Shuang-Quan Huang, Director of the Institute of Evolution and Ecology at the School of Life Sciences, <a href="http://english.ccnu.edu.cn/">Central China Normal University</a>.



<h2 id="h-critical-questions">Critical questions</h2>



Professor Huang has been dedicated to pollination biology since his graduate studies from 1993. Along with his team, he made significant strides in addressing a critical question that has, until now, remained elusive - what percentage of flowering plants are pollinated by animals?



The importance of this question cannot be understated as it has implications for pollinator conservation and management in both natural and agricultural ecosystems.&nbsp;



Early estimates of the proportion of animal-pollinated species were rough, varying from 2/3 to over 80 percent.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-animal-pollinated-species">Animal-pollinated species&nbsp;</h2>



The latest and widely accepted answer, proposed in 2011, was 87.5 percent, which was based on average proportions of animal-pollinated species from around 40 communities, involving a sample of no more than one percent species of flowering plants. In other words, this method carried the potential for inaccuracies.&nbsp;



Additionally, the team confronted another issue: the pollination modes of some taxa were misidentified or misunderstood, causing problems in the conservation of truly animal-pollinated plants, as well as in tallying pollination modes.&nbsp;



An example of this is the Tetracentron sinense (Trochodendraceae), a tree endemic to central China, which was previously considered to be wind-pollinated but was found by Professor Huang’s team to be effectively pollinated by small bees.



<h2 id="h-insightful-estimates">Insightful estimates&nbsp;</h2>



“Given that pollination modes in over ten thousand of flowering species have been recorded since Darwin’s era, it is time for us to give more accurate estimation of the proportion through data counting,” wrote the researchers. “This might be a challenge and bring a lot of controversy, but will be insightful.”



To investigate, the team conducted a global survey of thousands of publications and extracted data on abiotically pollinated cases as well as ambophilous ones (those that use both biotic and abiotic agents for pollination).&nbsp;



These data were then evaluated in the context of two global mega-databases (GBIF, WFO) at species, genus, and family levels, enabling the researchers to obtain direct estimates of the proportion of biotic pollination across all angiosperms.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



The study revealed that 64-68 percent of families, 88 percent of genera, and 90 percent flowering plant species relied on animal pollination.&nbsp;



“This global survey has definitely provided a new view and relatively an accurate estimate of the importance of pollinators in flowering-plant reproduction on our planet,” said Professor Huang.



Furthermore, when the researchers recalculated the most widely adopted previous estimate based on community sampling, after correcting for variation in sample sizes (a step not performed previously), the original estimate of 87.5 percent changed to 89.5 percent.&nbsp;



Professor Scott Armbruster remarked, “The recalculation of the community dataset matches well with the direct-tally-and-subtraction approach; this is presumably not a coincidence.”



<h2 id="h-study-implications">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



This new calculation of 90 percent of flowering plant species relying on animal pollination will pave the way for a better understanding of the critical role that pollinators play in the health of ecosystems on planet Earth, especially in light of ongoing pollinator declines globally.&nbsp;



It is now crucial more than ever before that this knowledge is utilized to inform conservation efforts and safeguard the health of our planet's ecosystems.



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Study reveals that 90% of flowering plant species rely on animal pollinators

A new study published by China Science Press has revealed...

In the northern region of Yellowstone National Park, a historically large bison herd is causing an unexpected hindrance to the recovery of quaking aspen saplings. This crucial species in the American West ecosystem is trying to bounce back from decades of over-browsing by elk.&nbsp;



The discovery was made by a research team led by Luke Painter of <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/">Oregon State University</a>. The study follows up on a paper Painter published five years ago in the journal Ecosphere, which indicated that the reintroduction of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eastern-wolves-and-grey-wolves-evolved-separately/">wolves</a> in Yellowstone had sparked a recovery of aspen both within and outside the park.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



“I’ve studied the response of aspen in northern Yellowstone to the reduction in elk after the wolves were brought back and found that during this time, bison increased and have begun to affect aspen," said Painter. "Now we’re showing strong evidence of a previously unreported behavior of bison bulls breaking aspen saplings.”



Painter noted that while some saplings were tall enough to avoid being browsed by elk and therefore had a higher chance of growing into trees, bison were breaking them off at lower heights. Additionally, other saplings were killed when bison scraped off the bark with their horns.



<h2 id="h-aspen-recovery">Aspen recovery&nbsp;</h2>



The quaking aspen predominantly reproduces through root sprouts, a process known as suckering, and aspen stands often consist of a single organism connected by a common root system. Fire stimulates aspen reproduction from both roots and seeds.&nbsp;



Throughout much of the 20th century, aspen sprouts were unable to grow into trees due to consumption by elk during winter.&nbsp;



However, with the reintroduction of wolves and an increase in the population of other large predators like grizzly bears and cougars, elk numbers in northern Yellowstone decreased, providing relief to the aspen.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-new-twist-in-the-story">New twist in the story</h2>



“Some young aspen began growing into saplings – young trees taller than 2 meters – which was an indication they were no longer being consumed by elk and were likely to grow into mature trees,” said Painter.&nbsp;



“It was a trophic cascade that changed the Yellowstone ecosystem, creating conditions that could bring it closer to what it was historically, with more aspen, willow, and beaver, which depend on these plants. But the tremendous increase in bison over the last two decades has added a new turn to the story.”



<h2 id="h-bison-behavior">Bison behavior&nbsp;</h2>



Painter added that bison have long been known to exert significant effects on their environment, including removing and suppressing shrubs and trees by eating, trampling, and breaking them.&nbsp;



With the considerable increase in bison numbers in northern Yellowstone over the past 20 years, their impact on plants has also escalated. In areas with large bison populations, such as the iconic Lamar Valley, the bison are preventing some aspen stands from replacing their dying trees.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered">What the researchers discovered&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers examined a random sampling of plots in 87 randomly selected aspen stands, revealing that 18 percent of saplings had been broken.&nbsp;



Although they may resprout from their base, the lost height of the saplings and the vulnerability of new sprouts to being consumed by bison or other herbivores are concerning, note the researchers.



Painter and his colleagues, Robert Beschta and William Ripple from the OSU College of Forestry, found multiple lines of evidence to attribute the breakage to bison.&nbsp;



“Most broken saplings were in areas of high bison density and low elk density, and they were broken in summer when elk wouldn’t have been foraging on them,” Painter said.&nbsp;



“Plus we directly observed bison breaking aspen saplings. The purpose of the behavior doesn’t seem to be about accessing food, and we observed only bulls engaging in this behavior, so it may be related to displays of aggression.”



<h2 id="h-rising-bison-numbers">Rising bison numbers</h2>



The management of Yellowstone bison involves an agreement with the state of Montana that requires bison to remain in or very near the park. Bison that stray are either killed, captured, or hazed back into the park, primarily due to the risk of brucellosis - a bacterial infection that poses a threat to Montana’s cattle industry.&nbsp;



Although elk also carry brucellosis and have transmitted it to cattle, the same restrictions are not applied to them. Consequently, unlike other wildlife, bison are not permitted to disperse to other areas as their numbers and density increase.



<h2 id="h-overlapping-conservation-goals">Overlapping conservation goals</h2>



Painter noted that the conservation of bison in Yellowstone, whose numbers drastically declined nationally due to over-hunting in the 1800s, is a significant success story. Similarly, the recovery of aspen and other deciduous woody plants that began with the comeback of the park’s large predators is also a success.&nbsp;



“Thus, one important conservation goal is affecting another important conservation goal,” he said. “Researchers are only beginning to understand how these conservation goals have overlapped and affected each other. We reported a piece of this complex puzzle, describing and quantifying one way that bison shape their habitat by suppressing trees.”



This study highlights the complex and interconnected nature of ecosystems and the challenges that arise in managing and conserving them.&nbsp;



The findings emphasize the need for a better understanding of the interactions between different species and their environment to develop effective conservation strategies.



The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ece3.10369">Ecology and Evolution</a>.



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Bull stampede: Bison behavior hinders aspen recovery in Yellowstone

In the northern region of Yellowstone National Park, a historically...

A recent study led by the <a href="https://www.wcs.org/">Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS)</a> has found that, in order to curb climate change, a simple yet surprising approach could be protecting elephants, gorillas, and other large-bodied <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/loss-of-fruit-eating-animals-will-endanger-the-atlantic-forest/">fruit-eating animals</a> like tapirs or hornbills. The overhunting of these species reduces the ability of forests to sequester carbon.



These frequently hunted animals, many of which are at risk due to both illegal and commercial hunting practices, are primarily fruit eaters that spread large seeds. Such seeds come from tree species known for their high carbon storage capacities.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-empty-forests">Empty forests</h2>



According to the researchers, the disappearance of these significant frugivores – including primates, hornbills and toucans – alters the forest composition over time. This leads to an increase in trees that rely on wind dispersal or have small seeds. These trees typically have lower wood density and, consequently, store less carbon.



“Many tropical forests have been described as ‘empty’ owing to loss of animals, often as a result of unsustainable subsistence or market hunting," said lead author Elizabeth Bennett, the Vice President of Species Conservation at WCS.&nbsp;



"Such hunting is known to have detrimental effects on target species, broader biodiversity, and the livelihoods and well-being of local communities."&nbsp;



“Less appreciated is the adverse impact of defaunation on the capacity of tropical forests to sequester and store carbon, which has implications for climate change.”



<h2 id="h-loss-of-large-frugivores">Loss of large frugivores&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers point out that in regions like the Neotropics, the loss of large primates and tapirs, responsible for dispersing seeds from large-seeded trees with denser wood, is estimated to cause long-term reductions in above-ground tree biomass.&nbsp;



This reduction ranges from an average of three to six percent. In extreme cases, it could reach nearly 40 percent. 



In places such as central Thailand, trees relying on seed dispersal by sizable frugivores represent almost a third of the total carbon biomass.



<h2 id="h-restoration-efforts">Restoration efforts&nbsp;</h2>



Interestingly, current restoration efforts to counteract emissions usually involve planting seeds and seedlings of mostly small-seeded, largely second-growth species. Reforestation projects often overlook large-seeded species dispersed by animals.



Once these animals become extinct or severely reduced, repopulating them becomes challenging, particularly without their primary food sources. This factor further impedes the restored forests’ potential to capture and store carbon efficiently.



<h2 id="h-ecologically-intact-forests">Ecologically intact forests</h2>



The study also highlights the critical role of ecologically intact forests. Such forests, which are vast, uninterrupted by significant human-induced damages, and home to diverse wildlife, are vital. They estimate to remove around 3.6 billion tons of CO2 annually.



“Animals have a vital role in maintaining the integrity of such forests; those forests with their full complement of faunal species, at healthy population densities, sequester and store more carbon than those that have lost components of their fauna," said co-author John Robinson.



"Maintaining intact faunas is therefore a critical component of any strategy to conserve forests to address climate change."



<h2 id="h-beyond-forest-dynamics">Beyond forest dynamics</h2>



Additionally, hunting’s detrimental effects on climate go beyond forest dynamics. Hunting causes the loss of carbon stored in the bodies of wildlife.



For instance, an adult forest elephant holds approximately 720 kg (1,587 pounds) of carbon (2.64 tons of CO2e). Thus, the tragic loss of 11,000 elephants from 2004 to 2012 in a single Gabonese national park equates to a loss of 7,920 tons of carbon storage or 29,040 tons of CO2e.



<h2 id="h-study-implications">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



The study emphasizes that markets like <a href="https://www.un-redd.org/">REDD+ (Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation)</a> already recognize the carbon sequestration and storage capacities of forests.&nbsp;



However, these markets primarily focus on the trees’ carbon and thus on preventing deforestation and forest degradation.&nbsp;



Given that the loss of large fauna can reduce forest carbon content, there is a chance to enhance the carbon storage value of intact fauna. This can strengthen biodiversity evaluations by showcasing the complete ecological integrity of protected fauna.



“Explicitly valuing wildlife for its role in the sequestration and storage of carbon in tropical forests, and creating a market for intact faunal assemblages, can potentially generate significant revenues for forest and hunting management," said Bennett.



"Such a market is one way to pay for the multi-faceted programs needed to conserve forests with their full complement of large faunal species, while also ensuring the nutritional health and well-being of local communities in carbon-friendly ways."



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3002262">PLoS Biology</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Simple climate solution: Stop hunting elephants and fruit-eating animals

A recent study led by the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS)...

Whale sharks have been fascinating aquatic enthusiasts and marine biologists for years. Their massive size, unique patterns, and slow movement make them one of the most intriguing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-45000-marine-species-are-endangered-by-human-impacts/">marine animals</a>.&nbsp;



However, these same characteristics also make them one of the most vulnerable, and their numbers are declining at an alarming rate. <a href="https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/international-whale-shark-day/">International Whale Shark Day</a> has been created to celebrate these magnificent creatures and to increase awareness about the urgent need to protect and conserve them.



"These gentle giants fascinate aquatic enthusiasts and marine biologists alike, yet it is up to us to make sure that their numbers increase and their futures are protected. This is what International Whale Shark Day is all about," states the official press release for the event.



<h2 id="h-a-closer-look-at-the-whale-shark">A closer look at the whale shark</h2>



Despite their name, whale sharks are indeed sharks, not whales. They are the biggest living species of shark on our planet, growing up to 14 meters in length and weighing an average of 12 tons. Interestingly, their teeth are quite small, measuring only six millimeters in length.



"One of the most fascinating facts about whale sharks is that they all have a unique pattern. The skin of a whale shark is fully unique, just like the fingerprint of a human. This gives researchers the ability to run visual analytics on a whale shark so that they can identify and track it correctly," the press release explains.



Unfortunately, their preference for roaming seas with around a 50-meter depth, despite being able to dive up to 1,000 meters, and their slow swimming speed of approximately five kilometers per hour, make them highly vulnerable to getting caught in fishing nets and ship collisions.



<h2 id="h-a-day-to-raise-awareness">A day to raise awareness</h2>



International Whale Shark Day, started in 2012, aims to raise awareness of the dangers these animals face. The whale shark has been hunted to vulnerability for its highly prized fins and meat, resulting in its reclassification by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in 2016 from a vulnerable species to an endangered one.



"In fact, in 2016, the whale shark was reclassified by the IUCN, moving from a vulnerable species to an endangered one, which is incredibly worrying," the press release notes.



According to some estimates, there are only tens of thousands of these sharks left across the globe. Hunting plays a significant role in their decline, but there are also cases of whale sharks colliding with boats and getting trapped in fishing gear. In some parts of Asia, products made from whale sharks are in very high demand.



<h2 id="h-more-about-whale-sharks">More about whale sharks</h2>



Whale sharks (Rhincodon typus) are indeed one of the most awe-inspiring creatures in the ocean. They belong to the group of fish known as carpet sharks, and despite their immense size, they are known to be gentle and pose no threat to humans.



<h3 id="h-physical-characteristics">Physical characteristics</h3>



The whale shark is the largest living fish species, and the largest living non-mammalian vertebrate. It holds many records for its size. The average size of an adult whale shark is about 39 feet.



The whale shark has a distinctive light-grey or brown color with white spots and stripes which are unique to each individual. Their skin is remarkably thick, up to 10 cm in some places, and is very tough. They have a pair of dorsal fins and pectoral fins. Their heads are wide and flat with a rounded snout and small eyes at the front corners.



<h3 id="h-feeding-habits">Feeding habits</h3>



Whale sharks primarily feed on plankton, krill, and small fish. Despite their enormous size, they have very small teeth which they do not use for eating. Instead, they feed by opening their mouths wide and filtering the water for food, a method known as filter feeding.&nbsp;



These sharks have specialized filter pads in their gills to trap and filter out food particles from the water. They can process more than 6,000 liters of water each hour.



<h3 id="h-habitat-and-migration">Habitat and migration</h3>



Whale sharks are found in open waters of the tropical oceans and are rarely found in waters below 21°C (70°F). They prefer warm waters and are usually found on the surface.&nbsp;



These sharks are known to be highly migratory creatures. Although they are usually solitary, they occasionally gather in large numbers at feeding sites.



<h3 id="h-reproduction">Reproduction</h3>



The reproduction of whale sharks is still somewhat of a mystery. They are ovoviviparous, meaning that the female produces eggs but the eggs hatch inside the female's body. She then gives birth to live young.&nbsp;



A female captured in 1996 was found to have 300 pups inside her, which is the largest litter size ever recorded for any shark.



<h3 id="h-conservation-status">Conservation status</h3>



The whale shark is currently listed as endangered by the IUCN. The primary threats to whale sharks are human-related, including accidental capture in fishing gear, boat strikes, and targeted hunting for their fins, skin, and meat. In some parts of the world, whale sharks are hunted for their liver oil, which is used to waterproof boats and as a supplement in animal feed.



Efforts are being made worldwide to protect these magnificent creatures, including the creation of marine protected areas, the implementation of fishing regulations, and the promotion of ecotourism.&nbsp;



International Whale Shark Day is a crucial initiative in this regard, serving as a global reminder of the importance of protecting and conserving the world's largest fish.



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International Whale Shark Day: Protecting the gentle giants of the sea

Whale sharks have been fascinating aquatic enthusiasts and marine biologists...

Scientists have discovered an extinct animal, which they have named Kylinxia, that has revealed important insights into how animals were evolving over 500 million years ago.



A multidisciplinary team of experts from the University of Leicester, Yunnan Key Laboratory for Palaeobiology, the Institute of Palaeontology at Yunnan University, Chengjiang Fossil Museum, and the Natural History Museum in London, have redefined our understanding of a pivotal moment in the evolutionary timeline of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-urbanization-shape-arthropod-communities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>. 



The narrative they've unveiled reshapes the story of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/Kylinxia-zhangi_fossil_Yunnan-University_1big-scaled.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">class of creatures</a> that eventually gave rise to the myriad forms of arthropods we see today, from lobsters and crabs to spiders and insects.



The protagonist of this evolutionary tale is Kylinxia, an ancient animal whose fossil has been encased in rocks nearly 520 million years old. What's particularly exciting about Kylinxia is not just its antiquity, but the startling features it possessed.



Imaged with a CT scanner, revealing the soft anatomy buried deep within the rock, it bore an uncanny resemblance in size to a large shrimp. But the similarities largely end there; this creature had three eyes mounted on its head and boasted a pair of formidable limbs, presumably serving as weapons to snatch unsuspecting prey.



<h2 id="h-how-scientists-discovered-kylinxia">How scientists discovered Kylinxia</h2>



Published this week in the esteemed journal, <a href="http://www.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2023.08.022" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>, this discovery is a testament to the rich tapestry of life in a bygone era. Around half a billion years ago, our planet's oceans teemed with a burgeoning community of marine creatures.



The Chengjiang region in southern China stands as a veritable treasure trove for these fossilized relics. It hosts over 250 species of immaculately preserved organisms from the Cambrian Chengjiang biota. This find from Yunnan Province enriches the ever-evolving understanding of arthropod evolution.



While arthropods - creatures with segmented bodies and jointed limbs - are not strangers to the fossil record, much of our knowledge stems from specimens like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-trilobites-adapted-to-survive-300-million-years-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trilobites</a> which primarily preserved their hard exoskeletons. The revelation of Kylinxia, however, goes far beyond skeletal remains. 



This <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/Kylinxia-zhangi_fossil_Yunnan-University_2big-scaled.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nearly complete specimen</a> enabled scientists to discern the animal's head. It revealed a six-segment configuration: a frontal segment adorned with eyes, a second segment armed with large, grasping limbs, followed by four segments each flaunting a pair of jointed appendages.



<h2>Scientists are left awestruck by discovery</h2>



The primary author, Robert O’Flynn, is a PhD student from the <a href="https://le.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leicester'</a>s School of Geography, Geology and the Environment. He couldn't contain his awe, saying, “The preservation of the fossil animal is amazing. After CT-scanning we can digitally turn it around and literally stare into the face of something that was alive over 500 million years ago. As we spun the animal around, we could see that its head possesses six segments, just as in many living arthropods.”



Reflecting on the significance of Kylinxia, Professor Mark Williams, Robert’s primary supervisor, shared, “Kylinxia, and the Chengjiang biota whence it came, are instrumental to building our understanding of early euarthropod evolution. I like to think that similar discoveries will continue to be made by Robert.”



While examining the micro-CT data, Professor Yu Liu from the Yunnan Key Laboratory for Palaeobiology revealed, “Robert and I were hoping to refine and correct previous interpretations of head structures in this genus, Kylinxia. Amazingly, we found that its head is composed of six segments, similar to insects.”



Adding to this Dr Greg Edgecombe from the Natural History Museum remarked, “Most of our theories on how the head of arthropods evolved were based on these early-branching species having fewer segments than living species. The discovery of two previously undetected pairs of legs in Kylinxia suggests that living arthropods inherited a six-segmented head from an ancestor at least 518 million years ago.”



In decoding the mysteries of Kylinxia, science has once again shown that the past holds the key to understanding the intricate web of life that surrounds us today.



<h2>More about arthropods</h2>



Arthropods, a vast group of invertebrates, dominate the animal kingdom with over a million described species. They possess jointed limbs, a segmented body, and an exoskeleton made of chitin.



Insects, like bees and butterflies, represent the largest arthropod class. They generally have three body parts -- head, thorax, and abdomen -- and primarily inhabit terrestrial environments. Butterflies, with their vividly colored wings, undergo metamorphosis, transforming from larvae to adults.



Arachnids, another class, include spiders, scorpions, and mites. They have two main body parts and eight legs. Spiders, known predators, trap prey using intricate webs.



Crustaceans encompass crabs, lobsters, and shrimp. Found mainly in aquatic habitats, they boast hard exoskeletons that they must shed to grow -- a process called molting.



Myriapods include centipedes and millipedes. They reside on land and possess numerous legs, with centipedes being carnivorous and millipedes mainly herbivorous.



Arthropods play vital ecological roles. Bees, for instance, pollinate plants, ensuring fruit and seed production. Meanwhile, spiders help control insect populations. In summary, arthropods, with their diversity and adaptability, remain a pivotal group in the animal kingdom, influencing ecosystems worldwide.



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Three-eyed extinct creature named Kylinxia reveals details of early animal evolution

Scientists have discovered an extinct animal, which they have named...

In the spring of 2020, a significant red tide event off the coast of Southern California captured global attention with its stunning displays of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/three-new-species-of-glowing-sea-worms-found-in-japan/">bioluminescence</a>. 



This phenomenon was caused by exceptionally high densities of Lingulodinium polyedra (L. polyedra), a plankton species known for its ability to emit a neon blue glow.&nbsp;



Despite the awe-inspiring visuals, the red tide event also marked a harmful algal bloom, with toxins detected at peak bloom levels that could potentially harm marine life.&nbsp;



Furthermore, the decomposition of the extreme biomass from the red tide led to near-zero dissolved oxygen levels, resulting in fish die-offs and other detrimental impacts on local ecosystems.



<h2 id="h-what-caused-the-red-tide-event">What caused the red tide event?</h2>



Scientists from UC San Diego’s <a href="https://scripps.ucsd.edu/">Scripps Institution of Oceanography</a> and Jacobs School of Engineering have conducted a study that sheds light on how this particular dinoflagellate species managed to create such an exceptionally dense bloom.&nbsp;



The key lies in the dinoflagellates' extraordinary swimming ability, which gives them a competitive edge over other phytoplankton species and enables them to form dense, including bioluminescent, blooms.



“The idea that vertical swimming gives dinoflagellates a competitive advantage actually goes back more than half a century, but only now do we have the technology to conclusively prove it in the field," explained study senior author Drew Lucas, an associate professor at Scripps Oceanography and the Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering at UC San Diego.



<h2 id="h-highly-mobile-dinoflagellates">Highly mobile dinoflagellates&nbsp;</h2>



Lucas, along with former graduate student Bofu Zheng and several colleagues, seized the opportunity to deploy sophisticated ocean instruments off the San Diego coast during the red tide event in April and May 2020.&nbsp;



This effort was supported by funding from the Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System (SCCOOS) through an award by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).



The study revealed that L. polyedra dinoflagellates are highly mobile, swimming upward during the day to photosynthesize and downward at night to access deep nutrient pools. This movement intensified the water's ruddy coloration at the surface, leading to the term "red tide," most prominently observed in the afternoon.&nbsp;



Researchers documented a significant population of dinoflagellates making the downward journey at night. However, some remained near the surface, resulting in nighttime displays of bioluminescence. 



The authors concluded that this vertical migration enabled the dinoflagellates to outgrow their non-mobile competitors, including other phytoplankton species.



<h2 id="h-50-year-old-theory-confirmed">50-year-old theory confirmed&nbsp;</h2>



This study validates a 50-year-old hypothesis by Scripps Oceanography biological oceanographer Richard "Dick" Eppley, who suggested that the vertical migration of dinoflagellates was associated with harmful algal blooms, a phenomenon documented off Southern California for at least 120 years. 



Although extensive lab research supported this idea, researchers had not field-tested it until the 2020 event.



L. polyedra, like many dinoflagellate species, possesses a pair of flagella, whip-like appendages that propel the single-celled organism through water. Besides its swimming ability, L. polyedra exhibits remarkable speed, reaching up to 10 body lengths per second for almost 24 hours.&nbsp;



“In the plankton world, they are Michael Phelps,” said Lucas. “For comparison, fast-burst swimming in species like bluefin tuna or shortfin mako is around 9-10 body lengths per second, but only for very short periods." 



"Their exceptional swimming allows L. polyedra to dive to cold depths where they can take up nutrients, allowing these organisms to really bloom and explode in population.”



<h2 id="h-studying-red-tide-events">Studying red tide events</h2>



The researchers used the Wirewalker, an autonomous, ocean-wave-powered vertical profiling system developed at Scripps Oceanography, to continuously measure physical and biochemical conditions from the sea surface to the seafloor, reaching a depth of 100 meters (300 feet).&nbsp;



The team also captured near-surface images of the bloom using an Imaging FlowCytobot (IFCB), a robotic microscope installed on an offshore mooring, now part of a larger IFCB network managed by SCCOOS.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



Data and images collected by these instruments confirmed Eppley's original theory, showing that L. polyedra descended at dusk, reaching a maximum depth of about 30-40 meters (100-130 feet) after 18 to 24 hours of swimming.&nbsp;



In the deep, the dinoflagellates would take up nitrate, a growth nutrient for plankton, before returning to the surface around noon to photosynthesize during maximum sunlight.



“These single-celled organisms, namely L. polyedra, are so functionally complex and amazing,” said Zheng. 



“In addition to their swimming speed, which is far beyond human limits, they can coordinate their behavior according to the day-night cycle by migrating down at night and coming back to the ocean surface during the day; they can produce spectacular bioluminescence; they can photosynthesize; they can even prey on organisms that are smaller than them.”



<h2 id="h-potential-consequences-of-the-bloom">Potential consequences of the bloom</h2>



The researchers also analyzed long-term ocean monitoring data from the California Cooperative Oceanic Fisheries Investigations (CalCOFI) and long-term mooring data maintained by the Ocean Time-Series Group at Scripps Oceanography to assess other consequences of the bloom.&nbsp;



Based on over 70 years of climate data, the results indicated that the bloom created physical and chemical conditions in the water column that deviated from the norm, highlighting the potential for massive blooms to alter coastal ocean characteristics.



<h2 id="h-study-implications">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



Study co-author and biological oceanographer Clarissa Anderson said this research stands out for its use of novel ocean technologies, which allowed for unparalleled measurements of how phytoplankton respond to small-scale changes in the coastal ocean, as well as calculations of nutrient uptake by dinoflagellates at such fine scales.&nbsp;



Anderson also noted the importance of long-term observations as being key to any future efforts to better understand harmful algal blooms.



“The more we understand complex mechanisms that allow a particular species or population of plankton to thrive and persist, the better we can predict runaway events like the 2020 red tide that lasted much longer than theory might dictate,” said Anderson.&nbsp;



“With longer time series of rapid change in coastal nutrient delivery, circulation, light regimes, and algal toxins, we could build more accurate dynamical models for predicting plankton blooms, including those that turn harmful.”



<h2>More about red tide events</h2>



"Red tide" refers to a harmful algal bloom (HAB) that can turn coastal waters a reddish color. Large concentrations of microscopic marine plants known as phytoplankton cause these events.



The most common type of phytoplankton associated with red tides in the Gulf of Mexico and along the east coast of the US is the dinoflagellate called Karenia brevis. Here's a detailed overview.



<h3>Origins and causes</h3>



Natural phenomena: Red tide events are natural phenomena that have occurred for centuries. Historical records of fish kills and human respiratory irritation from areas around the Gulf of Mexico suggest the occurrence of red tide events for centuries.



Nutrient enrichment: While red tides are naturally occurring, human activities can exacerbate or influence their frequency and intensity. Runoff from agriculture, untreated sewage, and other sources of pollution can introduce excess nutrients into coastal waters. This promotes the growth of algae.



<h3>Effects</h3>



Marine life: K. brevis produces toxins known as brevetoxins. These toxins can kill fish and can accumulate in shellfish, making them unsafe to eat.



Humans: Humans can be affected by red tide events in two main ways. Consuming contaminated shellfish can lead to neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP), which can cause neurological symptoms. Additionally, when waves break and cause the algal cells to rupture, the toxins can become airborne and lead to respiratory irritation. This is especially true in those with respiratory conditions like asthma.



Economic: Red tide events can have significant economic consequences, particularly for communities that rely on tourism and fisheries. Beach closures, fish kills, and seafood harvesting bans can deter tourists and result in financial losses for local businesses.



<h3>Detection and monitoring</h3>



Satellites: Remote sensing from satellites can detect chlorophyll concentrations in coastal waters, providing an indication of algal bloom activity.



Water sampling: By collecting water samples, scientists can detect and measure the concentration of K. brevis cells and the presence of associated toxins.



<h3>Mitigation and management</h3>



Reducing nutrient pollution: By managing and reducing sources of nutrient pollution, the risk of intense and prolonged red tide events can be lessened.



Early warning systems: Monitoring networks can provide early warnings to local communities and fisheries, allowing them to take precautionary measures.



Research: Continued research into the ecology and behavior of harmful algal blooms can provide insights into predicting and managing red tide events.



<h3>Global distribution</h3>



The term "red tide" commonly refers to K. brevis blooms in the Gulf of Mexico, but harmful algal blooms happen worldwide. Different species of algae, producing different toxins, can be responsible for these events in various parts of the world. For instance, in the Pacific Northwest, another dinoflagellate, Alexandrium, can cause paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP).



<h3>Climate change and red tides</h3>



The link between climate change and red tide events is an area of active research. Warming waters, sea level rise, and increased stormwater runoff can potentially influence the frequency, duration, and intensity of these blooms.



<h3>Misconception</h3>



Not all algal blooms are toxic, and not all turn the water red. The term "red tide" can be misleading. Many harmful algal blooms do not change the color of the water. In addition, not all discolorations of the water are harmful.



Research and monitoring of red tide events continue, as scientists and policymakers seek to better understand these phenomena and develop strategies to minimize their impact on the environment and human health.



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Plankton super swimmers fueled the red tide event of 2020

In the spring of 2020, a significant red tide event...

Researchers have discovered that certain radio waves can disrupt the magnetic compass of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migratory-birds-burn-unexpected-amounts-of-protein/">migratory birds</a>. Other types of radio waves - particularly those used in mobile communication networks - do not affect the birds' sense of orientation due to their high frequencies.&nbsp;



This critical finding supports the researchers' theory that the magnetic compass sense in these birds is based on a quantum-mechanical effect. The radical pair mechanism, located in their eyes, is what they know as this.



<h2 id="h-disruption-from-radio-waves">Disruption from radio waves</h2>



The study, led by Professor Dr. Henrik Mouritsen of the <a href="https://uol.de/en/">University of Oldenburg</a> and Professor Dr. Peter Hore of the University of Oxford, combined behavioral experiments with complex quantum-mechanical calculations on a supercomputer.&nbsp;



The goal was to delve deeper into the connection between the quantum-mechanical mechanism, suspected to underpin the birds' magnetic sense, and the disruption of this mechanism by radio waves.&nbsp;



"Our experiments, together with detailed theoretical predictions, provide strong evidence that the compass magnetoreceptor in migratory birds is based on a flavin-containing radical pair and not a completely different sort of receptor, for example one based on magnetic nanoparticles," explained Professor Mouritsen.



<h2 id="h-magnetoreception">Magnetoreception&nbsp;</h2>



Magnetoreception refers to the ability of migratory birds and some other animals to use the Earth's magnetic field for orientation.&nbsp;



Previously, in 2014, Mouritsen, Hore, and their colleagues demonstrated that electrosmog, the human-made electromagnetic noise generated by household electrical appliances in the AM radio waveband, impairs magnetoreception in migratory birds.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-electromagnetic-noise">Electromagnetic noise&nbsp;</h2>



The experts proposed that this weak electrosmog, which is harmless to humans, affects the complex quantum-physical processes in certain cells in the retinas of migratory birds. These cells enable them to navigate using the Earth's relatively weak magnetic field. 



However, it remained unclear whether electrosmog also affects free-flying birds, such as long-distance migratory birds, whose numbers have been declining for unknown reasons.



<h2 id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



In the current study, the researchers set out to investigate the cut-off frequency of radio waves above which the navigation of migratory birds remains unaffected.&nbsp;



Determining this value would let us draw conclusions about the properties of the actual magnetic sensor in the birds. This sensor is theorized to be a light-sensitive protein called cryptochrome 4, which possesses the necessary magnetic properties. 



The initial theoretical prediction was that the cut-off frequency would lie somewhere between 120 and 220 megahertz in the Very High Frequency (VHF) range. To test this, the team conducted behavioral experiments with Eurasian blackcaps using different frequency bands within this range.&nbsp;



A study published in 2022 had already demonstrated that radio waves of a frequency between 75 and 85 megahertz interfere with the magnetic compass sense of these small songbirds The interference causes their magnetic compass to stop working when exposed to these radio frequencies. Conversely, they function properly without exposure.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



In the current study, experiments conducted with frequencies between 140 and 150 megahertz and between 235 and 245 megahertz revealed that the radio waves in both these frequency bands did not affect the birds' magnetic compass sense, confirming the scientists' predictions.&nbsp;



Model calculations simulating the quantum-mechanical processes inside the cryptochrome protein enabled the researchers to narrow down the cut-off frequency even further, to 116 megahertz.&nbsp;



According to the simulations, radio waves above this frequency would only have a weak effect on the birds' magnetic orientation. This prediction was confirmed by the results of the experiments.



<h2 id="h-study-implications">Study implications</h2>



Understanding magnetoreception is crucial for improving the protection of migratory birds. Increasing our knowledge will provide insights into the kind of electromagnetic radiation that drives birds off course. From there, we can take precautions to avoid using these forms of radiation in areas like nature reserves where migratory birds stop to rest.



Professor Mouritsen noted that while the radio waves used in radio and television broadcasting or CB radio play a decisive role in disrupting magnetoreception, mobile communications networks do not impair the birds' magnetic sense. "The frequencies used here are all above the relevant threshold."



This study marks a significant step forward in understanding the mysterious world of bird migration and the factors that influence their navigational abilities.&nbsp;



With the continued expansion of human-made electromagnetic fields, it is more important than ever to understand the impacts on wildlife and take necessary measures to mitigate any harmful effects.



<h2>More about radio waves</h2>



Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation, much like visible light, X-rays, or ultraviolet light, but with a much longer wavelength. Here's a detailed overview.



<h3>Basics</h3>



<ul>
<li>Wavelength and Frequency: Radio waves have wavelengths ranging from less than a centimeter to more than 100 kilometers. Their frequency, which is the number of wave cycles per second, is inversely proportional to the wavelength. Radio frequencies are typically between 3 kHz and 300 GHz. </li>



<li>Speed: Like all electromagnetic waves, radio waves travel at the speed of light in a vacuum, which is approximately 299,792,458 meters per second (about 186,282 miles per second).</li>
</ul>



<h3>Generation and detection</h3>



<ul>
<li>Generation: Radio waves are typically generated by electronic devices that have oscillating electric currents, such as transistors and diodes. </li>



<li>Detection: When radio waves strike a conductor, they induce a tiny oscillating voltage which can be amplified and detected.</li>
</ul>



<h3>Uses</h3>



<ul>
<li>Communication: Most of the radio waves we encounter are used for communication, whether that's AM or FM radio broadcasting, TV signals, cell phones, Wi-Fi, or satellite communication. </li>



<li>Navigation: Systems like GPS (Global Positioning System) use radio waves to help determine location. </li>



<li>Radar: Radar uses radio waves to detect objects and their movement. </li>



<li>Medicine: MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) uses radio waves in conjunction with strong magnetic fields to generate images of the inside of the body.</li>
</ul>



<h3>Radio spectrum</h3>



The radio spectrum is divided into bands based on frequency:



<ul>
<li>Very Low Frequency (VLF): 3–30 kHz </li>



<li>Low Frequency (LF): 30–300 kHz </li>



<li>Medium Frequency (MF): 300 kHz–3 MHz (Includes AM radio) </li>



<li>High Frequency (HF): 3–30 MHz (Shortwave radio) </li>



<li>Very High Frequency (VHF): 30–300 MHz (Includes FM radio and TV broadcasts) </li>



<li>Ultra High Frequency (UHF): 300 MHz–3 GHz (Used for TV broadcasts, cell phones, Wi-Fi) </li>



<li>Super High Frequency (SHF): 3–30 GHz (Used for satellite communication and radar) </li>



<li>Extremely High Frequency (EHF): 30–300 GHz</li>
</ul>



<h3>Propagation</h3>



<ul>
<li>Ground Waves: Travel along the surface of the Earth and are used for local AM radio transmission. </li>



<li>Skywaves: Bounced off the ionosphere, allowing for long-distance communication, especially in the HF band (shortwave radio). </li>



<li>Line of Sight: VHF and UHF signals generally travel in straight lines and are good for local communications, like TV and FM radio broadcasting.</li>
</ul>



<h3>Safety and health</h3>



There has been much debate and research about the potential health risks of radio waves, especially given the ubiquity of devices like cell phones. As of my last training cut-off in September 2021, the consensus among health organizations is that low-level exposure to radio frequencies does not cause adverse health effects.



<h3>History</h3>



Radio waves were first predicted by James Clerk Maxwell and later confirmed by Heinrich Hertz in the late 19th century. Their discoveries laid the foundation for the development of modern radio communication.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2301153120">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a> (PNAS).



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Some radio waves disrupt the magnetic compass of migratory birds

Researchers have discovered that certain radio waves can disrupt the...

Researchers at <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> (OSU) have found that white-tailed deer are reservoirs for SARS-CoV-2 viruses.



The experts report that a significant number of white-tailed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-shows-deer-can-transmit-covid-for-up-to-five-days/">deer</a> across Ohio have been infected with SARS-Cov-2 and that viral variants evolve about three times faster in deer than in humans.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



Between November 2021 and March 2022, the researchers collected 1,522 nasal swaps from free-ranging deer in 83 of Ohio’s 88 counties and tested them for the virus causing COVID-19.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered">What the researchers discovered&nbsp;</h2>



The analysis revealed that over 10 percent of the samples were positive, and at least one positive case was found in 59 percent of the counties in which testing was conducted.&nbsp;



Surprisingly, genomic analysis showed that at least 30 infections in deer have spilled over from humans.



<h2 id="h-interspecies-transmission">Interspecies transmission&nbsp;</h2>



“We generally talk about interspecies transmission as a rare event, but this wasn’t a huge sampling, and we’re able to document 30 spillovers. It seems to be moving between people and animals quite easily,” said study co-senior author Andrew Bowman, an associate professor of Veterinary Preventive Medicine at OSU.&nbsp;



“And the evidence is growing that humans can get it from deer – which isn’t radically surprising. It’s probably not a one-way pipeline.”



These findings suggest that white-tailed deer are a reservoir for SARS-CoV-2 which enables continuing mutation, and that the virus’s widespread circulation in deer could potentially lead to its spread to other wildlife and livestock.



<h2 id="h-not-just-a-localized-problem">Not just a localized problem&nbsp;</h2>



In December 2021, Bowman and his colleagues first reported the detection of the virus in white-tailed deer in nine locations in Ohio. In the current study, they expanded monitoring in a variety of other locations.&nbsp;



“We expanded across Ohio to see if this was a localized problem – and we find it in lots of places, so it’s not just a localized event,” Bowman explained. “Some of the thought back then was that maybe it’s just in urban deer because they’re in closer contact with people. But in rural parts of the state, we’re finding plenty of positive deer.”



Besides detecting active infections, the scientists also found a significant number of blood samples containing antibodies, suggesting that an estimated 23.5 percent of deer in Ohio had already been infected with the coronavirus.



<h2 id="h-spillover-events">Spillover events</h2>



Among the 80 whole-genome sequences obtained from the samples, the researchers identified the highly contagious and virulent delta variant (the predominant human strain in the United States in the early fall of 2021), which accounted for nearly 90 percent of the sequences, and alpha, the first variant of concern that was identified in humans in the spring of 2021.&nbsp;



The investigation revealed that the genetic composition of delta variants in deer closely matched the dominant lineages found in humans during the same time period, pointing to several spillover events, and suggesting that deer-to-deer transmission followed in clusters, some of them spanning multiple counties.



“There’s probably a timing component to what we found – we were near the end of a delta peak in humans, and then we see a lot of delta in deer. But we were well past the last alpha detection in humans. So the idea that deer are holding onto lineages that have since gone extinct in humans is something we were worried about,” Bowman said.



According to the experts, vaccination is likely to protect people against severe diseases in case the virus will spill back into humans. For instance, an investigation of the effects of deer variants on Siberian hamsters (an animal model widely used in COVID-19 studies) provided clear evidence that vaccinated hamsters did not get as sick after infection as unvaccinated ones.



<h2 id="h-study-implications">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



Unfortunately, the variants circulating in deer are expected to continue to change at a faster rate than that seen in humans. “Not only are deer getting infected with and maintaining SARS-CoV-2, but the rate of change is accelerated in deer – potentially away from what has infected humans,” Bowman reported.



Further research is needed to clarify how the virus is transmitted from humans to white-tailed deer and assess the likelihood of mutated variants to spill back into humans.&nbsp;



Although no substantial outbreaks of deer-origin strains have occurred in humans until now, circulation among animals remains very likely. Moreover, since about 70 percent of free-ranging deer in Ohio have not been exposed to the virus yet, there is a large number of immunologically-naïve animals that the virus could spread through uninhibited.



“Having that animal host in play creates things we need to watch out for. If this trajectory continues for years and we have a virus that becomes deer-adapted, then does that become the pathway into other animal hosts, wildlife or domestic? We just don’t know,” Bowman concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-40706-y">Nature Communications</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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COVID-19 is circulating and evolving rapidly in white-tailed deer

Researchers at Ohio State University (OSU) have found that white-tailed...

OLYMPUS DIGITAL CAMERA

In 2020, Auckland’s <a href="https://www.watercare.co.nz/">Watercare</a> – New Zealand’s largest water utility – excavated two huge vertical shafts from beneath the Mangere Wastewater Treatment Plant in order to upgrade a major pipeline which brings raw sewage for treatment from the central areas of the city.&nbsp;



To their surprise, the excavations revealed a fossil treasure trove, consisting of 266 species of three-million-year-old fauna.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-previously-unknown-species">Previously unknown species&nbsp;</h2>



This extraordinary finding – described in a recent article published in the&nbsp;<a href="http://tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00288306.2023.2243234">New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics</a> – represents one of the richest and most diverse group of Late Pleistocene fauna ever discovered in New Zealand. The experts estimate that at least ten previously unknown species will soon be described and named.



Once they were informed of the significance of the fossil deposit, Watercare and their contractors dumped an enormous heap of shelly sand in a nearby paddock so that a team of paleontologists could thoroughly examine it over many months.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-once-in-a-lifetime-find">Once-in-a-lifetime find&nbsp;</h2>



The experts analyzed more than 300,000 fossils, from which several thousands were taken to the <a href="https://www.aucklandmuseum.com/">Auckland Museum</a> as a record of a “once-in-a-lifetime find,” as lead author Bruce Hayward, a principal scientist at the <a href="https://www.geomarine.org.nz/">Geomarine Research</a> in Auckland, put it.



“Detailed identification of the fossils shows that they were deposited between 3 and 3.7 million years ago in a subtidal channel in an early version of the modern Manukau Harbor," said Hayward.



"At that time, sea level was slightly higher than it is today as the world was also several degrees warmer than now. As a result, the fossils include a number of subtropical species, whose relatives today live in the warmer waters around the Kermadec and Norfolk islands. At least ten previously unknown species are present and will be described and named in future work."



<h2 id="h-surprising-findings">Surprising findings</h2>



Hayward said it is surprising that the fauna contains fossils that lived in many different environments that have been brought together in the ancient marine channel by wave action and strong tidal currents.&nbsp;



"It includes ten specimens of the iconic NZ flax snail that must have lived on the adjacent land and been washed down into the sea by storm runoff," noted Hayward.



"These are by far the oldest known flax snails in the world. Most of the fossils lived on the sea floor, some in brackish estuaries, others attached to hard rocky shorelines and still more have been carried in from offshore of the exposed west coast at the time.”



<h2 id="h-rare-fossils">Rare fossils</h2>



Some of the rarest findings from this collection include isolated baleen whale vertebra, a broken sperm whale tooth, the spine of an extinct sawshark, the dental plates of eagle rays, and a variety of great white shark teeth.



In future research, the experts plan to formally describe the new taxa, comprehensively investigate its paleoecology, and compare these fossils to those discovered in other locations in New Zealand, such as Otahuhu, Kaawa, and Whanganui Basin.



Image Credit: Bruce Hayward



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Fossil treasure trove found in Auckland contains at least 10 new species

In 2020, Auckland’s Watercare – New Zealand’s largest water utility...

In recent years, the eastern United States has been under siege by a large planthopper native to Asia, the spotted lanternfly.



With a seemingly insatiable appetite for both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-stabilize-the-production-of-food-crops/">crops</a> and ornamentals, particularly cultivated grapes, this invasive pest has been wreaking havoc on wine-making regions in Pennsylvania and New York - and now threatens important wine hubs on the US Western coast.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-a-successful-invader">A successful invader&nbsp;</h2>



The spotted lanternfly was accidentally introduced in Berks County, Pennsylvania, in 2014, likely alongside shipments of landscaping materials. By 2023, it bad spread to a total of 14 states.



The expansion of this pest has been fueled by its ability to hitch rides undetected on cargo and passenger vehicles.&nbsp;



The spotted lanternfly has also been promoted by the widespread presence of one of its favorite food sources, the tree of heaven, another invasive species in North America.



<h2 id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



Researchers and field managers face two main challenges in controlling the spotted lanternfly: determining its current location to target eradication campaigns, and predicting its future locations to invest in prevention practices.&nbsp;



Both efforts require accurate and extensive knowledge of its past and present distribution.&nbsp;



However, the data on the spotted lanternfly's presence is scattered and hard to access due to different practices adopted by state and federal agencies, individual research institutions, and self-reporting tools developed for public use.



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



To address this issue, researchers at Temple University, led by Dr. Matthew Helmus, have been monitoring the pest's spread and collecting data from various institutions.&nbsp;



In a recent study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3897/neobiota.86.101471">NeoBiota</a>, Dr. Helmus, Dr. Sebastiano De Bona, and collaborators from several agencies created a comprehensive dataset of all recorded spotted lanternfly sightings in the US.&nbsp;



This dataset, derived from control actions, citizen-science projects, and research efforts, contains highly detailed data (at 1 km2 resolution) with yearly information on the presence or absence of spotted lanternflies, the establishment status of the pest, and estimated population density, across over 650,000 observations.



“The lydemapr package will aid researchers, managers, and the public in their understanding, modeling, and managing of the spread of this invasive pest," said study lead author Dr. De Bona.



<h2 id="h-study-implications">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers hope that their new tool will facilitate the forecasting of the spotted lanternfly's spread and foster more effective collaboration between agencies and researchers.



As the spotted lanternfly continues to establish its presence in new territories, the need for effective tools and collaboration becomes increasingly vital.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-spotted-lanternfly">More about the spotted lanternfly</h2>



The spotted lanternfly (Lycorma delicatula) is a colorful, invasive insect native to parts of China, India, Vietnam, and introduced to Korea where it has become a major pest. It is not a fly, despite its name, but a planthopper.&nbsp;



Adult lanternflies have a distinct appearance with forewings that are grey with black spots and hind wings that are red and black with a white band. They are about an inch long and a half-inch wide.



<h3 id="h-life-cycle">Life cycle&nbsp;</h3>



The life cycle of the spotted lanternfly involves four nymph stages and an adult stage. The eggs are laid in masses on smooth surfaces, such as tree trunks or stones, and are covered with a mud-like substance.&nbsp;



The nymphs hatch in the spring and go through four instar stages, molting and growing larger with each stage.&nbsp;



The first three instars are black with white spots, while the fourth instar nymphs are red and black with white spots. In the late summer or early fall, the nymphs mature into adults, which are active from July to December.



<h3 id="h-diet-and-impact">Diet and impact</h3>



Spotted lanternflies feed on a wide variety of plants using their piercing-sucking mouthparts to extract sap.&nbsp;



They have a preference for the tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima), but also feed on fruit trees, grapevines, hardwoods, and ornamentals. Their feeding damages the plants and leaves them vulnerable to diseases.&nbsp;



Additionally, as they feed, they excrete a substance called honeydew, which promotes the growth of sooty mold and attracts other pests.&nbsp;



This results in further damage to the plants and can lead to decreased crop yields and economic losses for farmers.



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Tracking the spread of the spotted lanternfly, a successful invader 

In recent years, the eastern United States has been under...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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