Gorillas, often thought of as ground dwellers, spend much more time in the trees than previously assumed. This finding from the Max Planck Institute challenges long-standing ideas about the anatomy and evolution of gorillas.



Western and Bwindi mountain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gorillas-are-digging-for-a-surprising-food-in-the-jungle-soil/">gorillas</a>, studied across Gabon and Uganda, were observed over many years. Even the largest males, weighing up to 170 kg, showed substantial tree use. 



Adult females in Loango spent 34% of their time in trees, while Bwindi females clocked 21%. That is a huge jump from the 7% figure for Virunga gorillas.



Study lead author Dr. Martha M. Robbins is a zoologist in the Department of Primate Behavior and Evolution at the <a href="https://www.eva.mpg.de/index/">Max Planck Institute</a> for Evolutionary Anthropology.



“Adult females spent 20% to 30% of their time in the trees, while silverbacks spent 18% to 20% of their time being arboreal, which is much more than 2 to 7% found previously in the Virunga mountain gorillas,” said Dr. Robbins.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-gorillas-different-tree-habits">Different gorillas, different tree habits</h2>



The Virunga population shaped our early understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-gorillas-get-sick-from-being-too-social/">gorilla</a> habits. These highland gorillas live in fruit-scarce zones and rarely climb. But the new study included data from five groups in Bwindi and one in Loango, totaling nearly 5,200 observation days.



The findings are clear: tree use varies widely between populations. Even juveniles and subadults in Bwindi and Loango spent 32% to 43% of their time in trees - double the rate seen in Virunga’s younger gorillas.



The researchers also found that body size plays a role but does not prevent tree climbing. 



“This demonstrates that the large body size of gorillas is not necessarily a limiting factor to tree climbing and that gorillas can be just as arboreal as some chimpanzee populations,” said co-author Rhianna Drummond-Clarke.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climbing-is-not-just-about-fruit">Climbing is not just about fruit</h2>



The researchers expected fruit to be the main driver behind climbing. While gorillas did climb more while eating fruit, the full story is more complex. In Loango, adult females were more arboreal when eating leaves than fruit. In Bwindi, the reverse was true.



Even silverbacks, the heaviest individuals, climbed trees to eat fruit. At Bwindi, silverbacks were arboreal 82% of the time they ate fruit. But fruit formed just 14% of their diet, meaning most of their tree time involved eating leaves.



At Loango, gorillas often ate fallen fruit from the ground. This shows fruit-eating can be a terrestrial act too. Meanwhile, western gorillas also ate lots of tree leaves, about 30% of their diet, driving folivorous tree use, similar to some monkeys.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feeding-is-the-main-reason-to-climb">Feeding is the main reason to climb</h2>



What were the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-infertility-humans-linked-same-genes-gorilla-small-penises/">gorillas</a> doing in trees? Mostly feeding. Adult female gorillas were far more likely to climb while feeding than when resting or traveling.



Even when eating nonfruit, Loango females climbed more than Bwindi ones. This likely reflects differences in diet and foraging strategy. The energy payoff from fruit seems to outweigh the climbing cost, especially for massive silverbacks.



Also, Loango females were heavier climbers than their Bwindi peers when not eating fruit. This surprising reversal shows that even leaf-seeking gorillas may spend considerable time off the ground.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-means-for-ape-evolution">What this means for ape evolution</h2>



These results have big implications. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-endangered-primate-species-identified-in-new-report/">Gorillas</a> have long been labeled as terrestrial because of their bulk and plant-heavy diets. But that view no longer holds. The study shows gorilla arboreality spans all life stages, from infants to adults.



That shift affects how we interpret the fossil record. Gorilla-like bones have been taken to suggest ground-based life. But frequent tree climbing changes the picture. 



“We demonstrate that large body size and a largely folivorous diet in apes are also consistent with frequent arboreality,” noted the study authors.



Studies of limb proportions and bone strength now suggest a range, from more tree-based western gorillas to more ground-based Virunga ones. 



This means our models of ancient human relatives may need adjustment. Gorilla-like features may not imply they lived solely on the ground.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gorillas-are-tree-climbers-not-just-walkers">Gorillas are tree climbers, not just walkers</h2>



Gorillas are not just forest-floor giants. They climb often and for various reasons. From feeding on leaves to exploring the canopy, these behaviors offer key insights into how apes, including humans, evolved.



Future research may look into how such large animals navigate trees. They might distribute their weight across branches or use special movement strategies, similar to orangutans or chimpanzees. 



This research opens new doors in our understanding of ape mobility and evolutionary history.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00590-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Gorillas spend much more time in trees than we previously thought

Gorillas, often thought of as ground dwellers, spend much more time in the trees than previously assumed. This finding from the Max Planck Institute challenges long-standing ideas about the anatomy and evolution of gorillas. Western and Bwindi mountain gorillas, studied across Gabon and Uganda, were observed over many years. Even the largest males, weighing up to 170 kg, showed substantial tree use. Adult females in Loango spent 34% of their time in trees, while Bwindi females clocked 21%. That is a huge jump from the 7% figure...

Diagnostic imaging, including X-rays, MRIs, and CT scans, has long been a crucial tool in monitoring human and animal health. However, for researchers studying wild populations, administering these common tests can be challenging.&nbsp;



In an effort to overcome this obstacle, a collaborative project has been initiated by scientists at the <a href="https://www.whoi.edu/">Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution</a> (WHOI) and colleagues at the Cincinnati Zoo &amp; Botanical Garden, as well as other zoos and aquariums. The team is currently testing the use of thermal video and image analysis to measure heart and respiration rates in a variety of animals in a controlled environment.&nbsp;



The ultimate goal of this research is to advance the development of non-invasive techniques for assessing the health of animals in the wild, particularly threatened and endangered species for which more invasive diagnostic procedures might carry prohibitive risks.



A new paper detailing the team's work was published today in the journal <a href="https://bmcbiol.biomedcentral.com/">BMC Biology</a>. The study highlights the importance of understanding an animal's metabolic rate, or energetic expenditure, as it provides crucial insight into a species' reproductive and survival chances.&nbsp;



Unfortunately, collecting these benchmark measurements from wild populations is logistically complex and frequently invasive. Even more straightforward tests, such as obtaining heart and respiration rates, often necessitate immobilizing the animal, which can pose its own risks. Additionally, attaching tracking devices can be both expensive and invasive.



The research, led by MIT-WHOI graduate student Caroline Rzucidlo, is investigating the potential of infrared thermography (IRT) combined with Eulerian video magnification (EVM) software to measure the vital rates of exotic wildlife species.&nbsp;



Eventually, the team wants to apply this technique to study <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weddell-seals-sacrifice-diving-energy-to-give-iron-to-their-pups/">Weddell seal</a> populations in Antarctica, assessing whether these animals will be physiologically prepared to survive and reproduce in rapidly changing environments.



"Heart and respiration rates are often used as proxies for determining metabolic rate," explained Rzucidlo. "Thermal cameras can detect changes in skin temperature associated with blood flow and changes in air temperature associated with exhalation. Thus, determining if thermal cameras could non-invasively capture these temperature changes in animals was the first step."



While thermal video cameras can easily measure heat and body temperature, as evidenced by the technology used to screen humans for fever at airports, the question remained whether this approach could be applied to exotic animals. Taking their work directly into the field was not feasible, as the researchers first needed to validate the accuracy and precision of the method, which required a controlled setting.&nbsp;



"We had no idea how effectively we could measure temperature fluctuations with the thermal camera, including how close or far away from the animal we needed to be, and how fur, fat, or scale thickness would affect the readings," explained Rzucidlo.



The Cincinnati Zoo &amp; Botanical Garden offered the perfect setting for testing various animals under diverse conditions, allowing researchers to refine their methods. Collaborating with Erin Curry, a reproductive physiologist, and other animal care specialists, Rzucidlo dedicated months to collecting thermal video data on an array of terrestrial and marine creatures at the facility.&nbsp;



The study also encompassed work conducted at other locations, such as the Louisville Zoo (Kentucky), Columbus Zoo and Aquarium (Ohio), and the Salisbury Zoo (Maryland). Overall, 58 individual animals, ranging from Komodo dragons to polar bears, participated in the research.



“Being able to monitor individual animals under human care created a controlled setting to validate this technology that is impossible to replicate in the wild,” said Rzucidlo.



“Zoos offer a unique setting to develop technologies that can contribute to the conservation of wildlife populations. Animals in zoos have regular veterinary check-ups and some individuals are even trained to participate voluntarily in wellness exams, so using a stethoscope to obtain true heartrates while concurrently collecting infrared video of a variety of species was a very achievable goal,” added Curry.



It soon became obvious to the team that the thermal video alone wasn’t enough. “Capturing heat and temperature is one step, but we needed the EVM computer software to amplify changes&nbsp; in temperature associated with respiration rate and heartbeat,” explained Rzucidlo. “Using the two together was the winning combination and offered us an unprecedented view of animal health.”&nbsp;



While thermal cameras have previously been employed to obtain vital rates in a select few species (primarily hairless ones), this groundbreaking study represents the first application of this technology to an extensive array of exotic animals. Additionally, the research identifies the specific traits that render a species suitable for acquiring measurements through thermal imaging.&nbsp;



“This new study takes thermal imaging data in a controlled setting and allows us to build benchmarks across a suite of species. Having developed and fine-tuned these methods in the zoological setting, we can then take these imaging techniques and apply it to answer much broader ecological questions in the wild,” said Michelle Shero, an associate scientist at WHOI.



“We’ve even been using this method in Antarctica to study energy dynamics in Weddell seal populations. We can use these newly developed methods to start asking how an animal’s energetic expenditure may change if environmental conditions change, or what the energetic demands are for reproduction.”



“What’s more, is that using non-invasive and quickly acquired imagery tools will allow us to make better measurements with less disturbance, and for a lot more animals than would ever have been possible using traditional techniques. This is what is really needed to start asking questions about population health.”



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Thermal imaging can help monitor animal health in the wild 

Diagnostic imaging, including X-rays, MRIs, and CT scans, has long...

A groundbreaking study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s40793-023-00467-z">Environmental Microbiome</a> suggests that urban honeybees could hold the key to unlocking insights into the microbiomes of cities around the world, providing valuable information about both hive and human health. As cities are designed for human habitation, they also host a myriad of other living species.&nbsp;



Understanding this diverse landscape is crucial for urban planning and human health. However, sampling the microbial landscape in a way that covers vast urban areas can be labor-intensive and challenging.



Lead researcher Elizabeth Hénaff and her team delved into the potential of honeybees to help gather samples of microorganisms across cities. Honeybees are known to forage daily up to one mile from their hives in urban environments.&nbsp;



The researchers conducted a pilot study in New York, where they sampled various materials from three hives. They discovered diverse genetic information, including environmental bacteria, in the debris accumulated at the bottom of the hives.&nbsp;



Further samples of hive debris from Sydney, Melbourne, Venice, and Tokyo revealed that each location possesses a unique genetic signature as seen by honeybees.



In Venice, the genetic data was predominantly composed of fungi related to wood rot and date palm DNA. Melbourne's sample was dominated by Eucalyptus DNA, while the Sydney sample showed little plant DNA but contained genetic data from a bacteria species that degrades rubber (Gordonia polyisoprenivorans). Tokyo samples included plant DNA from Lotus and wild soybean, as well as the soy sauce fermenting yeast Zygosaccharomyces rouxii.



The experts also identified genetic material from the hive debris for Rickettsia felis ('cat scratch fever'), a pathogen spread to humans through cat scratches. Although these findings highlight the potential of using this method for surveillance, they are currently too preliminary to suggest its effectiveness in monitoring human diseases.



Moreover, the hive debris contained bee-related microorganisms, likely originating from honeybee parts present in the debris. Based on 33 samples from hives across the four subsequent cities, the authors found known bee microorganisms indicating a healthy hive. In some cases, bee pathogens such as Paenibacillus larvae, Melissococcus plutonius, or the parasite Varroa destructor were detected. These findings suggest that debris analysis could also be employed to assess the overall health of honeybee hives.



In conclusion, the study demonstrates that honeybee hive debris offers a snapshot of the microbial landscape of urban environments. This innovative approach could be used alongside other measures to assess the microbial diversity and health of cities and honeybees alike, helping researchers better understand the complex interactions between humans, bees, and urban ecosystems.



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Honeybees can shed light on the health of cities

A groundbreaking study published in the journal Environmental Microbiome suggests...

A new study has shed light on a surprising exception to the pattern of uniformity across the Indo-West Pacific, the largest and most biodiverse marine ecosystem on Earth. While many species in this region have comparably wide ranges, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/larger-jellyfish-are-more-nutritious/">fish</a> and shells noted by Charles Darwin, the same pattern has been observed in crabs. 



Chlorodielline crabs, common on coral reefs, have long been difficult to distinguish based solely on appearance, as they look so similar. However, a team of researchers has now discovered that chlorodielline crab species with non-overlapping ranges are often nearly identical, but those that occupy the same region have a unique feature.



The study, which was led by Robert Lasley, former postdoctoral researcher at the <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/">Florida Museum of Natural History</a>, revealed that the key to distinguishing these similar-looking crabs lies in their specialized appendages used for reproduction, called gonopods. These complex and species-specific structures have evolved multiple times in different arthropod groups, including crustaceans, moths and butterflies, and millipedes, and are variously used for sperm transfer and clasping.



“They all look the same, until you compare their gonopods, which are structurally complex and very species-specific,” explained Lasley.



In crabs, the gonopods sometimes come equipped with elaborate frills that give them the appearance of a spatula with a mohawk. Lasley wanted to understand if there was any pattern to the variation in these gonopods, which led him to study species across the Indo-West Pacific. Over the course of more than a decade, he collected specimens during numerous marine field forays in the Red Sea, Singapore, Australia, and the Phoenix Islands, searching for crabs hiding among the coral bric-a-brac.



The study's findings indicate that the key to distinguishing closely related species of chlorodielline crabs is in their gonopods, rather than their external appearance. While the gonopods of species with non-overlapping ranges are often nearly identical, those of species occupying the same region have unique structures, suggesting that their evolution is influenced by interactions with other closely related species.



Chlorodielline crabs are one of the most abundant crustaceans in coral reef ecosystems, where they occupy the base of the food chain. These tiny crabs, most of which are no larger than a kernel of corn, are especially diverse in the coral triangle, a region that stretches from Indonesia to the Solomon Islands and supports 76 percent of the world's coral species and more than a quarter of all coral reef fishes. Despite their importance, chlorodielline crabs have long been difficult to distinguish based on appearance alone.



The researchers sought to understand why chlorodielline crabs have such wildly different gonopods, specialized appendages used for reproduction. To do this, Lasley first had to determine how chlorodielline species are related to each other, which he accomplished through an analysis of DNA extracted from museum specimens. The experts then added information regarding the range of each species and the shape of their gonopods.



The study's findings shed light on one of marine biology's most perplexing mysteries: how do marine invertebrates, such as crabs, remain isolated long enough for evolution to generate diversity? While roaming animals on land become isolated all the time, the larval stage of many marine invertebrates makes this step in the speciation process more difficult to achieve. Naturalists like Charles Darwin saw the Indo West Pacific as one vast body of water, uninterrupted by geographic barriers that would otherwise act as a catalyst in the process of speciation.



However, the results of this study suggest that sheer distance and time can also act as barriers. Many chlorodielline crabs have ranges that extend across the entirety of the Indo-West Pacific, and the genetic analysis revealed that these cryptic species have slowly accumulated differences in their DNA over millions of years. But it wasn't until close relatives were reunited after an extended separation that those genetic differences visibly manifested in a single, peculiar way. In almost every case, close relatives with overlapping ranges had uniquely shaped gonopods but otherwise looked exactly the same.



“What we can say is these crabs start genetically diverging in different geographic areas, and then the divergence of gonopods is an important piece of the speciation process that happens at the tail end of things,” Lasley said.



The findings of this study have important implications for our understanding of marine biodiversity, as they suggest that far more variation exists in the Indo-West Pacific than previously suspected. The engine driving this diversity has yet to be entirely discovered, but Lasley intends to test his hypothesis that the way these crabs reproduce may play a role in the evolution of their unique gonopods in future studies.



The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2023.107710">Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution</a>.



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Hidden crab diversity discovered in coral reefs

A new study has shed light on a surprising exception...

During the Late Permian period, about 250 million years ago, South Africa was home to a species of large predatory <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-link-mysterious-amphibians/">amphibians</a> with bodies similar to today’s crocodiles or big salamanders. Although these animals – called rhinesuchid temnospondyls – are known mainly from skeletal remains, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.wits.ac.za/">University of the Witwatersrand</a> in South Africa has recently discovered a set of trace fossils that provide key insights into how these creatures moved through their environment.



The remains were discovered in a site called the Dave Green paleosurface, in the KwaZulu-Natal Province of South Africa, on a rocky surface which was the floor of a tidal flat or lagoon of the ancient Karoo Sea during the Late Permian. By analyzing seven body impressions (resting traces), along with several tail-marks (swimming traces), the experts inferred that they were likely made by one or two two-meters-long rhinesuchid temnospondyls swimming from one resting place to another, or searching for prey.



The sinuous shapes of the tail-marks provide evidence that the amphibians propelled themselves through the water with continuous side-to-side tail motions, which is remarkably similar to how modern crocodiles and salamanders move. Moreover, the shape of their body impressions, along with a relative lack of footprints alongside the traces, suggests that they tuck their legs against their bodies while swimming, just like today’s crocodiles. Finally, these fossils indicate an active lifestyle characterized by behaviors such as swimming or bottom-walking, and are extremely valuable for better understanding the structure of Permian ecosystems.



“The findings of the study are significant because they help to fill in gaps in our knowledge of these ancient animals.&nbsp;The remarkable tracks and traces preserved on the Dave Green palaeosurface are a window&nbsp;onto&nbsp;the shoreline of the Karoo Sea roughly 255 million years ago, and&nbsp;provide direct evidence of how these animals moved and interacted with their environment. In addition to its remarkable scientific contribution, this study also demonstrates how important paleontological discoveries are often made by curious people bringing their findings to the attention of paleontologists,” the authors concluded.



The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0282354">PLoS ONE</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Ancient amphibians swam like modern crocodiles

During the Late Permian period, about 250 million years ago,...

A survey of body sizes of Earth’s organisms conducted by <a href="https://www.rutgers.edu/">Rutgers University</a> has found that, although life may be found in all shapes and sizes, the most extreme sizes are predominant in nature. The research shows that our planet’s biomass – the material making up all living organisms – is concentrated at either end of the size spectrum.



“This conclusion – that life on Earth comes packaged predominantly in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-smallest-animals-extinction/">largest and smallest sizes</a> – was a discovery that surprised us,” said study co-author Malin Pinsky, an associate professor of Ecology, Evolution, and Natural Resources at Rutgers.



“Sometimes it seems like mosquitoes or flies or ants must run the world, and yet, when we did the numbers, we found that our world is dominated by the microbes and the trees. These are the silent partners that recycle the nutrients and replenish the air all around us.”



Over a period of five years, the researchers compiled and analyzed data about the size and biomass of each type of living organism on our planet, ranging from unicellular organisms such as soil archaea and bacteria to large organisms like blue whales or sequoia trees. The analysis revealed that the pattern favoring either large or small organisms can be found in all types of species, although it seems to be more pronounced in land-based organisms.



“The largest body sizes appear across multiple species groups, and their maximum body sizes are all within a relatively narrow range,” said lead author Eden Tekwa, a research associate at <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/">McGill University</a>, who conducted the study during a fellowship at Rutgers.



“Trees, grasses, underground fungi, mangroves, corals, fish, and marine mammals all have similar maximum body sizes. This might suggest that there is a universal upper size limit due to ecological, evolutionary, or biophysical limitations.” According to Tekwa, humans belong to the size comprising the highest biomass, which is a relatively large body size.



"Body size is a fundamental feature of life, governing everything from metabolic rates to birth rates and generation times. Cataloging which body sizes are most common is a key step towards understanding the world around us,” Pinsky concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0283020">PLoS ONE</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Largest and smallest sizes are dominant in nature

A survey of body sizes of Earth’s organisms conducted by...

A team of researchers from <a href="https://en.nagoya-u.ac.jp/">Nagoya University</a> in central Japan has recently uncovered three new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-new-species-of-carnivorous-plants-discovered-in-ecuador/">species</a> of bioluminescent polycirrus worms, contributing to our growing understanding of the world's luminescent organisms. Found in various parts of Japan, these small worms are typically found in shallow water and are well-known for their bioluminescence. 



The research group, which was led by Naoto Jimi and Special Assistant Professor Manabu Bessho-Uehara, comprised members from AIST, Olympus Corporation, and Japan Underwater Films Corporation. Their groundbreaking findings have been published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.230039">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



Despite over 7,000 species of luminescent organisms being known to science, only a small fraction of these have been studied in depth. One reason for this is the difficulty in classifying certain specimens, which can hinder accurate identification and limit the usefulness of comparing research findings.&nbsp;



However, the team from Nagoya University has made strides in organizing polycirrus worms according to their diversity, ultimately leading to the discovery of the three new species, each emitting a blue-violet light.



Reflecting on the significance of their work, Jimi expressed the team's amazement at the discovery and their sense of responsibility to document and classify these unique creatures. "Our previous research on the luminescence of the genus Polycirrus had established it as a valuable subject for bioluminescence studies. However, we later discovered what we thought was a single species of Polycirrus was actually three different species."



To honor their Japanese origins, the researchers named the new species with cultural significance. Polycirrus onibi and Polycirrus aoandon were named after yokai, creatures from Japanese folklore, due to their bluish-violet luminescence.&nbsp;



In the folktales, onibi (demon fire) is a will-o'-the-wisp type of yokai that leads travelers astray, while aoandon (blue lantern) is a ghostly figure that haunts lanterns in homes by turning their light an eerie blue color. The third species was named Polycirrus ikeguchii in recognition of Shinichiro Ikeguchi, the former director of the Notojima Aquarium.



"We used the names of Japanese yokai, such as onibi and aoandon, for the new species because the hazy violet-blue bioluminescence emitted by the Polycirrus species is strikingly similar to the descriptions of these creatures found in folklore," said Jimi. "Polycirrus ikeguchii, on the other hand, was described from specimens collected in the Notojima region in Japan. As Shinichi Ikeguchi was the former director of Notojima Aquarium and helped to find the worm, it seemed appropriate to name it after him."



The research team plans to build upon their findings to further investigate the molecular nature of bioluminescence, which has the potential to lead to the development of innovative technologies in the life sciences.



Jimi emphasized the importance of understanding luminescence mechanisms in contributing to medical and life science research. "Bioluminescence is a treasure trove of interesting and unusual chemistry. We intend to use our findings to deepen our understanding of the molecular nature of this phenomenon and apply this knowledge to the development of new life sciences technologies."



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Three new species of glowing sea worms found in Japan

A team of researchers from Nagoya University in central Japan...

Lizards, despite their small size and relatively simple ear structure, have surprisingly good hearing. While their range of hearing frequencies may not be as wide as that of humans, recent research indicates that these creatures can be impacted by noise pollution.&nbsp;



Scientists have studied the effects of low-flying military aircraft noise on an uncommon lizard species, the Colorado checkered whiptail (Aspidoscelis neotesselatus), in a unique collaboration with the US Army.



The Colorado checkered whiptail is considered a "species at risk" by the US Army and a "species of special concern" by Colorado Parks and Wildlife. Native to southeastern Colorado, these lizards inhabit shrubland and mixed grassland along dry creek beds. They are exclusively triploid females that reproduce asexually and are around 30 cm long, including their thin, long tails.



In a study conducted at Fort Carson US military Installation near Colorado Springs, researchers observed several A. neotesselatus populations on the 550 square km of land. With military helicopters and jets frequently flying over their habitat, the researchers set out to examine the effects of such noise disturbance on the lizards' behavior and well-being.



Led by Megen Kepas, a doctoral student at Utah State University, the team conducted an experimental study in 2021. They coordinated with US army pilots to schedule aircraft flyovers of the designated study area, where noise levels reached up to 112.2 dB – comparable to an orchestra or a power saw.



During the study, the researchers observed and caught unmarked lizards, weighing, measuring, and collecting blood samples for hormone measurements. They also used portable ultrasounds to determine pregnancy status and the number and size of developing eggs. The lizards were then marked according to approved Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) protocols.



Back in the lab, the researchers analyzed the preserved blood samples for concentrations of the stress hormone cortisol, as well as glucose, ketones, and reactive oxygen metabolites (ROMs). While they found that cortisol levels increased sharply immediately after flyovers, glucose, ROMs, and ketone concentrations remained unaffected.



"We found that whiptails at the Fort Carson show a stress response to aircraft flyovers, after we accounted for individual differences in body size and reproductive investment, in particular the number of developing eggs," said Layne Sermersheim, a master's student at Utah State University and the study's co-first author.



The results revealed that the lizards reacted to flyover noise by increasing their blood cortisol and ketone levels, indicating a stress response that rapidly mobilizes more energy resources. Interestingly, females with more developing eggs tended to have a higher increase in cortisol, suggesting that reproductive females may be more susceptible to noise disturbance.



Moreover, the researchers found that the lizards' behavior was also affected by the noise pollution: they spent less time moving about but more time eating when exposed to noise from flyovers.&nbsp;



"Compensatory eating would allow individuals to maintain their energy levels during a stressful event. This is important because metabolism, physical activity, investment into reproduction, and hormonal responses require energy," explained Sermersheim.



Overall, the study highlights the physiological and behavioral impacts of noise pollution on the Colorado checkered whiptail lizards. It also underscores their resilience, as the lizards seem to be able to compensate for these disturbances by adjusting their feeding and movement behaviors.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/famrs.2023.1129253">Frontiers in Amphibian and Reptile Science</a>.



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Lizards are stress eating during military flyovers 

Lizards, despite their small size and relatively simple ear structure,...

Woolly,Mammoth,,Prehistoric,Mammal,In,Foggy,Landscape,(3d,Illustration)

A groundbreaking project led by Australian company <a href="https://www.vowfood.com/">Vow</a> has successfully created a meatball using the recreated flesh of the long-extinct woolly mammoth, demonstrating the potential of growing flesh from cells without the need for animal slaughter. This project emphasizes the connection between large-scale livestock production and the destruction of wildlife and the ongoing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-will-climate-impact-the-beetles-that-protect-our-crops/">climate</a> crisis.



Vow aims to use cells from unconventional species to develop new types of meat. The company has already explored the potential of over 50 species, including alpaca, buffalo, crocodile, kangaroo, peacocks, and various fish. Bas Korsten of creative agency Wunderman Thompson initially conceived the idea for the mammoth meatball.



"We chose the woolly mammoth because it's a symbol of diversity loss and a symbol of climate change," Vox co-founder Tim Noakesmith told The Guardian. Woolly mammoths are believed to have gone extinct due to hunting by humans and the warming of the world after the last ice age.



To recreate the mammoth muscle protein, Vow collaborated with Professor Ernst Wolvetang and his team at the Australian Institute for Bioengineering at the University of Queensland. They took the DNA sequence for mammoth myoglobin, a key muscle protein that gives meat its flavor, and filled in the gaps using DNA from an elephant. This sequence was then placed in myoblast stem cells from a sheep, which replicated to grow the 20 billion cells used by Vow to create the mammoth meat.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/woolly-mammoth-meatball_Vow-corporation-1024x576.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1916101"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Image Credit: <a href="http://www.vowfoods.com/">Vow Foods</a></figcaption></figure>



"It was ridiculously easy and fast," said Professor Wolvetang. "We did this in a couple of weeks." The initial plan was to produce dodo meat, but the required DNA sequences did not exist.



Although Vow has managed to create the mammoth meatball, no one has had the chance to taste it yet. Professor Wolvetang explained, "We haven't seen this protein for thousands of years, so we have no idea how our immune system would react when we eat it. But if we did it again, we could certainly do it in a way that would make it more palatable to regulatory bodies."



Large-scale meat production has significant environmental impacts, and many studies suggest that the climate crisis can only be addressed by reducing meat consumption in wealthier nations.&nbsp;



George Peppou, CEO of Vow, said that his company's goal is to transition a few billion meat eaters away from eating (conventional) animal protein to eating things that can be produced in electrified systems. "And we believe the best way to do that is to invent meat. We look for cells that are easy to grow, really tasty and nutritious, and then mix and match those cells to create really tasty meat."



Vow's first cultivated meat product for consumers will be Japanese quail, which is set to be available in Singaporean restaurants this year. While plant-based meat alternatives are common, cultured meat like that produced by Vow replicates the taste of conventional meat. At present, a chicken product made by Good Meat is the only cultivated meat available to diners and can only be purchased in Singapore. However, two companies have recently passed an approval process in the United States.



Woolly mammoths (Mammuthus primigenius) were large, prehistoric elephant-like mammals that lived during the Pleistocene epoch, approximately 4.8 million to 4,000 years ago. They inhabited the cold, northern regions of North America, Europe, and Asia. Woolly mammoths were well-adapted to their icy environment, with thick layers of fat, long, shaggy hair, and a hump of fat on their backs to help them survive the frigid temperatures.



These herbivorous animals had long, curved tusks that could reach up to 16 feet in length, which they used for foraging, fighting, and digging through snow to reach vegetation. They are believed to have primarily fed on grasses, shrubs, and other plant material.



Woolly mammoths are thought to have gone extinct primarily due to hunting by humans and the warming of the world after the last ice age, which led to habitat loss and changes in vegetation. The extinction of the woolly mammoth is often cited as an example of the impact of human activity and climate change on biodiversity.



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Company creates meatballs from extinct woolly mammoth

A groundbreaking project led by Australian company Vow has successfully...

Dogs have long been considered our best friends, assisting humans in various tasks such as hunting, guarding, and herding. However, research on dog cognition and the nature of dog-human relationships has primarily focused on Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic (WEIRD) societies. This leaves a gap in our understanding of the complex bonds between dogs and their owners in diverse cultural environments.&nbsp;



To address this, a team of researchers from the Max Planck Institute (MPI) of Geoanthropology and the <a href="https://www.eva.mpg.de/index/">MPI for Evolutionary Anthropology</a> studied data on the functions and treatment of dogs in 124 globally distributed societies.



The researchers examined ethnographic data from the eHRAF cross-cultural database to identify societies where dogs serve any of five main functions: hunting, defense, guarding herds, herding, and carrying or transporting supplies. They then gathered data on how dogs were treated in these societies and coded it into three dimensions: positive care, negative treatment, and personhood.



Their findings revealed that the number of functions a dog performs in a society is positively associated with positive care and personhood, and negatively associated with negative treatment. However, not all functions influenced treatment equally.



For example, herding was particularly likely to increase positive care, while hunting had no impact on positive care or negative treatment but did increase the odds of personhood. This suggests that in societies where dogs are kept for hunting, humans are more likely to name their dogs and perceive them as family members.



Interestingly, the study also found that negative treatment and positive care are not mutually exclusive. Out of the 77 societies with data for all three dimensions of dog treatment, 32 showed the presence of both positive care and negative treatment. This indicates that the dog-human relationship is not as simple as "man's best friend," but involves a complex balance between offering care and minimizing costs.



“Our study adds a systematic test for explaining the cultural drivers that shape the variety of dog-human bonds around the world,” said Juliane Bräuer of the Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology. “This represents a first step into understanding whether the cognitive and social skills associated with dogs are universal or are influenced by the cultural environment the dogs live in.”



Dogs became human companions through a process known as domestication, which started around 20,000 to 40,000 years ago. The domestication of dogs is thought to have begun when wolves, the ancestors of modern dogs, began to scavenge near human campsites. Over time, a mutually beneficial relationship developed between early humans and these wolves.



The exact process of dog domestication remains debated among scientists, but there are two main hypotheses:



<ol>
<li>Self-domestication hypothesis: This theory suggests that wolves that were more comfortable around humans and showed less fear and aggression had a higher chance of accessing the food scraps left behind by early human populations. As a result, these wolves had a higher survival rate and eventually began to reproduce more successfully than their more aggressive counterparts. Over generations, these tamer wolves evolved into a separate population that increasingly relied on humans for food and protection, eventually leading to the emergence of the first domesticated dogs.</li>



<li>Active domestication hypothesis: In this scenario, early humans took a more active role in the domestication process. They may have captured wolf pups and raised them as pets or working animals, selecting for specific traits such as tameness, loyalty, or hunting ability. As humans selectively bred these wolves, they began to diverge from their wild counterparts, eventually giving rise to the diverse dog breeds we know today.</li>
</ol>



Throughout history, dogs have played various roles in human societies, from hunting and herding to companionship and protection. This close relationship has led to the coevolution of dogs and humans, with both species adapting to the needs of each other. Dogs have developed unique cognitive and social skills that help them understand and communicate with humans, while humans have also evolved to better understand and interpret dog behavior.



The researchers hope that future studies will shed more light on the history of dog-human cooperation. For instance, while roughly half of the world's societies keep dogs for only one purpose, the other half utilize them in multiple ways. Why did some societies begin employing dogs for multiple purposes? Did such use provide significant benefits? And if so, what were they? Answering these questions will offer new insights into how dogs and humans have influenced each other throughout our shared history.



The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-31938-5">Scientific Reports</a>.



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How dogs function in society impacts how they are treated

Dogs have long been considered our best friends, assisting humans...

Climate change has predominantly been studied in the context of larger, long-lived species with low reproductive rates. However, researchers from the <a href="https://www.dpz.eu/en/home.html">German Primate Center</a> – Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, in collaboration with colleagues from the University of Zurich, have turned their attention to the often overlooked smaller species with high reproductive rates, focusing on the mouse lemurs of Madagascar. These tiny creatures, known for their ability to adapt to changing environmental conditions, could provide critical insights into the impact of climate change on biodiversity in the tropics.



Mouse lemurs thrive in the forests of Madagascar, where they depend on the five-month rainy season to produce offspring and build up a fat reserve to endure the cool dry season when food becomes scarce. But with the rainy season growing drier and the dry season warmer due to climate change, can mouse lemurs continue to adapt and survive? The researchers' long-term data analysis suggests that climate change is causing significant destabilization in mouse lemur populations, putting them at an increased risk of extinction.



Claudia Fichtel and Peter Kappeler from the German Primate Center have been studying lemurs in Madagascar for many years, compiling an invaluable data set that spans 26 years, from 1994 to 2020. Their work has centered on the demographic structure of a mouse lemur population at the DPZ research station in Madagascar. During the same period, climate data revealed a trend of increasingly drier rainy seasons and warmer dry seasons in the region.



In collaboration with their University of Zurich colleagues, Fichtel and Kappeler analyzed the data and discovered an alarming correlation between climate change and the stability of the mouse lemur population. They observed a rise in mortality rates alongside increasing reproductive rates in the lemurs.&nbsp;



"These opposing trends have prevented a collapse of the mouse lemur population, but have nevertheless led to a destabilization of the population, as the already fast life cycle of the animals has been further accelerated," explained Fichtel.



Mouse lemurs have been living on Madagascar for millions of years. The exact time of their arrival on the island is challenging to pinpoint, but fossil and genetic evidence suggests that lemurs have inhabited Madagascar for at least 50 million years. The ancestors of modern lemurs likely reached Madagascar by rafting on vegetation mats from mainland Africa, after which they diversified into the many different lemur species we see today, including mouse lemurs.



This fluctuation in population size, driven by climate change, poses a significant threat to the survival of mouse lemurs and could ultimately result in the extinction of the species. Peter Kappeler notes that "even an animal species that is supposedly able to adapt easily to changing environmental conditions thanks to a high reproductive rate is threatened in its survival by climate changes." This is particularly concerning, as lemurs are endemic to Madagascar and are considered the world's most endangered mammals.



Claudia Fichtel emphasizes the importance of incorporating demographic stability data when assessing the extinction risk of a species, although she acknowledges that such long-term observations are not yet available for many animal species. The researchers' findings serve as a stark warning of the potential biodiversity losses in the tropics due to climate change, even among species previously believed to be adaptable to environmental shifts.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2214244120">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Mouse lemurs of Madagascar are threatened with extinction

Climate change has predominantly been studied in the context of...

Each year, millions of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migratory-birds-adapt-their-gut-microbes-along-the-journey/">birds</a> crash into windows in cities along their migratory path, many of them losing their lives. Although window collisions are considered a major problem for a variety of species of birds, the bodies of these birds can often be a treasure trove of scientific information.&nbsp;



In a recent study published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/1365294x">Molecular Ecology</a>, a team of researchers has analyzed fecal samples from 747 birds that crashed into Chicago buildings over a period of three years to investigate the composition of their gut microbiomes. The analysis revealed that the population of microorganisms in these birds’ guts are significantly different from that typically found in mammals.



“In humans, the gut microbiome - the collection of bacteria, fungi, and other microbes living in our digestive tracts - is incredibly important to our general health and can even influence our behavior. But scientists are still trying to figure out how significant a role the microbiome has with birds,” said Heather Skeen, a research associate at the <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/">Field Museum</a> in Chicago.



In mammals, different species usually have their own signature arrays of gut microbes which help them digest food and ward off disease. According to DNA studies, these relationships often go back millions of years, with different species co-evolving with their microbiomes in a symbiotic relationship benefiting both the animal and their microbes.&nbsp;



However, the situation seems to be highly different in birds. “Bird gut microbiomes don’t seem to be as closely tied to host species, so we want to know what does influence them. The goal of this study was to see if bird microbiomes are consistent, or if they change over short time periods,” Skeen explained.



The analysis of fecal samples from 747 birds that crashed into Chicago buildings, belonging to four common species of songbirds called thrushes – supplemented with additional samples collected from thrushes in their summer breeding ground in Michigan, Minnesota, and Manitoba – revealed that, unlike in mammals, the different bird species did not seem to have their own unique set of microbes. By contrast, their gut microbiome appeared to change from season to season and year to year. These findings suggest that birds’ microbiomes are more connected to the environment around them than in the case of mammals.



However, further research is needed to clarify how birds manage to properly digest food and have functional immune systems that can efficiently fight off parasites, if their microbiomes change so much in just a few months.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Birds have surprising gut microbiome composition

Each year, millions of birds crash into windows in cities...

Turtles and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-crocodiles-weighed-1000-pounds-and-walked-on-two-legs/">crocodiles</a> are two of the most endangered animal groups on Earth, with about half of these species currently threatened. To inform conservation efforts, it is crucial to gain a better understanding of which species are currently facing the highest risk of extinction and why.



Now, a team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/">University of Oxford</a> has found that the most endangered turtle and crocodile species are those that evolved unique life strategies, or ways of dividing their resources and energy for survival, reproduction, and growth. Such species usually play highly specific roles in their ecosystems – including seed dispersal, creating habitats for other species by making burrows, or acting as predators that help maintain balance in their ecosystem - which are unlikely to be replaced by other species if they disappeared.



The experts used state-of-the-art models to simulate extinctions caused by human-led threats to assess how species with different life strategies might be impacted. “A key finding is that the threats do not affect all species equally; they tend to impact particular life history strategies. For example, unsustainable consumption of turtles and crocodiles mainly affects the longest-lived species with the largest clutch sizes, such as sea turtles,” explained senior author Rob Salguero-Gómez, a biologist at Oxford.



The analysis revealed that, if all critically endangered species of turtles, tortoises, and crocodiles went extinct, 13 percent of unique life strategies would be lost. Currently, major threats to all of these species include habitat loss, climate change, and global trade, while species with unique life strategies are also particularly affected by unsustainable local consumption, diseases, and pollution.&nbsp;



For instance, turtles and crocodiles with “slow” life histories – characterized by late maturity and low numbers of offspring – are particularly vulnerable to threats from invasive species and diseases, while species with high reproduction output (higher clutch sizes), such as freshwater turtles and saltwater crocodiles, face significant threats from pollution and unsustainable local consumption.



“The main threat to the viability of these groups of reptiles is habitat loss and fragmentation, which is especially common in species inhabiting the Northern hemisphere. The disappearance of wetlands, increasing urbanization, and the development of intensive agriculture, which already have tangible effects, will likely continue to negatively affect these species and their ability to persist in the mid- to long-term,” said lead author Roberto Rodriguez, a biologist at the <a href="https://www.ua.es/en/">University of Alicante</a> who conducted this research during a fellowship at Oxford.



These findings highlight the urgent need for effective management strategies to protect species overall, while paying particular attention to those with unique life history strategies, whose functions would be most difficult to replace in their ecosystems. Citizens willing to help protect these animals should refrain from purchasing products made from them, support organizations involved in conservation projects, perform responsible ecotourism, and engage in citizen science activities.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-37089-5">Nature Communications</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Turtles with unique features are most likely to go extinct

Turtles and crocodiles are two of the most endangered animal...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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