Dragonflies outlasted the dinosaurs and even endured asteroid strikes. But now they face a survival threat unlike any before. Rising heat and wildfires are reshaping the very traits they depend on to attract mates.



A study from the <a href="https://www.ucdenver.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colorado Denver</a> shows how this shift could push some species toward local extinction. Traits that once drew partners are now putting dragonflies at risk.



“Dragonflies have survived asteroids, but now climate change and wildfires are threatening them in ways evolution can’t keep up with,” said lead author Sarah Nalley, a PhD student in CU Denver’s Integrative Biology program. 



“Our findings suggest that adaptation alone may not be fast enough to protect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragonfly-larvae-expose-climates-hidden-influence-on-biology/">species</a> in a rapidly changing climate.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-ornaments-backfire">When ornaments backfire</h2>



Many dragonflies have dark spots on their wings. These patterns attract <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragonflies-hunt-perfectly-even-in-extreme-temperatures/">mates</a>. They also absorb heat. In hotter regions and burned habitats, that heat builds too quickly. Males tire, rest, and lose chances to compete for females.



Thermal imaging confirmed the problem. Dark spots made wings hotter, faster. Unlike the peppered moth, where wing color affected survival through camouflage, dragonflies face a different pressure. Here, color weakens reproductive success. Survival is not enough if mating fails.



This twist highlights a blind spot in conservation. Scientists usually check if species survive hotter, drier habitats. But if mating collapses, the population vanishes regardless of survival, leaving ecosystems weaker and biodiversity loss far greater.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dragonfly-survival-amid-wildfires">Dragonfly survival amid wildfires</h2>



“This changes how we think about vulnerability,” said Professor Michael Moore. “It’s not just about whether animals can survive after wildfire - it’s about whether they can reproduce in those modified environments. That’s the key to long-term survival.”



If reproduction falters, decline accelerates. And dragonflies matter. They eat mosquitoes, keeping insect numbers in check. They also feed birds, fish, and amphibians. Lose them, and entire food webs shift, unraveling in unpredictable ways.



Dragonflies have always seemed resilient. But this study suggests they may not keep pace with today’s rapid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragonflies-developed-dark-wing-spots-for-survival/">changes</a>, showing how climate and fire pressures can overwhelm even long-lasting species once thought secure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildfire-data-reveal-worrying-trends">Wildfire data reveal worrying trends</h2>



The project began as a class assignment in Professor Moore’s course. Students worked with open datasets: wildfire maps from the U.S. Geological Survey, climate records, and citizen science observations spanning 40 years. No external funding backed the research.



Despite the simple beginnings, the analysis uncovered a serious trend. Dragonflies with ornamental wings are disappearing from fire-damaged and hotter regions. The data gave a broad view of how climate and wildfires interact with reproductive traits.



Nalley brought personal motivation. She lost her home in Superior, Colorado, during the 2021 Marshall Fire. That experience shaped her focus.



“I knew I wanted to study animals - and after the fire, I knew I wanted to study wildfires too,” said Nalley. “That experience pushed me to ask how animals are affected not just by surviving a fire, but by whether they can still reproduce and carry on the species afterward.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-conservation">Lessons for conservation</h2>



The findings stretch beyond dragonflies. If ancient predators that once ruled the skies falter, what about other species? The research shows conservationists must look past survival rates. Reproduction matters just as much.



“Working with Sarah pushed me to think about my own research in a new way,” said Moore. “She came in with great questions about wildfires and reproduction that made me reconsider how I approach these big ecological issues.”



The study’s message is clear: ecosystems don’t just need species to live, they need them to breed. Dragonflies warn us of what happens when natural signals of attraction turn into liabilities, threatening stability, biodiversity, and long-term ecological resilience everywhere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dragonfly-decline-from-wildfires">Dragonfly decline from wildfires</h2>



Dragonflies have been here for hundreds of millions of years. Their decline would mark a profound loss. More than that, it would unsettle the balance of ecosystems that depend on them.



The CU Denver research shows how quickly environmental pressures reach into the smallest details of life - courtship displays, wing patterns, mating chances. Those details decide whether a species thrives or disappears, shaping both present ecosystems and future biodiversity.



Dragonflies are not just survivors from deep time. They are indicators of how even the most resilient animals can stumble in a warming, fire-prone world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-025-02417-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Climate Change</a>.



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Dragonflies lived with dinosaurs, now they face their toughest fight for survival

Dragonflies outlasted the dinosaurs and even endured asteroid strikes. But now they face a survival threat unlike any before. Rising heat and wildfires are reshaping the very traits they depend on to attract mates. A study from the University of Colorado Denver shows how this shift could push some species toward local extinction. Traits that once drew partners are now putting dragonflies at risk. “Dragonflies have survived asteroids, but now climate change and wildfires are threatening them in ways evolution can’t keep up with,” said lead author...

A new study suggests that the Megalodon shark was more of a slow swimmer that relied on its warm-bloodedness for nutrient digestion and absorption. The notorious <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/megalodon-was-a-truly-vicious-killer-but-not-a-cold-blooded-one/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Megalodon</a>, or the 'megatooth shark,' is best known for its gigantic size and deadly reputation.



This study was led by Professor Kenshu Shimada, a paleobiology professor at <a href="https://www.depaul.edu/Pages/default.aspx" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DePaul University</a>, along with his team of researchers. It presents an entirely different understanding of the lifestyle and biology of Otodus megalodon.



This fossil shark, living nearly worldwide from about 15 to 3.6 million years ago, reached a length of 65 feet (20 meters) at its maximum.



<h2 id="h-tiny-scales-found-tell-a-very-different-megalodon-story">Tiny scales found tell a very different Megalodon story</h2>



The research was conducted based on tiny scales, accurately referred to as '<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/megalodon_placoid-scales_credit-Depaul-University.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">placoid scales</a>.' Researchers found these scales within rock pieces that surrounded a previously described tooth set of the fossil shark from Japan. These seemingly insignificant scales have now opened up a new perspective on Megalodon.



As Professor Shimada put it, "Our big scientific findings come from 'tiny evidence' as small as grains of sand."



Earlier, understanding the biology of O. megalodon was mostly based on its massive teeth and vertebrae. It was widely believed that O. megalodon, being partially warm-blooded or regionally endothermic - like the large active modern predatory sharks such as makos and great white sharks - was a swift and active swimmer.



This new study, however, counters this assumption. It indicates that the small placoid scales of the Megalodon lack the narrowly-spaced ridges or 'keels' typically found in fast-swimming sharks.



"This led my research team to consider O. megalodon to be an 'average swimmer' with occasional bursts of faster swimming for prey capture," explained Shimada.



<h2>If Megalodon was warm-blooded, where did the heat go?</h2>



This revelation gives rise to a new paradox. A recent study, in which Shimada also played a significant role, has provided substantial support for the presence of regional endothermy in O. megalodon.



However, the question arises: how did the fossil shark expend the high level of metabolic heat generated by its warm-bloodedness if it wasn't a fast swimmer?



After examining existing literature, the research team discovered an overlooked aspect of endothermic body physiology that could answer this question. This involves facilitating digestion and absorbing and processing nutrients—an aspect that hadn't been considered in the biological context of O. megalodon.



"It suddenly made perfect sense," Shimada said, going on to elaborate, "Otodus megalodon must have swallowed large pieces of food, so it is quite possible that the fossil shark achieved gigantism to invest its endothermic metabolism to promote visceral food processing."



Therefore, the Megalodon, in reality, might have been less of a terror of the seas. More than likely, it was a slow, steady cruiser. Megalodon utilized its warm-bloodedness not for speed, but for efficiently processing its food and absorbing nutrients.



The research promises to further our understanding of these magnificent creatures of the past and the evolutionary mechanisms that drove them.

Megalodon shark was a very slow swimmer with an enormous appetite

A new study suggests that the Megalodon shark was more...

By investigating the love affairs of nearly 3,000 orchid species, scientists are unraveling new insights into the astonishingly diverse world of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weevils-the-unknown-and-underappreciated-pollination-heroes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant pollination</a>.&nbsp;



The research, published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/botlinnean/boac082">Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society</a>, is based on an extensive global database of orchid pollination. With records on more than 2,900 orchid species, the database includes a multitude of ingenious and specialized pollination strategies across various global regions.



The study sheds light on some of the outrageously deceptive tactics used by orchids to attract pollinators, and which types of pollinators are taking the bait.



The information in the database is meticulously organized by habitat, geographical distribution, and taxonomy, which allows scientists to identify the distinct patterns of reproductive biology in the Orchidaceae family.



Study co-author Dr. Ryan Phillips emphasized the significance of this comprehensive database: “From these data, we identify general patterns and knowledge gaps limiting our understanding of orchid biology at the global level."



<h2 id="h-the-intriguing-nature-of-orchids">The intriguing nature of orchids&nbsp;</h2>



The study of Orchidaceae is not new to the world of biology. Charles Darwin himself recognized the intriguing nature of these plants and used them to study evolution.&nbsp;



Darwin was particularly fascinated by the peculiarities of the flowers, positing that their intricate structure was an evolutionary adaptation aimed at enhancing the transfer of pollen between plants and thereby boosting the fitness of their offspring.



“Because of the unusual floral traits and often unconventional pollination attraction strategies, orchids have been at the forefront of understanding floral adaptations to pollinators,” explained Dr. Phillips. Darwin hypothesized that the Madagascan orchid Angraecum sesquipedale, with its extraordinary 40 cm long nectar spur, would be pollinated by a moth equipped with a proboscis of matching length.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered">What the researchers discovered&nbsp;</h2>



Led by Dr. James Ackerman of the University of Puerto Rico, the team discovered that over 75 percent of orchid species are dependent on pollinators for reproduction.&nbsp;



The experts also found that nearly half of the studied orchids don't reward their visiting pollinators. Instead, these plants deploy cunning tactics of deceit to attract their pollinators. This special dependence on a single pollinator species was found not only in orchids native to the rainforests of Costa Rica or the montane grasslands of South Africa but also in those that used deceptive tactics.



Dr. Noushka Reiter, a co-author of the study, highlighted the potential vulnerability of these orchids to human-induced threats such as climate change. "Specializing on one pollinator species leaves many orchids particularly vulnerable. With the loss of pollinators, we would also lose these pollinator-dependent orchid species."



<h2 id="h-mimicry-and-trickery">Mimicry and trickery</h2>



According to the researchers, orchid pollination strategies may hold even more surprises than a science fiction novel. Australia, for instance, is the global hub for sexual mimicry in pollination, a tactic involving deceiving a range of insects from wasps to bees to gnats.&nbsp;



In South Africa, some orchids imitate carrion, while on Reunion Island they mirror rainforest fruits, and in Brazil, they mimic the smell of aphids. These elaborate ruses aim at tricking their pollinators. Meanwhile, in the American tropics, hundreds of Orchidaceae species produce fragrances that certain bees collect for their courtship rituals.



One striking example is the sexually deceptive Caladenia barbarella, an Australian orchid named after the infamous comic book character known for her amorous exploits. This naming choice aptly reflects the plant's deceptive pollination technique.



<h2 id="h-orchid-deceit">Orchid deceit&nbsp;</h2>



Dr. Phillips emphasized that the hallmark of the orchid family is the high proportion of species that employ deceit to draw pollinators. They exploit the sensory abilities of pollinators through chemical, visual, or tactile stimuli, usually in combination.



The study identifies two major types of orchid deceit. One is food deception, where the orchid mimics a particular food to lure in a pollinator. The other is sexual deception, where male pollinators are tricked into visiting flowers that send out signals comparable to a receptive female insect.



“The floral signals can be so persuasive that insects attempt copulation and may even ejaculate,” said Dr. Phillips. "I’ve even had the wasps fly in through the car window at the traffic lights and start making love to the orchid specimens on the front seat."



These deceptive strategies are not as rare as one might think. Around 20 genera worldwide, encompassing hundreds of Orchidaceae species, are known to use these tactics.&nbsp;



A third type of deception, known as brood-site deception, has been observed less frequently in orchids. In this method, the flower mimics a desirable place for female insects to lay their eggs, such as mushrooms, dung, or carrion.



<h2 id="h-intriguing-findings">Intriguing findings&nbsp;</h2>



The research provides a host of intriguing findings. For example, the study of orchid diversity in Australasia and Africa is relatively comprehensive, with 15% and 20% coverage, respectively. However, the species in Temperate Asia, Tropical Asia, and South America remain largely unexplored.



The database also reveals that approximately 76% of orchid species are completely reliant on pollinators for reproduction, and around 55% have a single known pollinator species.&nbsp;



While 54% of orchid species provide some reward to their pollinators, deception was recorded in 46% of the species.&nbsp;



Food deception was the most common deceitful tactic, used by 60% of the deceptive species, followed by sexual deception, present in 20 orchid genera.



Wasps and bees were identified as the most common pollinators, with flies and mosquitoes not far behind. However, the researchers caution that this impressive database, covering over 2,900 species, still accounts for less than 10% of the orchid family.



<h2 id="h-more-surprises-in-store">More surprises in store</h2>



“Despite containing over 2,900 species, our database covers less than 10% of the family. While they are centers of orchid diversity, the tropical regions of Africa, Southern America, and Asia, are significantly under-represented in orchid pollination studies, especially among epiphytic orchids,” Dr. Phillips noted.



He believes the study of orchid pollination provides tremendous opportunities to unearth new and bizarre pollination strategies, and to better understand the adaptations flowering plants have developed to attract pollinators.&nbsp;



Aside from its scientific significance, this research also has crucial implications for conservation, given that many orchid species depend on one primary pollinator species for their survival.



-—-



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Masters of deception: Orchids use trickery to get what they need

By investigating the love affairs of nearly 3,000 orchid species,...

Researchers have discovered a significant correlation between the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thermal-imaging-can-help-monitor-animal-health-in-the-wild/">health</a> and welfare of working animals and the beliefs owners hold about their emotional capacity. The experts found that animals whose owners acknowledge their emotions are significantly healthier than those whose owners do not believe that animals feel emotions.&nbsp;



The study was a collaboration between the <a href="https://www.port.ac.uk/">University of Portsmouth</a> and The Donkey Sanctuary - an animal welfare charity focused on working equids such as donkeys, horses, and mules.



The scientific community has long recognized that animals, including equids, have emotional lives. This research is the first to explore the implications of these emotions on the welfare of working animals in various countries and contexts globally. The investigation spanned six countries - Egypt, Mexico, Pakistan, Senegal, Spain, and Portugal - involving communities where equids are a central part of people's livelihoods.



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



The study involved visits to these communities, where researchers administered questionnaires to the equid owners, probing into their beliefs, values, and attitudes towards their animals.&nbsp;



Furthermore, a detailed welfare assessment of the animals was carried out, providing empirical data on the health and condition of these working equids.



<h2 id="h-remarkable-results">Remarkable results&nbsp;</h2>



The results of the study, published in the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37381695/">Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science</a>, reveal a remarkable trend. Equids whose owners believed in their capacity to feel emotions or had an emotional bond with them, demonstrated significantly better health conditions. They had higher body condition scores compared to equids whose owners did not hold such beliefs or viewed the animals primarily through the lens of their utility or profitability.



The research also revealed that equids were much less likely to be lame if their owners believed in their capacity to feel pain. These patterns held across the diverse cultural and economic contexts of the six countries involved in the study.



Study lead author Dr. Emily Haddy is a postdoctoral research fellow at the University of Portsmouth's <a href="https://researchportal.port.ac.uk/en/organisations/centre-for-comparative-evolutionary-psychology">Centre for Comparative and Evolutionary Psychology</a>.&nbsp;



"We know people's feelings toward their animals can impact their welfare, but we wanted to know if this differs across cultures," said Dr. Haddy.



She noted that this was the first study of its kind to make these connections across multiple countries and contexts, emphasizing the substantial influence of the relationship between owners and their animals on animal health and welfare.



<h2 id="h-compassion-and-animal-welfare">Compassion and animal welfare</h2>



Study co-author Dr. Faith Burden is the executive director of Equine Operations at The Donkey Sanctuary.



"We have long understood that donkeys and mules are sensitive and sentient beings, who fare best when they are treated as individuals and with the kindness and respect they deserve," said Dr. Burden.&nbsp;



She pointed out that these findings could revolutionize future welfare initiatives by promoting emotional connection and awareness of animal sentience among owners of working equids globally.



On the other hand, study co-author Dr. Leanne Proops warned against making hasty assumptions about owners whose animals had poorer health and welfare indicators. "It’s possible these owners simply don’t have the resources to look after their animals as well, and because they don’t like to think of them suffering, they adjust their beliefs to think that their animals don’t feel pain."&nbsp;



Dr. Proops suggested this could be a psychological technique to minimize distress when behavior and beliefs do not align.



According to the study authors, their findings are a crucial stepping stone towards establishing causality and fostering a more profound understanding of compassion and animal welfare. With further research, this discovery could drive significant advancements in improving the welfare of working animals worldwide.



<h2 id="h-more-about-animal-emotions">More about animal emotions</h2>



The study of animal emotions, often referred to as "affective neuroscience," has advanced significantly in the past few decades. While it's impossible to know exactly what an animal is feeling because we can't ask them directly, research suggests that many animals experience a range of emotions similar to those felt by humans.



Animals show behavioral, physiological, and neurobiological markers that are akin to human emotions. For example:



<h3 id="h-fear-and-anxiety">Fear and anxiety</h3>



This is perhaps the most extensively studied emotion in animals due to its survival implications. Animals display clear signs of fear when threatened, such as increased heart rate, specific vocalizations, and avoidance behaviors.



<h2 id="h-joy-and-pleasure">Joy and pleasure</h2>



Animals have been observed to exhibit behavior suggesting joy and pleasure. Play behavior in many animals, for instance, seems to be conducted for the sheer pleasure of it. Rats have been found to emit ultrasonic vocalizations, often described as "laughter," when tickled. Dogs also show behaviors such as wagging tails, jumping, and barking, which are usually interpreted as signs of joy.



<h3 id="h-sadness-and-grief">Sadness and grief</h3>



Observations suggest that some animals may grieve the loss of companions. Elephants and primates, for example, have been seen to show behaviors indicative of mourning, such as lingering around the body of a deceased group member, displaying signs of stress or depression, and decreased appetite.



<h3 id="h-empathy-and-compassion">Empathy and compassion</h3>



Some animals also appear to show empathy, the ability to understand and share the feelings of another. Rats will work to free other rats from cages, showing distress when their peers are distressed. Primates also demonstrate behaviors that suggest empathy, such as comforting peers who are upset.



<h3 id="h-love-and-affection">Love and affection</h3>



Animals such as dogs, elephants, and primates exhibit behaviors that suggest strong emotional bonds with others, akin to love and affection. They groom each other, stay close to each other, and show signs of distress when separated.



Neurobiological research supports these observations, as areas in the brain associated with emotions in humans are also found in many other animals. This includes the amygdala, which is involved in processing emotions, and the release of hormones such as oxytocin and cortisol, associated with social bonding and stress, respectively.



However, it's important to note that the interpretation of animal behavior as indicative of specific emotions can be subjective, and more research is needed to fully understand the complexity and depth of animal emotions.&nbsp;



Furthermore, while many animals seem to experience basic emotions, the experience of more complex emotions such as guilt, shame, or pride is still a topic of debate among scientists.



—-



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Animals live healthier lives when their emotions are acknowledged

Researchers have discovered a significant correlation between the health and...

The mysterious tale of the pygmy right whale has been a topic of heated scientific debate for decades. These elusive creatures, the smallest members of the baleen whale family, possess a tank-like skeleton, an aspect that sets them apart from other whales and has shrouded their evolutionary origins in mystery.&nbsp;



However, an international team of researchers may have finally put this debate to rest by delving into the depths of the whale's genetics, morphology, and paleontology.



The pygmy right whale, scientifically known as Caperea marginata, has long been a source of contention among scientists due to its unique skeletal structure and the lack of comprehensive understanding regarding its ecological behaviors. However, a breakthrough study recently published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/mms.13047">Marine Mammal Science</a> has shed light on this ancient evolutionary puzzle.



<h2 id="h-distinct-lineage">Distinct lineage&nbsp;</h2>



Dr. Felix Marx, co-author of the study and curator of marine mammals at the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa, suggests that the skull shape of the pygmy right whale is likely adapted for skim-feeding. This feeding style involves the whale swimming with its mouth open at the water's surface, collecting food as it goes.



"This is very similar to the larger true right whale, leading some scientists to believe the two whales are closely related, hence their similar names. However, others believe the pygmy right whale is more closely related to species like the blue whale, which take big gulps of water to collect food instead of skimming," explained Dr. Marx.



"After 150 years of anatomical orthodoxy and decades of dispute, genomics now shows beyond reasonable doubt that Caperea is a distinct lineage and not related to right whales. Like river dolphins and sperm whales, Caperea is the sole guardian of a unique piece of evolutionary heritage. It’s not just another weird right whale – it truly is the last survivor of an otherwise lost family that once played a much bigger role in Earth’s history."



Dr. Kieren Mitchell, co-lead author of the study and a scientist at Manaaki Whenua – Landcare Research, emphasized how new genetic information often leads scientists to reevaluate why certain animals exhibit more or fewer similarities. "When DNA and anatomy seem to be at odds about the relationship between species, usually that means there's an even deeper and more interesting story to be discovered about their evolution," said Dr. Mitchell.



<h2 id="h-convergent-evolution">Convergent evolution</h2>



Dr. Nic Rawlence, Otago Palaeogenetics Laboratory Director, describes the case of the Caperea as a prime example of convergent evolution. This phenomenon is when two unrelated species begin to bear greater resemblance to each other as they adapt to similar environmental pressures.&nbsp;



"Caperea has historically been aligned with right whales because they look the same due to similar feeding strategies, when, in fact, it’s probable that Caperea is the last surviving member of an ancient group of whales called cetotheres," said Dr. Rawlence.



<h2 id="h-future-research">Future research</h2>



With the pygmy right whale's evolutionary position finally affirmed, scientists are eager to delve deeper into the specifics of this whale’s lineage. Dr. Ludo Dutoit, co-lead author and a scientist at Otago’s Department of Zoology, said researchers can now start to explore the lineage of Caperea and identify significant past events that shaped its evolution.



Dr. Marx noted that Caperea may serve as another example of how unique adaptations can ensure survival. "River dolphins likely survived the demise of their marine relatives because they invaded freshwater habitats; sperm whales persisted when their toothed relatives disappeared because they were deep-diving suction specialists; and Caperea survived because it adapted to be a skim filter feeder, when most of its relatives presumably didn’t.”



This groundbreaking study highlights the remarkable power of genomics in resolving long-standing evolutionary debates, unraveling the mysteries of nature's enigmatic creatures, and illuminating the extraordinary resilience of life in Earth’s diverse habitats.



<h2 id="h-more-about-pygmy-right-whales">More about pygmy right whales</h2>



The pygmy right whale (Caperea marginata) is a baleen whale, part of the cetacean species which also includes dolphins and porpoises. It is the smallest of the baleen whales, typically reaching lengths of 6-7 meters (approximately 20-23 feet).



Distinctively, it is the only member of its family, Neobalaenidae. The species was first described in 1846 and it's known to inhabit the Southern Hemisphere's temperate and subpolar waters, particularly around New Zealand, South Africa, and South America.



The pygmy right whale's physical appearance differs quite significantly from the other right whales. It has a dark gray or black color on top and a lighter underbelly, along with a curved, falcate dorsal fin located far down its back. One of its most distinguishing features is its narrow, arching rostrum (upper jaw).



Like other baleen whales, the pygmy right whale feeds by filtering small organisms such as zooplankton and krill from the water using its baleen plates.



Despite being known to science for nearly two centuries, the pygmy right whale is one of the least studied of all whale species, partly due to its elusive behavior and preference for open ocean habitats. Hence, details about its population, life cycle, behaviors, and threats are still somewhat unclear.



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The unique evolutionary journey of the pygmy right whale

The mysterious tale of the pygmy right whale has been...

Biologists have long known that many species of birds use human-made, often sharp materials to build their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-behavior-beak-shape-can-predict-nest-materials/">nests</a>. With the first report of a crow’s nest made of barbed wire dating back to 1933, and recent observations of the use of materials such as nails, screws, and even drug users’ syringes in nest building, birds seem highly proficient in adapting to urban life by taking advantage of a variety of anthropogenic objects they find in the environment.&nbsp;



Now, a team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.naturalis.nl/en">Naturalis Biodiversity Center</a> in Leiden and the <a href="https://www.hetnatuurhistorisch.nl/en/">Natural History Museum</a> in Rotterdam has discovered an even more surprising and innovative type of bird nests, made – quite ironically - from anti-nesting spikes.



<h2 id="h-crazy-bird-nests">Crazy bird nests</h2>



In cities, anti-bird spikes are found on many buildings. Although these sharp metal spikes are used to scare away birds, and stop them from building nests, the scientists have recently collected nests of a carrion crow (Corvus corone) and a Eurasian magpie (Pica pica) that were largely constructed with these materials originally designed to deter birds.&nbsp;



“It’s like a joke, really,” said lead author Auke-Florian Hiemstra, a biologist at Naturalis. “Even for me as a nest researcher, these are the craziest bird nests I’ve ever seen.”



“Just when you think you’ve seen it all after half a century of studying natural history, these inventive crows and magpies really surprise me again,” added co-author Cornelis Moeliker, the director of the Natural History Museum Rotterdam.



<h2 id="h-using-the-tools-to-their-advantage">Using the tools to their advantage&nbsp;</h2>



One of these nests was spotted in a courtyard of a hospital in Antwerp, Belgium by a patient. This enormous magpie nest consisted of nearly 1,500 metal spikes pulled from as many as 50 meters of anti-bird pins. “An impregnable fortress because the magpies appear to be using the pins exactly the same way we do: to keep other birds away from their nest,” Hiemstra explained.



Magpies usually look for thorny plants to construct roofs that prevent the robbery of eggs and offspring by other birds. However, urban life seems to be rich in other possibilities - not only for magpies in Belgium, but also for other species, such as crows, in the Netherlands or Scotland. Besides anti-bird spikes, other materials the scientists discovered include barbed wire, knitting needles, condoms, fireworks, cocaine wraps, windshield wipers, and sunglasses.



“This innovative use of bird spikes for nest construction can be seen as a modification of a pre-existing natural behavior and shows the flexibility of nest-building behavior and use of materials," wrote the researchers.



"In today’s Anthropocene epoch, there is more anthropogenic material present than natural biomass, and it may thus not come as a surprise that these spikey alternatives are being adopted by urban birds. If even bird deterring material is used as nesting material, anything may become part of a bird’s nest today."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.hetnatuurhistorisch.nl/fileadmin/user_upload/documents-nmr/Publicaties/Deinsea/Deinsea_21/Deinsea_21_17_25_2023_Hiemstra_et_al.pdf">Deinsea</a>. The huge magpie nest discovered in Antwerp can be seen from July 11 as a new highlight in the LiveScience room of Naturalis, while a crow’s nest built of anti-bird pins is now featured at the Natural History Museum Rotterdam as part of the recently opened exhibition “National Park Rotterdam.”



<h2 id="h-more-about-bird-nests">More about bird nests</h2>



Bird nests are structures that birds create for laying eggs and raising their offspring. The size, shape, and materials used for the nest vary greatly depending on the species of bird.&nbsp;&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-types-of-bird-nests">Types of bird nests</h3>



<h4 id="h-cup-nests">Cup nests</h4>



These are the typical nests most people envision when they think of bird nests. They are usually built in the forks of trees or shrubs and are shaped like a cup. They are often made of twigs, grass, and mud, and are lined with soft materials like feathers or moss. Examples of birds that build cup nests include robins and finches.



<h4 id="h-platform-nests">Platform nests</h4>



These nests are usually larger and flatter than cup nests. They're often built on tree branches or on the ground, and can also be found on human structures like telephone poles or buildings. Eagles, hawks, and ospreys typically build platform nests.



<h4 id="h-cavity-nests">Cavity nests</h4>



Some birds prefer to nest in cavities, which can be natural (like a hollow in a tree) or man-made (like a nest box). They may also excavate their own cavities in softwood trees or termite nests. Examples of cavity nesters include owls, woodpeckers, and some species of ducks.



<h4 id="h-pendant-nests">Pendant nests</h4>



Some birds, like the oriole or weaver bird, construct elaborate hanging nests that resemble a pendant. These nests are woven from plant fibers and hung from tree branches.



<h4 id="h-mound-nests">Mound nests</h4>



Certain bird species, such as the mallee fowl and brush turkey, build large mound nests on the ground. These nests are often made from leaves, soil, and compost, and they use the heat generated from the composting process to incubate their eggs.



<h4 id="h-burrow-nests">Burrow nests</h4>



Some birds, like kingfishers and puffins, dig burrows in the ground, in riverbanks, or even in snowbanks for their nests.



<h4 id="h-scrape-nests">Scrape nests</h4>



These are simple nests that involve scraping a shallow depression in the ground or on a cliff ledge. The bird may line the scrape with pebbles or vegetation. Many shorebirds, like plovers and gulls, make scrape nests.



Nests not only serve as a place for laying eggs and rearing young, but also provide some degree of protection against predators. Different bird species have evolved different strategies for their nests, reflecting the diversity of environments and survival challenges they face.



—--



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Rebellious birds use anti-bird spikes to build their nests

Biologists have long known that many species of birds use...

An,Adult,Eastern,Diamondback,Rattlesnake,(crotalus,Adamanteus),In,Mid-strike,,Revealing

Climate change is turning up the heat in Georgia, and the state's snake population is responding with an uptick in venomous snake bites. A disturbing <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2022GH000781">study</a> reveals that for every degree Celsius rise in daily temperature, the rate of snake bites swells by roughly 6%.



This alarming correlation has recently been unveiled in <a href="https://connect.agu.org/geohealth/home">GeoHealth</a>, a leading journal that highlights studies exploring the interconnection between human and planetary health, aiming for a sustainable future.



Our globe's temperatures are creeping upward. As this happens, cold-blooded creatures such as snakes, which are more active in the warmer weather, are becoming more prevalent.



Noah Scovronick, a health and environmental scientist at <a href="https://www.emory.edu/home/index.html">Emory University</a>, spearheaded the study. He states, “Venomous snake bites are classified by the World Health Organization (WHO) as a high-priority neglected tropical disease.”



<h2 id="h-venomous-snake-bites-are-a-global-concern">Venomous snake bites are a global concern</h2>



It's no small issue. Every year, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exotic-snakebites-have-increased-over-the-last-decade/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">snakes bite</a> approximately 5 million people worldwide. These bites result in up to 138,000 deaths, according to WHO data.



The relationship between weather fluctuations and human-snake encounters remains largely unknown. This is partly due to a lack of reliable data on the causes of sickness and death in areas where snake bites are most deadly.



Scovronick further commented, “We don’t know much about how weather — meaning short term changes in meteorology — drive human-snake interactions.”



<h2>Studying snake bite trends</h2>



Georgia holds the unfortunate distinction of being a hotspot for snakes in the United States. Georgia has an abundance of snake species. These include 17 types of venomous snakes, seven of which are dangerous enough to be medically concerning. This fact makes it an ideal state to investigate the phenomenon.



Scovronick, alongside his team, sifted through statewide hospital records between 2014 to 2020. They discovered 3,908 visits to hospitals during this period were due to venomous snake bites.



By comparing these instances to daily weather reports, they found notable correlations between snake bite occurrences and maximum air temperatures. The study also considered variables like the month and day of the week.



<h2>What scientists learned about venomous snakes</h2>



The researchers made an interesting observation. While summers recorded the highest snake bite numbers, spring showed the strongest link between temperatures and snake bites.



It's speculated this might be due to snakes becoming more active and reproducing in spring, while the heat of summer could potentially slow them down. Still, Scovronick admits this hypothesis requires further research.



Scovronick emphasized that this study didn't make future predictions about snake bite rates. However, he stressed the importance of conducting similar studies in other states to get a comprehensive view of the risk on a national level.



Scovronick believes even with modest data and the use of established epidemiological methods, significant insights can be gleaned about snake bite patterns.



However, it's important to note that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rattlesnakes-may-benefit-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">higher temperatures</a> in Georgia don't automatically mean an increase in hospital admissions due to snake bites.



<h2>More education is key</h2>



Co-author of the study and Emory University herpetologist, Lawrence Wilson, explains that the pivotal factor in mitigating these unfortunate encounters is education. By being aware of the favored habitats of snakes, such as areas with dense ground cover, people can take precautions.



"Snakes and people can live compatibly, even venomous snakes, as long as we respect and understand their habitats and needs,” says Wilson.



Still, the odds of human-snake encounters are on the rise. This unfortunate fact is fueled by the dual forces of climate change and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snake-bites-kill-dogs-much-faster-than-cats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban expansion</a>.



Wilson notes, “As human development in Georgia and especially the Atlanta area are expanding rapidly, human-snake encounters are going to continue to increase and already have.”



While the study's specific findings pertain to Georgia, it underscores an urgent need for similar research in other regions with different climatic conditions and snake species, asserts Scovronick.



<h2>More about venomous snakes</h2>



Venomous snakes inhabit environments worldwide. They belong to a few key families: Viperidae, Elapidae, Hydrophiidae, and Atractaspididae.



These snakes use venom to immobilize their prey. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-provides-a-new-understanding-of-snake-venom/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">venom</a> is a mix of proteins and enzymes, varying by species. Some venoms are neurotoxic, affecting the nervous system and potentially causing paralysis. Other venoms are cytotoxic or hemotoxic, causing tissue damage or disrupting blood clotting.



<h3>How snakes use their venom</h3>



Venomous snakes deliver their venom through specialized fangs. Vipers have long, foldable fangs, while elapids have shorter, fixed fangs.



The impact of a snake's bite depends on its species and size, the bite's location and depth, and the amount of venom injected.



<h3>Venomous snake bites occur all around the world</h3>



These snakes live across the globe, but they most densely populate warm, tropical regions. Many sport vivid colors and patterns as a warning to predators.



Usually, venomous snakes only bite humans when threatened. Most bites occur when humans inadvertently step on a snake or come too close, or when humans try to handle or kill the snake. Globally, snake bites kill tens of thousands annually, and many more suffer injuries.



<h3>Behavior of venomous snakes</h3>



Venomous snakes display interesting behaviors. For example, female rattlesnakes care for their newborns, and king cobras, the world's longest venomous snake, build nests for their eggs.



Scientists find medical potential in snake venom, with some components used in drugs treating high blood pressure, heart conditions, and diabetes.



The conservation status of venomous snakes varies by species and region. Some are common, while others are endangered due to habitat loss and persecution. Despite public fear and misunderstanding, venomous snakes play crucial roles in their ecosystems and need our respect and understanding.

Venomous snake bites are more likely to occur in warmer weather

Climate change is turning up the heat in Georgia, and...

A new study from <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/">Imperial College London</a> has revealed that same-sex sexual behavior (SSB) in macaque monkeys is not just prevalent, but may actually lead to evolutionary advantages.&nbsp;



Over three years, the researchers observed a wild colony of 1,700 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-structure-of-rhesus-macaques-is-shaped-by-social-interactions/">rhesus macaques</a> on the tropical island of Cayo Santiago, Puerto Rico. The experts gained fascinating insights that challenge some long-standing beliefs about non-human animal behavior.



“We found most males were behaviorally bisexual, and that variation in same-sex activity was heritable," said study first author Jackson Clive from the Georgina Mace Centre for the Living Planet at Imperial. He noted that such behavior has potential evolutionary underpinnings, suggesting that it is not solely the product of unusual environmental conditions or a rarity in the animal kingdom.



<h2 id="h-social-benefits">Social benefits&nbsp;</h2>



Clive pointed to the possibility of social benefits linked to same-sex activity. "We also found that males that mounted each other were also more likely to back each other up in conflicts," he said. "Our research therefore shows that same-sex sexual behaviors can be common amongst animals and can evolve. I hope our results encourage further discoveries in this area.''



The researchers meticulously recorded all social "mountings" among 236 males, both same-sex and different-sex interactions. The results revealed that same-sex mountings were more common than different-sex mountings, with 72% of males engaging in the former and only 46% in the latter.



<h2 id="h-ongoing-debate">Ongoing debate</h2>



Despite the frequency of same-sex sexual behavior being noted in various animal species, ranging from insects to penguins, there is still debate and speculation over its purpose.&nbsp;



Theories include its role in establishing dominance, the effect of a shortage of different-sex partners, or its use as a method to defuse tension post-aggression. However, empirical data has often been insufficient to lend credence to these hypotheses.



In this regard, the macaque study made significant strides. The researchers discovered a strong correlation between same-sex sexual behavior and "coalitionary bonds" within the macaque colony, suggesting that male pairs often engaging in SSB were more likely to support each other during conflicts. This, in turn, implies that SSB can enhance an individual's social standing and survival prospects within the group.



<h2 id="h-reproductive-success">Reproductive success&nbsp;</h2>



The study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41559-023-02111-y">Nature Ecology and Evolution</a>, unearthed new evidence regarding the heritability of same-sex sexual behavior.&nbsp;



The team found no correlation between SSB and a decrease in offspring. Rather, it appeared that males engaging in same-sex sexual behavior may have higher reproductive success, possibly due to the advantages of stronger coalitionary bonds.&nbsp;



Genetic data from the study showed SSB to be 6.4% heritable, a rate comparable to other heritable behaviors like grooming and sociality.



The results challenge the idea that same-sex sexual behavior is counter to nature and evolution, also known as the "Darwinian Paradox."&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-genetic-basis">Genetic basis&nbsp;</h2>



Furthermore, the researchers discovered a genetic correlation between the tendency of certain males to be "mounters" or "mountees" during same-sex sexual behavior. This suggested that these behaviors might have a common genetic basis and were not related to an individual's social position or a method of asserting dominance within the group.



While the researchers caution against drawing direct comparisons between macaque behavior and human sexual orientation, they believe their study provides substantial evidence to challenge the belief that SSB is unusual or rare in non-human animals.



<h2 id="h-natural-behavior">Natural behavior&nbsp;</h2>



Professor Vincent Savolainen, the lead researcher and Director of the Georgina Mace Centre for the Living Planet at Imperial, pointed to the implications of these findings. "Unfortunately there is still a belief amongst some people that same-sex behavior is 'unnatural,' and some countries sadly still enforce the death penalty for homosexuality. Our research shows that same-sex behavior is in fact widespread amongst non-human animals."



Savolainen emphasized the team’s mission to deepen our understanding of same-sex sexual behavior, including its potential benefits in the animal kingdom. "Amongst the macaques we looked at in this study, more than two-thirds displayed same-sex behaviour and this behavior strengthened the bonds within the community."



While more research is needed, this study highlights a poorly understood aspect of animal behavior. By highlighting the prevalence and potential benefits of same-sex sexual behavior in non-human primates, it challenges widely held beliefs and opens the door for further investigation.



—-



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Same-sex sexual behavior is very prevalent and linked to evolutionary advantages in monkeys

A new study from Imperial College London has revealed that...

In a groundbreaking discovery, scientists have identified a new extinct species of small penguins that lived in New Zealand three million years ago. These creatures, described as "ridiculously cute," are ancestors of little penguins that continue to thrive today along the coasts of Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand.



After careful examination of two fossilized skulls - one belonging to an adult, the other to a juvenile - the researchers named the new species Wilson's little penguin. The study was published last month in the <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-paleontology/article/pliocene-fossils-support-a-new-zealand-origin-for-the-smallest-extant-penguins/A722D072F8EE3B5FC194A33EF7DBC47F">Journal of Paleontology</a>.



According to Bob Yirka of Phys.org, the newly discovered species represents the oldest-known extinct little penguin. Given that the researchers have only the skulls of the extinct animals at their disposal - not their entire skeletons - certain details about the Wilson's little penguins remain uncertain.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-evolution-of-little-penguins">Evolution of little penguins&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers speculate that the size of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diving-birds-face-a-greater-risk-of-extinction/">birds</a> may have paralleled that of contemporary little penguins, standing approximately 13.5 inches tall and weighing around two pounds. 



Notably, the experts found that the extinct penguins had somewhat narrower skulls compared to their modern counterparts.



The discovery of this ancient species broadens our understanding of the lineage and evolution of little penguins. The data suggest that we can trace back the origins of this avian group to New Zealand, or Aotearoa.



The relatively static nature of this penguin lineage, which has remained virtually unchanged despite significant environmental shifts over millions of years, is particularly intriguing. 



Paleontologist Daniel Ksepka, a co-author of the study, discussed this surprising constancy in a recent <a href="https://fossilpenguins.wordpress.com/2023/06/26/a-tiny-fellow-joins-the-march-of-the-fossil-penguins/">blog post</a>.



Study co-author Daniel Thomas, a zoologist at New Zealand’s Massey University, emphasized the importance of this research in understanding the biodiversity and evolution of Aotearoa. 



"This is important when thinking about the origins of these penguins, the evolution of the seabird diversity of Aotearoa, and the dynamic environment in which they live,” he stated. 



Thomas drew attention to the changing climate throughout the penguins' long history, emphasizing that "this lineage has been robust to those changes."



<h2 id="h-climate-concerns">Climate concerns</h2>



The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) categorizes today's little penguins as a species of "least concern," estimating that around 470,000 of these birds are still in existence.&nbsp;



However, there are indications that climate change may be beginning to impact these hardy creatures. Instances of mass mortality events, such as the discovery of hundreds of starved or hypothermic little penguins on northern New Zealand coasts last summer, hint at a shifting balance.



Scientists link these fatalities to rising ocean surface temperatures, which drive fish - the penguins' primary food source - into deeper, cooler waters. Little penguins, despite being competent swimmers, are limited by their diving depth of 100 feet. This unfortunate limitation leaves them at risk of starvation.



Concerned about the impact of escalating global warming, researchers are studying past climate change patterns to predict the potential consequences for Zealandia's flora and fauna. The skulls of Wilson's little penguins are set to play a vital role in this investigation.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-biodiversity-forecast">Biodiversity forecast&nbsp;</h2>



A team led by Alan Tennyson, the vertebrate curator at the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa and a study co-author, will examine these fossils to gather data on the species that existed in warmer climates in the region's distant past.



This analysis forms the foundation for what Thomas describes to NZ Herald's Jamie Morton as a "biodiversity forecast." The researchers plan to use this ancient data to project potential future changes to the ecosystem as temperatures continue to rise.



"With millions of years of environmental change now being compressed into just a few human lifetimes, rising temperatures are enabling tropical animals to expand their ranges, leading to potentially irrevocable changes in wildlife communities in Aotearoa and other higher latitude locations,” Thomas told the NZ Herald.



The same research team recently made another significant discovery: they unearthed evidence of the largest-known penguin species on Earth. These colossal birds, weighing in at 340 pounds, roamed New Zealand approximately 50 million years ago.



<h2 id="h-more-about-little-penguins">More about little penguins</h2>



Little penguins, also known as blue penguins or fairy penguins, are native to the coastlines of southern Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand. In New Zealand, they are also known by the Maori name kororā. They are particularly well-known residents of Phillip Island in Victoria, Australia, where a popular tourist attraction, the Penguin Parade, allows visitors to observe their nightly return to shore from the sea.



Little penguins are monogamous and usually mate for life. They build their nests in burrows, under shrubs, or in crevices on the coastal mainland and islands. In these nests, they typically raise one to two chicks at a time, feeding them a diet of small fish, cephalopods, and crustaceans.



As nocturnal creatures, little penguins spend their days at sea hunting for food, and they come ashore after sunset. Despite their small size, they are surprisingly good swimmers and can dive up to about 100 feet deep when foraging for food.



While the discovery of the Wilson's little penguin has provided scientists with an invaluable glimpse into the evolutionary history of these charming birds, it also underscores the need for ongoing research and conservation efforts to ensure their survival in a rapidly changing world.



—-



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Little penguins that once lived in New Zealand were ridiculously cute

In a groundbreaking discovery, scientists have identified a new extinct...

By balancing effort with the possibility of risks and rewards, honey <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bee-brains-size/">bees</a> make extremely rapid and accurate assessments of which flowers are most likely to provide them high-quality food – an amazing capacity that emerged after millions of years of evolution, according to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.sheffield.ac.uk/">University of Sheffield</a>.&nbsp;



The researchers created a model of decision-making in bees and outlined the neural pathways that enable this capacity. As a result, the experts hope to enhance our understanding of both insect brains and how our own brains have evolved, while opening new pathways toward designing better robots.



“Decision-making is at the core of cognition,” said study senior author Andrew Barron, a professor of Biological Sciences at the <a href="https://www.mq.edu.au/">Macquarie University</a> in Australia. “It’s the result of an evaluation of possible outcomes, and animal lives are full of decisions. A honey bee has a brain smaller than a sesame seed. And yet she can make decisions faster and more accurately than we can. A robot programmed to do a bee’s job would need the back up of a supercomputer.”



“Today’s autonomous robots largely work with the support of remote computing. Drones are relatively brainless, they have to be in wireless communication with a data center. This technology path will never allow a drone to truly explore Mars solo – NASA’s amazing rovers on Mars have travelled about 75 kilometers in years of exploration.”



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted</h2>



In their daily lives, bees are forced to work quickly and efficiently, finding nectar and returning it to their hives, while avoiding a variety of predators. To accomplish this, they need to make fast decisions regarding which flowers have nectar and what are the possible risks of predation while landing on these flowers.



“We trained 20 bees to recognize five different-colored ‘flower disks.’ Blue flowers always had sugar syrup. Green flowers always had quinine [tonic water] with a bitter taste for bees. Other colors sometimes had glucose,” explained lead author HaDi MaBouDi, a research fellow in Complex Systems at Sheffield.&nbsp;



“Then we introduced each bee to a ‘garden’ where the ‘flowers’ just had distilled water. We filmed each bee then watched more than 40 hours of video, tracking the path of the bees and timing how long it took them to make a decision.”&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



The investigation revealed that, if the bees were confident that a flower would have food, they would quickly decide to land on it, taking an average of 0.6 seconds. Similarly, if they were confident that a flower would not have food, they would just as quickly decide not to land on it. However, if they were unsure, they would take much more time – approximately 1.4 seconds – to reach a decision.&nbsp;



Afterwards, the scientists built a computer model aiming to replicate the bees’ decision-making processes, and discovered that the structure of this model turned out to be very similar to the physical layout of a bee’s brain.



“Our study has demonstrated complex autonomous decision-making with minimal neural circuitry. Now that we know how bees make such smart decisions, we are studying how they are so fast at gathering and sampling information. We think bees are using their flight movements to enhance their visual system to make them better at detecting the best flowers,” Marshall explained.



Since millions of years of evolution have led to highly efficient brains with very low power requirements, AI researchers have much to learn in devising robots from insects and other “simple” animals. Thus, the future of AI is likely to be inspired by biology, according to Marshall, who is also the co-founder of <a href="https://opteran.com/">Opteran</a>, a company devising algorithms inspired by insect brains to make autonomous machines as robust and efficient as nature.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.86176">eLife</a>.



<h2 id="h-more-about-bee-brains">More about bee brains</h2>



Despite having relatively small brains, bees have remarkable cognitive abilities. A bee's brain is capable of complex tasks like navigation, memory, and learning. Here are some notable aspects about the bee brain:



<h3 id="h-structure">Structure</h3>



A bee's brain is divided into different sections, each of which has a specific role. The mushroom bodies are responsible for sensory integration and learning, the antennal lobes are involved in olfaction (the sense of smell), and the optic lobes are responsible for visual processing.



<h3 id="h-memory-and-learning">Memory and learning</h3>



Bees are capable of associative learning, meaning they can associate certain smells or visual cues with rewards such as nectar. This ability is useful for remembering the locations of flowers. Bees have both short-term (a few seconds to minutes) and long-term memory (days to weeks), allowing them to remember the locations of food sources.



<h3 id="h-navigation">Navigation</h3>



Bees use a combination of path integration, landmark recognition, and even the sun's position in the sky to navigate. They can remember the direction and distance of their hive from a food source and communicate this information to other bees using a "waggle dance".



<h3 id="h-communication">Communication</h3>



Bees are also capable of sophisticated forms of communication. The most famous example is the waggle dance, which they use to tell other bees the direction and distance to a food source. The angle of the dance relative to the vertical indicates the direction relative to the sun, and the duration of the waggle phase indicates the distance.



<h3 id="h-number-sense">Number sense</h3>



Recent studies suggest that bees even have a basic understanding of numerical concepts. They can be trained to recognize colors representing specific quantities, and to choose between different numbers of shapes or symbols.



<h3 id="h-problem-solving">Problem solving</h3>



Bees have shown the ability to solve complex problems. For example, some studies have shown that bees can learn to pull a string or push a ball to receive a reward, demonstrating an understanding of cause and effect.



It's important to note that while bees show these remarkable abilities, their brains are fundamentally different from human brains. They have evolved to be incredibly efficient at performing specific tasks necessary for their survival and reproduction, but they don't have the same general intelligence that humans do. The study of bee brains and behavior can provide fascinating insights into how complex cognitive processes can emerge from relatively simple neural structures.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Bees make incredibly fast decisions - with a brain smaller than a sesame seed

By balancing effort with the possibility of risks and rewards,...

According to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.reading.ac.uk/">University of Reading</a>, warmer springs are causing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-bees-struggle-to-recover-after-extreme-weather-events/">bees</a> in the UK to wake up earlier from hibernation, threatening the pollination of important crops such as apples or pears.&nbsp;



The experts found that, for each degree Celsius rise in temperature, wild bees emerge from their nests 6.5 days earlier on average. This could cause them to lose sync with the plants on which they depend and thus have less food to consume, meaning they may not have sufficient energy to pollinate crops effectively, or may even miss crop blossom completely.



“Rising temperatures are making life tougher for bees. Warmer conditions mean bees emerge from hibernation earlier, but there may not be enough food to provide energy for them when they start buzzing about,” said study lead author Chris Wyver, a doctoral student in Entomology at Reading.



“Matching wake-up dates with plant flowering is vital for newly emerged bees because they need to find pollen and nectar to increase their chances of survival and produce offspring. A mismatch means bees cannot pollinate effectively."&nbsp;



"Less natural pollination could lead to farmers needing to use managed honeybees, meaning greater costs, which may be passed on to consumers. We could see even more expensive apples, pears, and vegetables in supermarkets as a result.”



<h2 id="h-alarming-results">Alarming results</h2>



By using over 350,000 individual recordings of bees emerging from hibernation, the researchers examined 88 different species of wild bees over a period of four decades in order to identify shifts in emergence dates, both over time and in relation to temperature changes.&nbsp;



The analysis revealed that, on average, the 88 species emerged four days earlier per decade, with some species emerging earlier than others (since different species of bees respond differently to changing temperatures). The results are published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ece3.10284.">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



<h2 id="h-implications-of-the-study">Implications of the study</h2>



With winters projected to be one to 4.5 degrees Celsius warmer and up to 30 percent wetter by 2070, spring is likely to continue to start earlier and affect bees even more radically.&nbsp;



These shifts in bee emergence will have a major impact on plants that are heavily dependent on pollination, such as apple trees, which might not be ready to flower by the time bees emerge from hibernation.



<h2 id="h-fruitwatch">FruitWatch&nbsp;</h2>



To better understand how climate change affects the flowering of fruit trees and pollination by bees, the scientists have recently set up <a href="https://fruitwatch.org/ords/r/livefw/fruit-watch101/home?tz=1:00">FruitWatch</a>, a project encouraging people to report when fruit trees in their gardens and nearby parks start to flower.&nbsp;



Users’ submissions – of which over 6,500 have been received in two years – will help researchers build a larger and more reliable database documenting the impact of climate change on a variety of ecosystems.



<h2 id="h-more-about-bee-hibernation">More about bee hibernation&nbsp;</h2>



Not all bees hibernate, but many do experience a period of reduced activity or dormancy during the colder months, which could be likened to hibernation.



In temperate climates, most species of bees are seasonal creatures that are most active during the warmer months of the year. As temperatures drop and food sources become scarce, many bees enter a kind of "winter rest."



For example, honey bees do not hibernate in the traditional sense. Instead, they cluster together in their hives to stay warm, shivering their bodies to generate heat and feeding on the honey they collected during the warmer months. The queen is protected at the center of the cluster.



By contrast, bumblebees do experience a form of hibernation. The mated queens are usually the only members of the bumblebee colony to survive the winter, hibernating underground and emerging in spring to establish a new colony.



Many solitary bees, like mason bees and leafcutter bees, have a life cycle that involves a period of dormancy during the winter, but they spend this time as larvae or pupae in their nests, not active adults.



So while "hibernation" may not be the scientifically accurate term for all bee species, many bees do have adaptations to survive the winter in some form of dormant state.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Bees emerge from hibernation 6.5 days earlier for each degree of warming

According to a new study led by the University of...

In an intriguing new study, researchers have found that a bird's choice of nest materials strongly correlates with the dimensions of its beak. This discovery is based on an extensive data analysis involving close to 6,000 bird species. The experts report that beak shape could accurately forecast the type of nesting material a bird might utilize.



The comprehensive research was a collaborative effort by researchers at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> and the University of St Andrews. Their innovative approach to the study involved employing random forest models - a machine learning algorithm widely used for pattern recognition and data analysis.&nbsp;



The objective was to use these models to analyze beak data and predict corresponding nesting material preferences.



<h2 id="h-surprising-findings">Surprising findings</h2>



The researchers were surprised to discover an unexpectedly robust correlation between beak characteristics and nest materials. With only the knowledge of beak shape and size at their disposal, the experts were able to predict broad nest material usage in 60 percent of species. In some instances, their predictive accuracy reached as high as 97 percent.



These intriguing findings, published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rstb">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B</a>, provide a detailed exploration of the ecological and evolutionary factors behind these relationships. The researchers acknowledge certain variables influencing their results, such as the fact that not all species have equal access to all types of nest materials.



<h2 id="h-implications-of-the-study">Implications of the study</h2>



"We know a lot about primate hands, but not as much about how other animals use their limbs and mouths to manipulate objects," said Dr. Catherine Sheard, the lead author of the study from Bristol's School of Earth Sciences. "We're very excited about the potential applications of our findings, to further explore how beak shape may have co-evolved with other aspects of nest building or other functions."



Dr. Shoko Sugasawa, the senior author of the study based at the University of St Andrews, emphasized the significance of these insights in understanding animal evolution. "Most animals, including birds, do not have hands like ours, but manipulating objects like nest material and food is such a crucial part of their lives."&nbsp;



"Our finding is the first step to reveal possible interactions between the evolution of beaks and manipulation like nest building, and helps us better understand how animals evolved to interact with the world with or without hands," said Dr. Sugasawa.



<h2 id="h-future-research">Future research&nbsp;</h2>



The team is now conducting new research that is focused on anthropogenic nest material in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-new-species-of-poisonous-birds-discovered/">bird species</a>. The aim is to understand which birds incorporate human-made materials such as plastic, wire, or cigarette butts into their nests. A key area of interest is determining if there's a correlation between this behavior and birds that dwell in urban areas.



Dr Sheard expressed her curiosity on how beak shape influences other nest attributes. "I’m also interested in how beak shape relates to other properties of the nest, including overall nest structure, such as whether birds build nests with walls, or a roof."



The study sheds light on the intriguing connection between the physical traits of birds and their behavior. The ongoing research will continue to unravel the complexities of evolution, nest-building behavior, and the impact of human activity on the world's birds.



<h2 id="h-more-about-bird-beaks">More about bird beaks</h2>



Bird beaks, also known as bills, are a prominent feature of birds and are extremely diverse, reflecting a wide range of adaptations to different environments and lifestyles. Here are a few key points about bird beaks:



<h3 id="h-shape-and-size">Shape and size</h3>



The size and shape of a bird's beak can tell a lot about its diet and behavior. For example, birds that eat seeds often have strong, short beaks for cracking open the seeds, while birds that eat nectar have long, thin beaks for reaching into flowers. Birds of prey have sharp, curved beaks for tearing meat, while shorebirds have long, thin beaks for probing into mud for invertebrates.



<h3 id="h-temperature-regulation">Temperature regulation</h3>



Bird beaks also play a role in regulating body temperature. Some species, particularly those living in hot climates, can increase blood flow to their beaks to lose heat and cool down.



<h3 id="h-sensory-organ">Sensory organ</h3>



The beak is a sensory organ that provides birds with detailed information about their environment and the food they eat. It contains nerve endings, allowing the bird to feel what it's doing.



<h3 id="h-tool-use">Tool use</h3>



Some birds, like crows and parrots, use their beaks as tools to find food and manipulate objects.



<h3 id="h-nesting-and-mating">Nesting and mating</h3>



Beaks play a role in building nests. Some birds have beaks specially adapted to weaving intricate structures. In many species, beak color and health can be indicators of fitness, playing a role in mate selection.



<h3 id="h-communication">Communication</h3>



Some birds use their beaks for communication. They may tap their beaks to signal aggression or clack them together as part of mating displays.



The extraordinary diversity of bird beaks is a prime example of evolution in action, illustrating how a basic structure can be modified in countless ways to suit a species' needs.



—-



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Bird behavior: Beak shape can predict nest materials

In an intriguing new study, researchers have found that a...

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.uc.edu/">University of Cincinnati</a> have found compelling evidence that extinct dwarf hippos, once indigenous to the island of Madagascar, were forest dwellers as opposed to their mainland African counterparts that favored open <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grasslands-can-be-managed-to-benefit-biodiversity-and-soil-health/">grasslands</a>. The study illuminates the significant role that forests played in Madagascar's ecological past, challenging previous notions about the island's landscape.



In the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ppp3.10402">Plants, People, Planet</a>, the experts report that the extensive grasslands that currently dominate Madagascar are more a result of recent human-driven changes than a naturally sustained habitat influenced by the island's large vegetarian fauna.



<h2 id="h-malegasy-hippos">Malegasy hippos</h2>



When Madagascar detached from mainland Africa around 150 million years ago, it evolved independently, nurturing a unique ecosystem secluded in the Indian Ocean. Unlike the mainland that was populated with elephants, giraffes, rhinos, and other large mammals, Madagascar had small hippos.



These dwarf or Malagasy hippos were much smaller than their four-ton relatives - the common hippos. Still yet, the dwarf hippos were one of the island's largest land animals, along with Nile crocodiles and the gigantic flightless elephant bird.&nbsp;



The Malagasy hippos, roughly the size of a cow, bore a striking resemblance to the endangered pygmy hippos presently inhabiting the forests and swamps of Liberia and Guinea in West Africa, noted study lead author Professor Brooke Crowley.



“Ecologically, we think the Malagasy dwarf hippos were pretty close to the pygmy hippos that live in forests in West Africa,” said Professor Crowley. This assertion is based on an isotopic analysis of stable carbon and nitrogen found in the bones of the extinct Malagasy dwarf hippos, providing a 'fingerprint' of the animals' diet, thereby shedding light on their preferred habitats.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered">What the researchers discovered&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers sampled bones from both museums and ones they collected on the island, and the analysis revealed that the dwarf hippos did not regularly graze on grass in dry, open habitats, even in regions presently dominated by grassland.&nbsp;



On the contrary, they seemed to favor plants found in wetter, forested landscapes. This finding suggests that forests were more prevalent before human interference began to alter the landscape for agriculture, domestic livestock grazing, and obtaining firewood and building materials.



The common hippopotamus, found on the mainland, is a known lover of grass, earning it its name from the Greek words for “river horse.” As part of their nocturnal routine, they depart from the safety of rivers and waterholes to graze on fresh grass, returning only at dawn.&nbsp;



However, the researchers found that grass represented only a small part of the diet of Malagasy dwarf hippos, who were more inclined to feed on sedges and leaves, behaving more like browsers than grazers.



<h2 id="h-human-impacts">Human impacts</h2>



“For years we’ve seen evidence that these animals were not grazers,” said study co-author Professor Laurie Godfrey of the University of Massachusetts Amherst. She argues that the extinction of hippos on the island was likely triggered by the advent of permanent human communities transitioning from hunting and gathering to pastoralism and crop cultivation



Professor Godfrey calls this theory the "Subsistence Shift Hypothesis," an extension of a similar idea previously proposed by noted archaeologist Robert Dewar. “There is pretty compelling convergent evidence showing that many of the extinct animals disappeared in a short window of time coinciding with the transition of people from hunting and gathering to pastoralism,” said Professor Crowley.



<h2 id="h-conservation-actions">Conservation actions</h2>



Given the importance of forests for Madagascar's wildlife as underlined by the study, Professor Crowley advocates for the restoration of native forests on the island. She contests the idea that grasslands were a critical habitat, at least not for the island's hippos.&nbsp;



“Some colleagues argue that grasslands are ancient and that we need to protect and manage them like we do forest,” says Crowley, “I would argue that forests are far more important. We are not contending that grasses did not exist in the past, but pointing out that there is no evidence for large grasslands devoid of trees prior to about 1,000 years ago.”



Emphasizing the urgent need for novel conservation efforts, the researchers concluded: “It is clear that Madagascar faces a biodiversity crisis much greater than that which it has already endured. Preventing this crisis will demand new conservation actions.”&nbsp;



—-



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Dwarf hippos of Madagascar were forest dwellers, not grazers

Researchers at the University of Cincinnati have found compelling evidence...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



—–



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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