Dragonflies outlasted the dinosaurs and even endured asteroid strikes. But now they face a survival threat unlike any before. Rising heat and wildfires are reshaping the very traits they depend on to attract mates.



A study from the <a href="https://www.ucdenver.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colorado Denver</a> shows how this shift could push some species toward local extinction. Traits that once drew partners are now putting dragonflies at risk.



“Dragonflies have survived asteroids, but now climate change and wildfires are threatening them in ways evolution can’t keep up with,” said lead author Sarah Nalley, a PhD student in CU Denver’s Integrative Biology program. 



“Our findings suggest that adaptation alone may not be fast enough to protect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragonfly-larvae-expose-climates-hidden-influence-on-biology/">species</a> in a rapidly changing climate.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-ornaments-backfire">When ornaments backfire</h2>



Many dragonflies have dark spots on their wings. These patterns attract <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragonflies-hunt-perfectly-even-in-extreme-temperatures/">mates</a>. They also absorb heat. In hotter regions and burned habitats, that heat builds too quickly. Males tire, rest, and lose chances to compete for females.



Thermal imaging confirmed the problem. Dark spots made wings hotter, faster. Unlike the peppered moth, where wing color affected survival through camouflage, dragonflies face a different pressure. Here, color weakens reproductive success. Survival is not enough if mating fails.



This twist highlights a blind spot in conservation. Scientists usually check if species survive hotter, drier habitats. But if mating collapses, the population vanishes regardless of survival, leaving ecosystems weaker and biodiversity loss far greater.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dragonfly-survival-amid-wildfires">Dragonfly survival amid wildfires</h2>



“This changes how we think about vulnerability,” said Professor Michael Moore. “It’s not just about whether animals can survive after wildfire - it’s about whether they can reproduce in those modified environments. That’s the key to long-term survival.”



If reproduction falters, decline accelerates. And dragonflies matter. They eat mosquitoes, keeping insect numbers in check. They also feed birds, fish, and amphibians. Lose them, and entire food webs shift, unraveling in unpredictable ways.



Dragonflies have always seemed resilient. But this study suggests they may not keep pace with today’s rapid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragonflies-developed-dark-wing-spots-for-survival/">changes</a>, showing how climate and fire pressures can overwhelm even long-lasting species once thought secure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildfire-data-reveal-worrying-trends">Wildfire data reveal worrying trends</h2>



The project began as a class assignment in Professor Moore’s course. Students worked with open datasets: wildfire maps from the U.S. Geological Survey, climate records, and citizen science observations spanning 40 years. No external funding backed the research.



Despite the simple beginnings, the analysis uncovered a serious trend. Dragonflies with ornamental wings are disappearing from fire-damaged and hotter regions. The data gave a broad view of how climate and wildfires interact with reproductive traits.



Nalley brought personal motivation. She lost her home in Superior, Colorado, during the 2021 Marshall Fire. That experience shaped her focus.



“I knew I wanted to study animals - and after the fire, I knew I wanted to study wildfires too,” said Nalley. “That experience pushed me to ask how animals are affected not just by surviving a fire, but by whether they can still reproduce and carry on the species afterward.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-conservation">Lessons for conservation</h2>



The findings stretch beyond dragonflies. If ancient predators that once ruled the skies falter, what about other species? The research shows conservationists must look past survival rates. Reproduction matters just as much.



“Working with Sarah pushed me to think about my own research in a new way,” said Moore. “She came in with great questions about wildfires and reproduction that made me reconsider how I approach these big ecological issues.”



The study’s message is clear: ecosystems don’t just need species to live, they need them to breed. Dragonflies warn us of what happens when natural signals of attraction turn into liabilities, threatening stability, biodiversity, and long-term ecological resilience everywhere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dragonfly-decline-from-wildfires">Dragonfly decline from wildfires</h2>



Dragonflies have been here for hundreds of millions of years. Their decline would mark a profound loss. More than that, it would unsettle the balance of ecosystems that depend on them.



The CU Denver research shows how quickly environmental pressures reach into the smallest details of life - courtship displays, wing patterns, mating chances. Those details decide whether a species thrives or disappears, shaping both present ecosystems and future biodiversity.



Dragonflies are not just survivors from deep time. They are indicators of how even the most resilient animals can stumble in a warming, fire-prone world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-025-02417-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Climate Change</a>.



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Dragonflies lived with dinosaurs, now they face their toughest fight for survival

Dragonflies outlasted the dinosaurs and even endured asteroid strikes. But now they face a survival threat unlike any before. Rising heat and wildfires are reshaping the very traits they depend on to attract mates. A study from the University of Colorado Denver shows how this shift could push some species toward local extinction. Traits that once drew partners are now putting dragonflies at risk. “Dragonflies have survived asteroids, but now climate change and wildfires are threatening them in ways evolution can’t keep up with,” said lead author...

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.uc.edu/">University of Cincinnati</a> have found compelling evidence that extinct dwarf hippos, once indigenous to the island of Madagascar, were forest dwellers as opposed to their mainland African counterparts that favored open <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grasslands-can-be-managed-to-benefit-biodiversity-and-soil-health/">grasslands</a>. The study illuminates the significant role that forests played in Madagascar's ecological past, challenging previous notions about the island's landscape.



In the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ppp3.10402">Plants, People, Planet</a>, the experts report that the extensive grasslands that currently dominate Madagascar are more a result of recent human-driven changes than a naturally sustained habitat influenced by the island's large vegetarian fauna.



<h2 id="h-malegasy-hippos">Malegasy hippos</h2>



When Madagascar detached from mainland Africa around 150 million years ago, it evolved independently, nurturing a unique ecosystem secluded in the Indian Ocean. Unlike the mainland that was populated with elephants, giraffes, rhinos, and other large mammals, Madagascar had small hippos.



These dwarf or Malagasy hippos were much smaller than their four-ton relatives - the common hippos. Still yet, the dwarf hippos were one of the island's largest land animals, along with Nile crocodiles and the gigantic flightless elephant bird.&nbsp;



The Malagasy hippos, roughly the size of a cow, bore a striking resemblance to the endangered pygmy hippos presently inhabiting the forests and swamps of Liberia and Guinea in West Africa, noted study lead author Professor Brooke Crowley.



“Ecologically, we think the Malagasy dwarf hippos were pretty close to the pygmy hippos that live in forests in West Africa,” said Professor Crowley. This assertion is based on an isotopic analysis of stable carbon and nitrogen found in the bones of the extinct Malagasy dwarf hippos, providing a 'fingerprint' of the animals' diet, thereby shedding light on their preferred habitats.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered">What the researchers discovered&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers sampled bones from both museums and ones they collected on the island, and the analysis revealed that the dwarf hippos did not regularly graze on grass in dry, open habitats, even in regions presently dominated by grassland.&nbsp;



On the contrary, they seemed to favor plants found in wetter, forested landscapes. This finding suggests that forests were more prevalent before human interference began to alter the landscape for agriculture, domestic livestock grazing, and obtaining firewood and building materials.



The common hippopotamus, found on the mainland, is a known lover of grass, earning it its name from the Greek words for “river horse.” As part of their nocturnal routine, they depart from the safety of rivers and waterholes to graze on fresh grass, returning only at dawn.&nbsp;



However, the researchers found that grass represented only a small part of the diet of Malagasy dwarf hippos, who were more inclined to feed on sedges and leaves, behaving more like browsers than grazers.



<h2 id="h-human-impacts">Human impacts</h2>



“For years we’ve seen evidence that these animals were not grazers,” said study co-author Professor Laurie Godfrey of the University of Massachusetts Amherst. She argues that the extinction of hippos on the island was likely triggered by the advent of permanent human communities transitioning from hunting and gathering to pastoralism and crop cultivation



Professor Godfrey calls this theory the "Subsistence Shift Hypothesis," an extension of a similar idea previously proposed by noted archaeologist Robert Dewar. “There is pretty compelling convergent evidence showing that many of the extinct animals disappeared in a short window of time coinciding with the transition of people from hunting and gathering to pastoralism,” said Professor Crowley.



<h2 id="h-conservation-actions">Conservation actions</h2>



Given the importance of forests for Madagascar's wildlife as underlined by the study, Professor Crowley advocates for the restoration of native forests on the island. She contests the idea that grasslands were a critical habitat, at least not for the island's hippos.&nbsp;



“Some colleagues argue that grasslands are ancient and that we need to protect and manage them like we do forest,” says Crowley, “I would argue that forests are far more important. We are not contending that grasses did not exist in the past, but pointing out that there is no evidence for large grasslands devoid of trees prior to about 1,000 years ago.”



Emphasizing the urgent need for novel conservation efforts, the researchers concluded: “It is clear that Madagascar faces a biodiversity crisis much greater than that which it has already endured. Preventing this crisis will demand new conservation actions.”&nbsp;



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Dwarf hippos of Madagascar were forest dwellers, not grazers

Researchers at the University of Cincinnati have found compelling evidence...

Why are there no kangaroos in Bali, and no tigers in Australia? A new study led by biologists from The <a href="https://www.anu.edu.au/">Australian National University</a> (ANU) and <a href="https://ethz.ch/en.html">ETH Zurich</a> in Switzerland is shedding light on why animals in this part of the world are divided by an invisible boundary. 



Australia is a sanctuary for a variety of marsupial species, including the iconic kangaroo and the koala. But as you travel westward, these marsupials become scarce. On the Indonesian island of Sulawesi, you will only encounter a handful of Australian mammals, and they are completely absent on the neighboring island of Borneo. By contrast, Australia lacks several animals typically found in Asia, such as bears, tigers, and rhinos.



This abrupt shift in animal species caught the attention of the celebrated British naturalist and co-discoverer of evolutionary theory, Alfred Russell Wallace. During his expedition through the Indo-Australian Archipelago from 1854 to 1862, Wallace discovered a biogeographical separation between Bali and Lombok, and between Borneo and Sulawesi. This invisible boundary is now known as Wallace’s Line.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-plate-tectonics-played-a-role">Plate tectonics played a role</h2>



But how did this distribution pattern emerge in the first place? It turns out that plate tectonics played a significant role. Forty-five million years ago, the Australian Plate began its journey northwards, sliding beneath the mighty Eurasian Plate.&nbsp;



This phenomenon brought the two distant land masses closer, facilitating the migration of land creatures between the two continents. In addition, tectonic movements led to the formation of numerous islands, acting as stepping stones for animals and plants to journey eastward or westward.



Interestingly, more animal species migrated from Asia to Australia, which is documented by the presence of various poisonous snakes, thorny lizards, hopping mice, and flying foxes. This unbalanced distribution of vertebrates along the Wallace Line has been a mystery until now.



To investigate, a team of researchers led by Loïc Pellissier, Professor of Ecosystems and Landscape Evolution at ETH Zurich, developed a comprehensive model. This model combined climate reconstructions, plate displacements from 30 million years ago to the present, and an extensive dataset of about 20,000 birds, mammals, reptiles, and amphibians found in the region today.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered">What the researchers discovered&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers have published their intriguing findings in the latest issue of the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.adf7122">Science</a>. They found that the climate of the originating areas played a significant role in the uneven distribution of Asian and Australian animal species on both sides of the Wallace Line.&nbsp;



According to the model simulations, Asian-originated animals (which were adapted to a tropically humid climate) found it easier to journey across the Indonesian islands and settle in New Guinea and northern Australia. Conversely, Australian wildlife had evolved in a cooler, increasingly dry climate. These animals found it challenging to thrive on the tropical islands.



"The historical context is crucial for understanding the biodiversity distribution patterns observed today and was the missing piece of the puzzle explaining the enigma of Wallace’s line," said Alexander Skeels, the study's first author and a postdoctoral researcher in Pellissier’s group.



<h2 id="h-understanding-today-s-biodiversity-patterns">Understanding today's biodiversity patterns&nbsp;</h2>



Species that evolved in tropical habitats are more competitive, grow faster, and can tolerate a wide range of climates, making it easier for them to settle in new continents. For instance, Australian frogs, adapted to drought and heat stress, bury themselves in the ground and remain dormant for extended periods, a behavior rarely seen in tropical frogs.



"These findings underscore the importance of considering the geological and climatic conditions of prehistoric times to understand today's biodiversity patterns," said Pellissier.&nbsp;



The research helps us comprehend why more species exist in the tropics today than in temperate latitudes. It further underscores our need to understand the processes that have shaped our planet's biodiversity, a fact that is especially relevant given the current rate at which species are being moved between continents due to human activities.



"Knowing the factors that influence exchange on long timescales is crucial to understanding why species can become invasive on more recent timescales," said Skeels, highlighting the consequences of human-induced invasions in the current biodiversity crisis.



"Our findings could also inform predictions for animal migration in the future and help us predict which species may be better versed at adapting to new environments, as changes to Earth’s climate continues to impact global biodiversity patterns."



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Animal mystery: Why tigers don't prowl in Australia and kangaroos don't hop in Bali

Why are there no kangaroos in Bali, and no tigers...

Because they spend a substantial part of their lives soaring above <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/even-the-most-remote-oceans-are-polluted-with-microplastics/">remote oceans</a>, seabirds have been under the radar of scientists for many years. Now, a study from the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/">University of Washington</a> has revealed a shocking revelation about seabird mortality.&nbsp;



Based on data collected by coastal inhabitants, the research sheds light on the grim impact that marine heatwaves have on seabird populations. The new study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3354/meps14330">Marine Ecology Progress Series</a>, reveals how marine heat waves have led to an alarming number of seabird fatalities.



As a sentinel of the nearshore marine environment, seabirds play a critical role in the marine ecosystem. Study co-author Julia Parrish, a renowned professor of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences, highlighted the global scope of this research.



"This is truly a global data set that asked a global-sized question: Does a warming world significantly impact marine birds, among the top predators in the nearshore marine environment?” The answer, as the study indicates, is a resounding yes.



<h2 id="h-shocking-discovery">Shocking discovery&nbsp;</h2>



The most startling discovery made by the researchers is the lag effect that the marine heatwaves have on seabird mortality. Parrish explained that “a warmer ocean, and certainly a suddenly warmer ocean as happens during an El Niño or a marine heat wave, will result in the death of hundreds of thousands to millions of marine birds within one to six months of the temperature increase.”&nbsp;



Marine heat waves, such as the notorious “blob” which was observed off the Pacific Northwest between 2014 and 2016, along with prolonged El Niño events and warmer Alaskan waters owing to retreating sea ice, have only recently become a topic of concern among scientists and environmentalists.



This extensive study analyzed data spanning from 1993 to 2021, collected through beach surveys that traced the incidence of dead seabirds washed ashore from central California to Alaska. The research aimed to gauge the severity of these mortality events irrespective of species.&nbsp;



“Rather than track the specific numbers of any one species, this study measures the magnitude of mortality events, regardless of seabird species, above long-term normal,” said Parrish.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-catastrophic-mortality-events">Catastrophic mortality events</h2>



The study showed that catastrophic mortality events, where the death toll crossed a staggering quarter-million birds, occurred approximately once every decade. However, this pattern changed dramatically between 2014 and 2019, during which five such events were recorded.



"This is unprecedented. This type of massive die-off can be compared to a catastrophic storm that we would usually expect once per decade; they happen, causing massive damage, but usually, there is enough time for areas to recover," said study lead author Timothy Jones, a research scientist at the University of Washington.



From 2014 to 2019, the die-offs were not only some of the largest ever documented, but they kept happening year after year — like a catastrophic storm hitting without fail every year."



<h2 id="h-warming-waters">Warming waters&nbsp;</h2>



Statistical analysis presented a glaring link between these mass die-offs and the warmer marine conditions in the Northeast Pacific preceding them. Some seabirds, including murres, puffins, auklets, and shearwaters, were the most severely impacted species.&nbsp;



The data encompassed more than 90,000 surveys of 106 seabird species across more than 1,000 beaches. The data was collected from citizen science projects, including COASST, BeachCOMBERS, Beach Watch, and the British Columbia Beached Bird Survey. These programs, through meticulous training, equipped participants to scout local beaches for avian casualties and report their findings.



Furthermore, data from the remote beaches of northwest Alaska were garnered through community members who reported to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and Alaska Sea Grant. The study unveiled a trend wherein seabird carcasses started appearing ashore a few months after the marine warming initiated and persisted in a roughly three-year cycle.&nbsp;



While the cause behind each seabird mortality event varied, warmer waters emerged as the common thread linking them. Warmer oceans foster harmful algal blooms and heighten the risk of disease outbreaks, which were both implicated in seabird deaths during the study period.&nbsp;



In addition, the prolonged ocean warming altered the diversity, availability, and nutritional content of the prey that seabirds rely on, culminating in widespread starvation.



<h2 id="h-implications-of-the-study">Implications of the study</h2>



The implications of this study are enormous, as it indicates an irreversible shift in marine ecosystems due to climate change.&nbsp;



“With this intensity of warming, like the looming El Niño in the Pacific or the current marine heatwave in the North Atlantic, we are facing a new ocean. One with fewer birds," said Parrish.



The research is not only a wake-up call for conservationists but also a call to action for humanity to address the escalating challenge of climate change and its far-reaching consequences on our planet’s invaluable biodiversity.



—--



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Marine heatwaves are causing massive seabird mortality events

Because they spend a substantial part of their lives soaring...

A groundbreaking study published in the journal <a href="https://wildlife.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdfdirect/10.1002/wsb.1444">Wildlife Society Bulletin</a> has revealed that the recovery of bald eagle populations is being significantly impeded by exposure to lead ammunition fragments. These toxic remnants, found in wild game gut piles and carcass parts left behind by hunters, are poisoning bald eagles and increasing their vulnerability to additional threats.



Krysten L. Schuler is an assistant research professor at <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a> and the principal investigator of the study, which received funding from the Morris Animal Foundation.&nbsp;



"Bald eagles are an iconic American species," stated Professor Schuler. "Despite the apparent population rebound through major conservation efforts, our work showed that environmental lead sickens and kills bald eagles to such a degree that it makes the populations vulnerable to other threats such as avian influenza or wind energy development."



<h2 id="h-reduced-resilience-among-bald-eagles">Reduced resilience among bald eagles</h2>



What sets this study apart from previous research is its innovative methodology developed by mathematician Brenda Hanley, an expert in population demographics.



Hanley's approach utilized data from seven northeastern states to construct a comprehensive picture of the impact of lead poisoning on bald eagles. The findings confirmed that while lead poisoning has not halted the recovery of eagle populations entirely, it has substantially reduced their resilience to other adversities.



The generous support from the <a href="https://www.morrisanimalfoundation.org/">Morris Animal Foundation</a> played a pivotal role in the execution of the study. This support allowed the research team to bring Hanley onboard and create the new modeling tool that was essential for tackling these intricate issues, particularly with limited data.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-stunted-population-growth">Stunted population growth</h2>



Kevin Hynes, a wildlife biologist for the New York Division of Fish and Wildlife and a researcher involved in the study, pointed out that lead poisoning has long been identified as a prevalent cause of eagle fatalities, accounting for over ten percent of bald eagle deaths.&nbsp;



However, the new modeling approach introduced by Hanley enabled the researchers to recognize that lead poisoning is not just a cause of death, but is also stunting the continued growth of eagle populations.



"This is an environmental problem with a currently available and low-tech solution: A simple switch to non-lead ammunition for hunting will eliminate lead ammunition fragments in gut piles and carcass parts, making them unavailable to eagles and other scavengers," Hynes suggested.



By exposing the pernicious effect of lead ammunition on the survival and resilience of the bald eagle populations, this study highlights the need for a re-evaluation of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hunting-can-help-stabilize-wildlife-populations/">hunting</a> practices. It ultimately proposes a shift toward non-lead ammunition as an easy yet effective measure to safeguard bald eagles against the deadly threat of lead poisoning.



<h2 id="h-more-about-lead-ammunition-and-wildlife">More about lead ammunition and wildlife</h2>



The use of lead ammunition in hunting and its subsequent impact on wildlife has been an area of growing concern among scientists and conservationists. Lead is a toxic heavy metal that, once introduced into the environment, can have deleterious effects on both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.



When hunters use lead ammunition to hunt game, it often results in lead fragments remaining in the leftover gut piles or discarded carcass parts. Scavengers, including predatory and carrion-eating birds such as bald eagles, vultures, and condors, can ingest these lead fragments while feeding on these remains. This can cause lead poisoning, a serious condition associated with numerous health problems and even death in affected animals.



<h3 id="h-lead-poisoning">Lead poisoning</h3>



Lead poisoning in wildlife typically leads to severe physiological complications, including neurological damage, reproductive failure, and weakened immune systems. It's not just birds that are affected; mammals, too, can experience these effects when they ingest lead particles present in their environment or their prey.



Research has shown that lead poisoning has contributed significantly to the mortality rates of various bird species. For example, a study published in the journal "Wildlife Society Bulletin" found that lead poisoning from ammunition fragments was not only causing sickness and death among bald eagles, but it was also reducing their ability to withstand other threats, impeding the continued growth of their populations.



<h3 id="h-widespread-ecological-impacts">Widespread ecological impacts</h3>



Furthermore, lead ammunition fragments in the environment can dissolve slowly over time in soil and water. This process releases lead into the environment, where it can enter the food chain and potentially affect a wide range of organisms, thus causing a more widespread ecological impact.



Recognizing these threats, some areas have implemented restrictions or bans on the use of lead ammunition for hunting. The alternatives to lead ammunition, such as copper or steel bullets, are just as effective for hunting, and significantly less harmful to the environment and non-target wildlife.



A shift toward non-lead ammunition is not only a viable but a necessary solution to prevent ongoing wildlife loss due to lead poisoning and to ensure healthier ecosystems. This issue highlights the interconnections in nature and emphasizes that the actions taken in one area (like hunting practices) can have wide-reaching impacts on wildlife and the overall health of our environment.



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Lead ammunition is a silent threat to bald eagle recovery

A groundbreaking study published in the journal Wildlife Society Bulletin...

Karma Nanglu, a postdoctoral researcher in the Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology at <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/">Harvard University</a>, says his favorite animal is whichever one he’s working on at the time. His most recent research, however, focuses on an animal that may keep its place as his favorite for a while: an extraordinary 500-million-year-old fossil from a fascinatingly bizarre group of marine invertebrates known as tunicates.



Nanglu’s research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-39012-4">Nature Communications</a>, describes this ancient specimen, named Megasiphon thylakos, and provides a surprising insight into the early evolution of tunicates. "This animal is as exciting a discovery as some of the stuff I found when hanging off a cliffside of a mountain, or jumping out of a helicopter. It’s just as cool,” said Nanglu.



<h2 id="h-our-closest-invertebrate-relatives">Our closest invertebrate relatives</h2>



Tunicates, commonly known as sea squirts, are unusual creatures that come in a range of shapes and sizes and have diverse lifestyles. An adult tunicate typically has a barrel-like shape with two siphons, or tubes, projecting from its body. One of these siphons draws in water, complete with food particles, allowing the animal to feed through an internal filter. After feeding, the second siphon expels the water.



Although these tunicates are our closest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-identify-long-term-declines-in-uk-earthworms/">invertebrate</a> relatives, their life cycle is nothing short of astounding. Nanglu explained, “This idea that they begin as tadpole-looking larva that, when ready to develop, basically headbutts a rock, sticks to it, and begins to metamorphosis by reabsorbing its own tail to transform into this being with two siphons is just awe-inspiring.”



The tunicate family tree branches into two main lineages, the ascidiaceans, which are sessile (non-moving), and the mobile appendicularias. Most ascidiaceans begin life resembling tadpoles before metamorphosing into barrel-shaped adults, leading stationary lives attached to the seafloor. By contrast, appendicularians maintain their tadpole-like appearance into adulthood, freely swimming in upper waters.



Interestingly, tunicates are more closely related to vertebrates, which includes species ranging from fish to humans, than to any other invertebrate group. The tadpole stage of tunicates provides a glimpse into this unexpected connection, offering crucial insights into our own evolutionary origins. However, this has been challenging as tunicates have left only a scant presence in the fossil record.



<h2 id="h-oldest-known-fossil-of-its-kind">Oldest known fossil of its kind</h2>



M. thylakos was unearthed from the middle Cambrian Marjum Formation in Utah, the oldest known fossil of its kind and the only definitive tunicate fossil with preserved soft tissue to date. It displays all the hallmarks of an ascidian tunicate - a barrel-shaped body and two prominent siphon-like growths. However, the most intriguing feature was the dark bands running along the fossil's body.



Using high-resolution imaging, Nanglu and his colleagues compared M. thylakos to a modern ascidian species, Ciona. The similarities between the dark bands of the fossil and the muscles that allow modern tunicates to control their siphons were remarkable.&nbsp;



“Megasiphon’s morphology suggests to us that the ancestral lifestyle of tunicates involved a non-moving adult that filter fed with its large siphons,” Nanglu explained.



The fossil was identified as a tunicate by co-authors Rudy Lerosey-Aubril and Professor Javier Ortega-Hernández, both from Harvard's Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology. They discovered the fossil while visiting the Utah Museum of Natural History (UMNH) in 2019.&nbsp;



“The fossil immediately caught our attention...the close morphological similarity of Megasiphon with modern tunicates was simply too striking to overlook, and we immediately knew that the fossil would have an interesting story to tell," said Ortega-Hernández.



<h2 id="h-evolutionary-history-of-ancient-tunicates">Evolutionary history of ancient tunicates</h2>



The fossil’s age, approximately 500 million years, places it in the era following the Cambrian Explosion, a pivotal moment in Earth's history when most major animal groups appeared in the fossil record for the first time, radically transforming marine ecosystems. Yet, tunicates are conspicuously absent in Cambrian rocks, despite their diversity and abundance in modern oceans.



According to molecular clock estimates, ascidian tunicates originated about 450 million years ago. The older M. thylakos fossil, therefore, offers a unique glimpse into the anatomy and evolutionary history of ancient tunicates, suggesting that most features of modern tunicates were already established shortly after the Cambrian Explosion.&nbsp;



"Given the exceptional quality of preservation and the age of the fossil, we can actually say quite a bit about the evolutionary history of the tunicates,” said Nanglu.



With hundreds of new fossils collected this spring, the researchers believe that the Marjum Formation is far from revealing all of its secrets, and they eagerly await the surprises that may be in store.



—--



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Our ancient cousins: 500-million-year-old tunicate holds intriguing secrets

Karma Nanglu, a postdoctoral researcher in the Department of Organismic...

Researchers may be one step closer to answering the question of how the ancestors of today's birds managed to survive the cataclysmic event that killed off the dinosaurs 66 million years ago. The study suggests that the survival of avian ancestors may be linked to their unique molting patterns.



A bird's molt, as seemingly insignificant as it may appear, is a vital process linked to numerous important functions, explained Jingmai O’Connor, an associate curator of fossil reptiles at Chicago’s <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/">Field Museum</a>.



Every bird is a living remnant of an era of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-ancestors-coexisted-with-dinosaurs-yes-according-to-shocking-new-research/">dinosaurs</a>. A bird's plumage, comprised of complex structures of keratin protein (similar to our hair and nails), plays an essential role in flight, camouflage, thermoregulation, mate attraction, and protection against harmful UV rays. However, these sophisticated structures are incapable of repair, which means they must be frequently replaced in a process known as molting.&nbsp;



"Molt is something that I don't think a lot of people think about, but it is fundamentally such an important process to birds," said O’Connor. Her most recent research was focused on a 99-million-year-old cluster of juvenile bird feathers trapped in amber, providing the first definitive fossil evidence of juvenile molting.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-simultaneous-molting">Simultaneous molting</h2>



The specimen presented a unique combination of traits not seen in any extant bird species, demonstrating a simultaneous growth of all body feathers. This pattern is most typical in altricial bird species, which hatch naked and rely heavily on their parents for warmth and nourishment. However, O'Connor's previous research suggested that this extinct bird belonged to the Enantiornithines, a group known for its precocial nature, meaning they were born with feathers and were fairly self-reliant from a young age.



Simultaneous molting, as observed in this juvenile bird, may have had severe implications for the Enantiornithines during the devastating asteroid impact that caused the mass extinction event. This extinction event would have resulted in a drastic plummet in global temperatures and a scarcity of resources.&nbsp;



As a precocial bird undergoing a rapid molt, the energy demands to stay warm would have been steep. However, with limited resources, these demands would be difficult to meet, potentially contributing to their eventual extinction.



<h2 id="h-evolution-of-molting">Evolution of molting&nbsp;</h2>



In addition to this groundbreaking discovery, O’Connor, along with postdoctoral researcher Yosef Kiat, undertook another study that delved into understanding the evolution of molting in birds by examining its patterns in extant species.&nbsp;



The research, published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/commsbio/">Communications Biology</a>, revealed that most modern adult birds undergo sequential molting, replacing a few feathers at a time over several weeks. This method allows the bird to maintain flight capabilities during the molting period. Simultaneous molts, which involve shedding and regrowing all flight feathers at once, were less common and typically seen in aquatic species like ducks, who don't depend heavily on flight for survival.



Interestingly, molting evidence in fossil birds and other feathered dinosaurs is a rare find. "We had this hypothesis that birds with simultaneous molts, which occur in a shorter duration of time, will be less represented in the fossil record," explained O’Connor. This theory suggests that a shorter molting period equated to fewer opportunities for a bird to die and thus become fossilized during molting, preserving evidence of this crucial process.



“We tested more than 600 skins of modern birds stored in the ornithology collection of the Field Museum to look for evidence of active molting,” said Kiat. “Among the sequentially molting birds, we found dozens of specimens in an active molt, but among the simultaneous molters, we found hardly any.”



The findings appeared to align with their hypothesis, hinting at the possibility that the lack of molting evidence in the fossil record may be due to fewer instances of simultaneous molting in ancient birds.



<h2 id="h-valuable-insights">Valuable insights&nbsp;</h2>



Despite the fact that their study was based on modern birds, the scientists believe that these findings could provide valuable insights into the molting patterns of prehistoric birds. “In paleontology, we have to get creative, since we don’t have complete data sets," said O'Connor. "Here, we used statistical analysis of a random sample to infer what the absence of something is actually telling us."



In this context, the noticeable lack of molting fossil birds, despite the prevalence of active molting in modern bird specimens, indicates that fossil birds likely did not molt as frequently as today's birds. It is plausible that they underwent a simultaneous molt, or they might not have followed the yearly molt schedule typical of most current bird species.



These groundbreaking studies on molting unveil a recurring theme: the molting habits of prehistoric birds and feathered dinosaurs, especially those from groups that did not survive the mass extinction, were distinctly different from today’s avian species.



"All the differences that you can find between crown birds and stem birds, essentially, become hypotheses about why one group survived and the rest didn’t," said O'Connor. She proposed that the differential survival could be attributed to a multitude of factors, one of which could very well be the molting process.&nbsp;



"I don't think there's any one particular reason why the crown birds, the group that includes modern birds, survived. I think it's a combination of characteristics. But I think it's becoming clear that molt may have been a significant factor in which dinosaurs were able to survive,” concluded O'Connor.&nbsp;



—--



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Unique molting patterns may have saved birds during dinosaur extinction

Researchers may be one step closer to answering the question...

Wild,Orangutan,Eating,Bananas,In,Forest,Of,Borneo

In the world of non-human animals, orangutans share a unique and prolonged bond with their mothers. They spend years together before the young leave their mothers, and are then considered migrant orangutans.



The younglings nurse for at least six years. This is followed by another three years of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-orangutans-learn-survival-skills-from-their-mom/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life training</a>, such as learning what foods are best to eat. During this time, they learn the art of foraging, the art of choosing and processing an incredibly diverse range of foods from their mother.



The mystery that puzzled scientists was how these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orangutans-are-starving-from-fruit-shortages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orangutans</a>, once they ventured away from their mothers into different territories with vastly different foods, knew what to eat and how to eat it.



Thanks to a multinational group of researchers, we now have a clearer answer to this question.



The golden rule followed by these migrant orangutans, it seems, is 'observe and do as the locals do.' These findings were recently published in the scientific journal, <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fevo.2023.1158887/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution</a>.



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-team-studied-migrant-orangutans">How the research team studied migrant orangutans</h2>



Julia Mörchen is a doctoral student at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology and the University of Leipzig in Germany, and the study's lead author.



She stated, "Here we show evidence that migrant orangutan males use observational social learning to learn new ecological knowledge from local individuals after dispersing to a new area.”



&nbsp;She added, “Our results suggest that migrant orangutan males not only learn where to find food and what to feed on from locals, but also continue to learn how to process these new foods."



<h2>How do migrant orangutans acquire this new knowledge?</h2>



The answer lies in a behavior termed 'peering.' This action involves intensely observing for at least five seconds from within two meters of a role model. When peering, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orangutans-have-the-cognitive-ability-to-make-and-use-stone-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">observing orangutan</a> mimics the role model's actions with head movements, indicating keen interest.



This learning process is critical for the male orangutans, who tend to migrate to new areas after becoming independent. Females, on the other hand, usually stay close to their birth homes.



Mörchen added, “What we don’t yet know is how far orangutan males disperse, or where they disperse to. But it’s possible to make informed guesses: genetic data and observations of orangutans crossing physical barriers such as rivers and mountains suggest long-distance dispersal, likely over tens of kilometers.”



The research team analyzed 30 years of observations collected by 157 trained observers. They examined 77 migrant adult male Sumatran orangutans at the Suaq Balimbing research station in Southwest Aceh, and 75 adult migrant male Bornean orangutans at the Tuanan station in Central Kalimantan.



<h2>Observing the peering behavior of migrant orangutans</h2>



The focus of their study was peering behavior during 4,009 instances when these males were within 50 meters of a neighbor, be they adult females, juveniles, or other males. They observed peering behavior by males 534 times, occurring in 5.2% of these associations.



In Suaq Balimbing, males peered most frequently at local females and juveniles, and least at adult males. This trend was reversed in Tuanan, where males primarily peered at other males and juveniles, and rarely at adult females.



The observed males interacted more frequently with the food they had peered at, indicating that they were putting their newly learned skills into practice.



<h2>Research team very happy with their results</h2>



“Our detailed analyses further showed that the migrant orangutan males in our study peered most frequently at food items that are difficult to process, or which are only rarely eaten by the locals," said Dr. Anja Widdig, a professor at the University of Leipzig and co-senior author of the study.



Dr. Caroline Schuppli, a group leader at the Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior in Konstanz and co-senior author, added, “Interestingly, the peering rates of migrant males decreased after a couple of months in the new area, which implies that this is how long it takes them to learn about new foods."



However, the researchers cautioned that it is still unknown how many times an adult orangutan needs to peer at a particular behavior to master it.



Depending on the complexity or novelty of the learned skill, adults may continue to experiment with certain food items they first learned about through peering. This continued exploration may help them better understand, strengthen, and memorize new information, or compare it with prior knowledge.



<h2>More about orangutans</h2>



Orangutans, native to the rainforests of Borneo and Sumatra, are majestic creatures. They're our closest relatives, sharing nearly 97% of their DNA with humans.



But today, these gentle giants are on the brink of extinction. They're under threat due to human activities such as deforestation, illegal hunting, and the wildlife trade.



<h3>Species</h3>



There are three recognized species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orangutans-can-produce-two-different-sounds-simultaneously/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orangutans</a>: Bornean, Sumatran, and Tapanuli. All three face significant challenges.



The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) classifies Bornean orangutans as "Critically Endangered." Sumatran orangutans as "Critically Endangered." Tapanuli orangutans, with a population of fewer than 800, are listed as "Critically Endangered."



<h3>Endangered status</h3>



Deforestation is the main threat to orangutan survival. Vast expanses of their forest habitats are disappearing to make way for palm oil plantations.



Palm oil, used in countless products from shampoo to chocolate, drives a multi-billion-dollar industry. This industry is responsible for the destruction of over 80% of orangutan habitat in the last 20 years.



Illegal hunting also poses a serious threat. Despite protective laws, hunters kill orangutans for meat, capture babies for the illegal pet trade, or shoot them out of fear or retaliation. These practices have led to severe population declines.



<h3>Conservation efforts</h3>



Efforts to conserve orangutans are underway. Numerous organizations are fighting to protect the existing habitats and rehabilitate orphaned or injured orangutans.



These include Borneo Orangutan Survival (BOS) Foundation, Orangutan Foundation International (OFI), and Sumatran Orangutan Conservation Programme (SOCP).



The BOS Foundation rehabilitates and reintroduces orangutans back into protected forests. The OFI focuses on protecting orangutan habitats and supports research and education about orangutans. The SOCP works specifically on the Sumatran orangutan's conservation.



These groups also fight against illegal activities like hunting and capturing orangutans. They provide local communities with education about the importance of orangutans and their role in the ecosystem.



<h3>Help needed from both governments and consumers</h3>



Consumers worldwide can also help by choosing products made with sustainable palm oil. By doing this, we can support companies that commit to deforestation-free palm oil production.



Governments also play a crucial role in orangutan conservation. Stricter laws against deforestation and harsher punishments for illegal hunting can significantly help protect these creatures.



Moreover, government-led reforestation projects can help restore orangutan habitats. These initiatives are vital for orangutan survival and the health of our planet.



In conclusion, the orangutan's conservation status is critical. Their survival depends on urgent, concerted efforts from governments, conservation groups, and individuals. We must all take part in the fight to protect these incredible creatures, our forests, and our planet's future.

Migrant orangutans watch the locals to learn what to eat and other local customs

In the world of non-human animals, orangutans share a unique...

An interesting study from the <a href="https://www.ualberta.ca/index.html">University of Alberta</a> is providing new insight into the impact of sunscreen on aquatic ecosystems. 



The experts have found that sunscreens may be much less toxic to small aquatic creatures than what has been assumed in the past. The research paves the way for a better understanding of how chemicals interact in marine environments.



Sunscreen, an indispensable shield against the sun’s harmful ultraviolet rays, contains ultraviolet filters (UVFs) which are meant to protect our skin. These filters have been under scrutiny for the potential harm they can inflict on marine ecosystems.&nbsp;



There is evidence suggesting that some UVFs are detrimental to corals, and as a result, places like Hawaii and Palau have implemented bans on certain types of sunscreen.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-massive-knowledge-gap-surrounding-sunscreens">Massive knowledge gap surrounding sunscreens</h2>



PhD candidate Aaron Boyd set out to examine the effects of these chemicals. Rather than solely focusing on individual chemicals, Boyd analyzed the interactions of the “chemical cocktail” in sunscreens.



“Researchers overwhelmingly perform studies testing the toxicity of UVFs in isolation by exposing test organisms to one chemical at a time,” said Boyd. He noted that only three percent of aquatic toxicology studies have actually investigated whole sunscreen mixtures, which he says leaves a “massive knowledge gap to be addressed.”



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted-on-aquatic-ecosystems">How the study was conducted on aquatic ecosystems</h2>



The study was focused on Daphnia water fleas, small invertebrates that are omnipresent in freshwater lakes around the globe. Daphnia serves as an indicator species that can be studied to learn how pollution may impact marine life.



Boyd compared the long-term toxicity of five different sunscreen mixtures as well as their individual UVFs on Daphnia.



<h2 id="h-surprising-results-about-impact-of-sunscreens">Surprising results about impact of sunscreens</h2>



“We were very surprised to find that sunscreen mixtures are much less toxic to Daphnia than what would be expected based on the quantity of each UV filter present within the mixtures,” said Boyd.&nbsp;



According to the study, the Daphnia could withstand long-term exposure to sunscreens containing octocrylene at concentrations over 50 times higher than what would be entirely lethal if exposed to the UVF alone.



Boyd noted that the rate of new chemical development and release is alarmingly faster than scientific investigation into the consequences of such contamination. He emphasized the importance of utilizing limited research resources judiciously by identifying which contaminants are truly harmful.



“We found that the other components of the sunscreen mixtures reduced the toxicity to such a large extent that perhaps these chemicals are not a contamination concern in most environments,” explained Boyd. This finding is significant as it suggests that previous studies may have been overestimating the toxicity of individual UV filters in aquatic environments.



“Regardless of any potential environmental toxicity of sunscreens, always wear sunscreen when going outside for an extended period of time," said Boyd. "The threat of cancer is much more severe than the potential effects that sunscreen contamination may cause!”



<h2 id="h-sunscreen-and-corals">Sunscreen and corals</h2>



Sunscreen and its potential impact on coral reefs have been a significant topic of concern in recent years. Many sunscreens <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/sunscreen-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">contain chemicals</a>, like oxybenzone and octinoxate, which are known to be harmful to coral reefs. 



These chemicals are found in many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-sunscreens-lose-effectiveness-and-become-harmful-during-use/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">popular sunscreens</a> as they effectively protect our skin from harmful ultraviolet rays. However, once they wash off in the ocean, they can cause damage to marine life.



When people wearing sunscreen go swimming in the ocean, some of the sunscreen washes off and remains in the water. As a result, these chemicals can reach high concentrations, particularly in popular swimming and snorkeling spots.



<h3 id="h-coral-bleaching">Coral bleaching</h3>



Research has shown that these chemicals can exacerbate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-is-sunscreen-impacting-coral-reefs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coral bleaching</a>, a phenomenon that occurs when corals under stress expel the algae living within their tissues, causing them to turn white. 



Coral bleaching is primarily caused by rising sea temperatures due to climate change. Still, the presence of harmful chemicals such as those found in sunscreen can make corals more susceptible to bleaching and disease.



<h3 id="h-stunted-development">Stunted development&nbsp;</h3>



Moreover, sunscreen chemicals can have a detrimental impact on the early developmental stages of corals.&nbsp;



Studies have shown that these chemicals can deform and kill coral larvae, reducing the ability of coral reefs to recover from other threats such as climate change, overfishing, and habitat destruction.



<h3 id="h-legislative-action">Legislative action&nbsp;</h3>



These discoveries have led to legislative action in several parts of the world. For instance, in 2018, Hawaii became the first US state to ban the sale of sunscreens containing oxybenzone and octinoxate, with the law taking effect in 2021. Palau, a Pacific Island nation, has also banned sunscreens containing these harmful chemicals.



To mitigate these harmful effects, researchers and companies are exploring alternatives to traditional sunscreens, such as "reef-safe" sunscreens, which do not contain oxybenzone or octinoxate. However, it's crucial to understand that the term "reef-safe" is not regulated, and the effectiveness and safety of these alternatives are still under scrutiny.



While this issue is complex and multi-faceted, reducing the use of harmful sunscreen chemicals is one way that individuals can help protect our oceans and the diverse life they support. Nonetheless, it's still crucial for us to protect our skin from the sun's harmful rays, so finding a balance is key.



—-



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Sunscreens may be less harmful to aquatic ecosystems than expected

An interesting study from the University of Alberta is providing...

Grape,Harvest

According to a recent study&nbsp; presented at the <a href="https://www.sebiology.org/events/seb-centenary-conference-2023.html">Society for Experimental Biology (SEB) Centenary Conference</a>, wild birds living in vineyards are highly susceptible to contamination by triazole fungicides,. This is a group of substances widely used to control fungal diseases in various crops, plants, and other agricultural settings.&nbsp;



The experts discovered that exposure to such fungicides at a field-realistic level can disrupt birds’ hormones and metabolism and thus impact their reproduction and survival.



“We found that birds can be highly contaminated by triazoles in vineyards,” said study leader Frédéric Angelier, a senior researcher at the <a href="https://www.cnrs.fr/en/cnrs">French National Center for Scientific Research</a>. 



“This contamination was much higher in vineyards relative to other crops, emphasizing that contaminants may especially put birds at risk in these specific agroecosystems.”



Although many previous studies of wildlife declines have already assessed the impact of various agricultural industries, until now the role of vineyards has largely been overlooked.&nbsp;



“However, vineyards cover a large proportion of lands in some European countries and, importantly, they are associated with a massive use of fungicides (up to 5-7 times more than in other crops). Therefore, vineyards are very relevant agroecosystems to assess the impacts of fungicides on wild birds,” Angelier explained.



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-on-wild-birds-was-conducted">How the research on wild birds was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



To examine the effects of such fungicides on specific aspects of bird health, the scientists combined field experiments designed to measure real-world fungicide levels with controlled laboratory experiments.&nbsp;



While laboratory investigations of the impact of pesticides on wildlife frequently use higher concentrations of pesticides than those used in real-world settings to elicit stronger reactions, this study measured the real contamination of fungicides in birds living in vineyards and other ecosystems such as crop fields, forests, or cities.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



By accurately replicating the fungicide concentrations measured in vineyards in laboratory conditions, the researchers shed new light on how wild birds are genuinely affected by pesticides in realistic settings.&nbsp;



The analysis revealed that, by disrupting their metabolism and hormon levels, exposure to triazole fungicides can have major impacts on wild birds’ reproduction and survival and thus potentially lead to a loss of biodiversity and ecological services (such as birds eating other pests).



These findings highlight the urgent need to consider the detrimental effects of triazole fungicides on bird populations living in vineyards and to develop more sustainable agricultural practices to mitigate these risks and safeguard biodiversity.



<h2 id="h-more-about-fungicides">More about fungicides&nbsp;</h2>



Fungicides are a type of pesticide used to control fungal diseases by inhibiting or killing the fungus causing the disease. They are widely used in agriculture to control fungal diseases in crops, which can cause significant yield loss and affect the quality of produce. In some cases, these substances are also used to control fungal diseases in humans and animals.



<h3 id="h-two-main-types">Two main types&nbsp;</h3>



<h4 id="h-contact-fungicides">Contact fungicides</h4>



These fungicides are not absorbed by the plant tissue and only protect the plant where the spray is deposited. They are typically used to control surface fungi.



<h4 id="h-systemic-fungicides">Systemic fungicides</h4>



These are absorbed and redistributed through the plant tissues, providing more comprehensive protection. Systemic fungicides are typically used for diseases that affect areas of the plant that are difficult to reach with contact fungicides, such as the roots or the inside of the plant.



Fungicides work in various ways, with most targeting specific biological processes in the fungi that they inhibit or kill. For example, some of these substances disrupt the process of cell division in fungi, while others inhibit the production of essential fungal proteins.



While fungicides can be very effective, their use must be managed carefully to avoid the development of resistance, which can occur when a fungus evolves to be less sensitive to a particular fungicide. This is often managed by rotating between fungicides with different modes of action.



While fungicides are generally safe when used properly, some can be harmful to humans or the environment. For this reason, it's important to use them responsibly and follow all safety instructions. There is an ongoing effort in research and development to create more environmentally friendly fungicides.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Wild birds are significantly threatened by vineyard fungicides

According to a recent study&nbsp; presented at the Society for...

An,Elephant,Is,Eating,Grass,By,The,River.

Although it is common knowledge that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/african-elephants-choose-paths-leading-to-their-favorite-food/">elephants</a> eat plants, figuring out exactly what type of plants they consume is more challenging. 



In a study led by <a href="https://www.brown.edu/">Brown University</a>, an international team of conservation biologists has recently used innovative methods to analyze the dietary habits of two groups of elephants in Kenya. This was done in an effort to precisely identify the specific types of plants individual members of the groups eat.&nbsp;



Better understanding the dietary preferences of individual elephants could help answer important questions about the foraging behaviors of various elephant groups. This could help experts devise better conservation approaches to keep elephants not only sated but satisfied.



“It’s really important for conservationists to keep in mind that when animals don’t get enough of the foods that they need, they may survive -&nbsp; but they may not prosper,” said senior author Tyler Kartzinel, an assistant professor of Environmental Studies and of Ecology, Evolution, and Organismal Biology at Brown.&nbsp;



“By better understanding what each individual eats, we can better manage iconic species like elephants, rhinos, and bison to ensure their populations can grow in sustainable ways.”



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



The experts used a cutting-edge genetic technique called DNA metabarcoding to identify the composition of biological samples by matching the DNA fragments representing an elephant’s diet to a library of plant DNA barcodes. 



This is the first time this method has been used to answer pressing questions about social foraging ecology, i.e. how members of a social group (such as a family) decide what foods to consume.



“When I talk to non-ecologists, they are stunned to learn that we have never really had a clear picture of what all of these charismatic large mammals actually eat in nature,” Kartzinel said.&nbsp;



“The reason is that these animals are difficult and dangerous to observe from up-close, they move long distances, they feed at night and in thick bush, and a lot of the plants they feed on are quite small.” In addition, their food is also highly difficult to identify by visual observations alone, even by expert botanists.



By using a method called “stable isotope analysis,” which consists of chemical analyses of animal hair, previous research conducted two decades ago by two of the study authors – George Wittemyer from <a href="https://www.colostate.edu/">Colorado State University</a> and Thure Cerling from the <a href="https://www.utah.edu/">University of Utah</a> – has found that elephants switch from eating fresh grasses during the rainy season to eating trees during the long dry season. 



Although the researchers managed to discover broad-scale dietary patterns, they could not identify the different types of plants individual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephants-are-forest-gardeners-that-help-reduce-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elephants</a> eat.



Now, by using (still viable) fecal samples collected by Wittmeyer and Cerling 20 years ago, the scientists combined analyses of carbon stable isotopes from elephant hair and feces with DNA metabarcoding, GPS-tracking, and remote-sensing data to reliably pinpoint dietary variations of individual elephants in the two groups.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-unique-dietary-preferences">Unique dietary preferences </h2>



The analysis - which involved matching each unique DNA sequence in the sample to a collection of reference plants and comparing the diets of individual elephants through time – revealed that dietary differences among individuals were frequently far greater than had been previously assumed.&nbsp;



These surprising findings held even in the case of family members foraging together on a specific day. The results could also help address a classic paradox that wildlife ecologists struggled with for decades: given the fact that all elephants apparently eat the same types of plants, why isn’t competition for food pushing family groups apart and force them to forage independently?



According to Kartzinel, the answer could be that elephants vary their diets based not only on what is available, but also on their specific preferences and physiological needs. 



For instance, a pregnant elephant may have different requirements and cravings at various times during her pregnancy. Thus, since individual elephants will not always eat exactly the same plants at the same time, there will usually be enough plants for all the members of a group.



<h2 id="h-future-implications-of-knowing-what-elephants-eat">Future implications of knowing what elephants eat</h2>



This crucial discovery could have major implications for conservation biologists. It will provide them with insights into creating environments with a wide variety of plants in order to help elephants successfully reproduce and increase their populations. 



At the same time, it will decrease the chances of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephants-can-be-very-cooperative-until-the-food-gets-scarce/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">inter-species competition</a> and prevent animals from poaching human food sources, such as crops.



“Wildlife populations need access to diverse dietary resources to prosper. Each elephant needs variety, a little bit of spice — not literally in their food, but in their dietary habits,” Kartzinel concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.230337">Royal Society Open Science</a>.&nbsp;



<h2>More about elephants</h2>



Elephants, magnificent creatures known for their intelligence, strength, and memory, have been an integral part of our world's rich biodiversity. However, their survival hangs in the balance due to human activities. Understanding their conservation status is essential to build effective strategies to protect them.



<h3>A Brief Overview</h3>



There are three recognized species of elephants: the African bush elephant, the African forest elephant, and the Asian elephant.



African bush elephants hold the title of the world's largest land animal, while their forest counterparts and the Asian elephants are somewhat smaller. Their trunks, large ears, and long tusks are iconic features that set them apart. But these impressive physical traits are not merely for show.



Elephants use their trunks for various tasks, including feeding, drinking, and social interactions. Their large ears help dissipate heat, and the tusks, elongated incisor teeth, serve as tools for digging and weapons in fights.



<h3>Life and Habitat - What Elephants Eat</h3>



Elephants are highly social creatures, with matriarchal family units at the core of their society. They live in a variety of habitats, from forests to deserts, provided there's sufficient water and food. Elephants are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/african-elephants-choose-paths-leading-to-their-favorite-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">herbivores</a>, feeding on a diet that includes grass, bark, roots, and leaves.



However, their home ranges are shrinking dramatically due to human activities. Deforestation for agriculture, infrastructure development, and logging, coupled with the encroachment of human settlements, has resulted in significant habitat loss for these giants.



<h3>Elephants and Conservation</h3>



Sadly, all three species of elephants face severe threats that have led to their classification as vulnerable or endangered by the <a href="https://cites.org/eng/prog/terrestrial_fauna/elephants" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)</a>.



<h3>African Bush Elephant</h3>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/poaching-has-long-term-impacts-on-elephants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">African bush elephant</a>, once widespread across Africa, is now listed as 'Endangered.' Their population has seen a steep decline, driven primarily by poaching for ivory and habitat loss.



<h3>African Forest Elephant</h3>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/african-forest-elephants-are-running-out-of-fruit/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">African forest elephant's</a> situation is even more alarming. Classified as 'Critically Endangered,' they suffer heavy losses from both habitat loss, due to extensive logging and mining activities, and ivory poaching.



<h3>Asian Elephant</h3>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/for-asian-elephants-shrinking-habitats-will-increase-conflicts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Asian elephant</a>, with its habitat ranging from India to Southeast Asia, faces similar challenges and is classified as 'Endangered.' Apart from habitat loss and human-elephant conflicts, the capture of wild elephants for tourism and entertainment purposes also contributes to their population decline.



<h3>Conservation Efforts</h3>



Recognizing the urgency of the situation, various global and local organizations are intensifying their conservation efforts. Key strategies include habitat preservation, anti-poaching initiatives, and policymaking to mitigate human-elephant conflicts.



Protected areas like national parks and wildlife reserves are crucial to ensure safe habitats for elephants. Anti-poaching laws and enforcement need to be stringent, as illegal hunting for ivory remains a major threat.



The international trade in ivory, banned by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), requires continuous monitoring and regulation.



In regions where elephants and humans coexist closely, the implementation of conflict mitigation measures is crucial. This includes building fences around agricultural lands, creating early warning systems, and educating communities about living harmoniously with elephants.



Lastly, captive elephant welfare needs attention. Stricter regulations should ensure ethical treatment, and the phase-out of elephants from exploitative practices in tourism and entertainment should be promoted.



<h3>Summary</h3>



Elephants are not just iconic wildlife; they are also 'keystone' species that help maintain the health and diversity of ecosystems. Their conservation is not a matter of choice but an absolute necessity.



We have a collective responsibility to ensure these magnificent animals continue to roam our planet freely, just as nature intended.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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What do elephants eat? Study shows they have unique dietary preferences

Although it is common knowledge that elephants eat plants, figuring...

A groundbreaking study from the <a href="https://www.umoncton.ca/">Université de Moncton</a> in New Brunswick is providing new insights about the potential role of omega-3 rich oils in counteracting the damaging effects of pesticides on pollinators.&nbsp;



Led by PhD student Hichem Menail, the research indicates that an oil known as "ahiflower oil" may hold the key to shielding honey bees from mitochondrial damage inflicted by neonicotinoid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bees-cannot-fly-straight-after-ingesting-pesticides/">pesticides</a>.



"Pesticides are a major threat to insect populations and as insects are at the core of ecosystem richness and balance, any loss in insect biodiversity can lead to catastrophic outcome,” said Menail. He emphasized the gravity of the situation, noting that the global decline of pollinators, largely attributed to pesticides, could have dire implications for food crop production worldwide.



<h2 id="h-use-of-neonicotinoids-persists">Use of neonicotinoids persists&nbsp;</h2>



Neonicotinoids, a class of insecticides known for their toxic effects, have been a subject of intense scrutiny. In particular, imidacloprid, one of the most frequently utilized neonicotinoid pesticides across the globe, has received considerable attention.&nbsp;



Despite the European Union's decision to ban outdoor use of imidacloprid and two other neonicotinoids in 2018, their usage persists in other parts of the world, including the United States.



"Neonicotinoids are among the most toxic and the most harmful insecticides," noted Menail. "They are used extensively and are very persistent in the environment. Thus, it is practically impossible to prevent honey bees from being exposed and eventually poisoned.”&nbsp;



This leaves researchers seeking alternative solutions, such as strengthening honey bees' immune systems and metabolic processes to better endure the impacts of these chemical pollutants.



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



Menail and his team executed an experiment to explore the potential benefits of omega-3 rich oils on bees chronically exposed to a neonicotinoid pesticide.



The researchers fed three distinct groups of bees with sucrose syrup, each containing a different concoction: one laced with the pesticide alone, another with ahiflower oil alone, and the final group received a combination of the two. After 25 days, the team measured the bees’ mitochondrial respiration.



<h2 id="h-what-the-experts-discovered">What the experts discovered&nbsp;</h2>



The results confirmed the team's initial theory about imidacloprid's disruptive impact on mitochondrial respiration.&nbsp;



Even more exhilarating was the discovery of ahiflower oil's immediate beneficial effect on the bees' mitochondrial respiration. Bees that consumed a mixture of imidacloprid and ahiflower oil managed to recover their respiration rates to levels on par with the controls.



The findings suggest potential applications in the form of Omega-3 supplements that could help mitigate the mortality rates of honey bees caused by pesticides.&nbsp;



“We believe that this strategy is promising,” said Menail. “By improving their respiration through ahiflower oil supplementation, we believe that mitochondria can increase their ATP production and thus improve overall performance of honey bees, as well as their immune system.”



Ultimately, the research offers some hope for threatened pollinators, hinting at a sustainable approach that could potentially enhance their resilience against the pervasive threat of pesticides. The journey to understand the full benefits of ahiflower oil is just beginning, but the prospects are promising.



<h2 id="h-more-about-omega-3-oils">More about omega-3 oils&nbsp;</h2>



Omega-3 fatty acids are a type of polyunsaturated fat that are essential for various functions in the body. They are termed "essential" because our bodies can't make them, so we need to get them from our diet.



There are three main types of omega-3 fatty acids: alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA).



ALA is a plant-based omega-3 found in high amounts in flaxseeds, chia seeds, hemp seeds, walnuts, and certain oils such as flaxseed oil and canola oil. The body can convert a small amount of ALA into EPA and DHA, but not very efficiently.



EPA and DHA are marine-based omega-3s found in fatty fish, such as salmon, mackerel, tuna, and trout, and in algae. They are more readily used by the body and have been linked to many health benefits.



Omega-3 fatty acids have been studied extensively for their health benefits. They are most well-known for their heart health benefits, including reducing triglycerides, blood pressure, and the risk of heart disease. However, they also play a crucial role in brain health, reducing inflammation, and may help reduce the risk of other diseases such as arthritis and depression.



Ahiflower oil, which was mentioned previously, is a plant-derived oil that contains a unique combination of fatty acids. It provides a source of omega-3 fatty acids, specifically stearidonic acid (SDA), which is more efficiently converted to EPA in the body than ALA. This makes ahiflower oil a promising plant-based alternative to fish oils for getting omega-3 fatty acids.



In terms of nutritional supplementation, omega-3s are available in a variety of forms, including fish oil supplements, krill oil supplements, and plant-based supplements like ahiflower oil or flaxseed oil.&nbsp;



—-



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Omega-3 oil may help protect pollinators from pesticides

A groundbreaking study from the Université de Moncton in New...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-snowstorms-impact-breeding-success-of-petrels/">Petrels</a> are a group of wide-ranging migratory seabirds - including species such as the Northern Fulmar, the European Storm-petrel, and the critically endangered Newell’s Shearwater – that play a key role in oceanic food webs.&nbsp;



Scientists have already warned that many petrel species are already threatened with extinction due to climate change, bycatch, competition with fisheries, and invasive species such as rats and mice on their breeding colonies.&nbsp;



Now, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a> has found that plastic pollution is another major threat for the health of these birds, and could further reduce their resilience to the other threats they are exposed to.&nbsp;



Due to the breadth of their distribution across the world’s oceans, these birds are important “sentinel species” when assessing the risks of plastic pollution in marine ecosystems.



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



The experts overlaid global tracking data assessing the movements of 7,137 individual birds from 77 species of petrel onto pre-existing maps of marine plastic distribution. This method allowed them to identify specific places along the birds’ migration and foraging journeys where they are most likely to encounter plastics.&nbsp;



Each species was given an “exposure risk score” indicating their risk of encountering plastic debris during their time at sea.



<h2 id="h-exposure-in-the-high-seas">Exposure in the high seas</h2>



The analysis revealed that plastic pollution threatens marine life on a scale transcending national boundaries, with a quarter of all plastic exposures occurring in the high seas.&nbsp;



This worrisome phenomenon is likely caused by large systems of rotating ocean currents called gyres where massive accumulations of plastics form, fed by waste entering the seas from many different countries, as well as from a large number of boats.



Seabirds frequently mistake small plastic pieces for food, or end up ingesting plastic already consumed by their prey, leading to injury, poisoning, and starvation. Moreover, during the breeding season, petrels often inadvertently feed plastic to their chicks.&nbsp;



Since they can’t easily regurgitate the plastic, petrels are particularly vulnerable to the toxic chemicals it contains.



“Ocean currents cause big swirling collections of plastic rubbish to accumulate far from land, way out of sight and beyond the jurisdiction of any one country. We found that many species of petrel spend considerable amounts of time feeding around these mid-ocean gyres, which puts them at high risk of ingesting plastic debris,” said joint corresponding author Lizzie Pearmain, a doctoral student in Zoology at Cambridge.&nbsp;



“When petrels eat plastic, it can get stuck in their stomachs and be fed to their chicks. This leaves less space for food, and can cause internal injuries or release toxins.”



<h2 id="h-plastic-pollution-hotspots">Plastic pollution hotspots</h2>



According to the researchers, the North-East Pacific, the South Atlantic, and the South-West Indian oceans – where a vast number of threatened seabirds forage – have mid-ocean gyres full of plastic waste.&nbsp;



Moreover, the investigation also revealed that the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea together account for more than half of petrels’ global plastic exposure risk, although only four species of petrel forage in these regions.



<h2 id="h-plastic-exposure-risk">Plastic exposure risk&nbsp;</h2>



Among the seabird species with the highest plastic exposure risk were several already threatened ones, such as the critically endangered Balearic Shearwater, which breeds in the Mediterranean; the Newell’s Shearwater, endemic to Hawaii; and the Hawaiian Petrel.&nbsp;



Other seabird species that scored high for plastic exposure included three classified as “vulnerable” – the Yelkouan Shearwater, which breeds in the Mediterranean, the Cook’s Petrel, which breeds in New Zealand, and the Spectacled Petrel, which only breeds on an extinct volcano from the Tristan da Cunha archipelago known as the Inaccessible Island.



“Even species with low exposure risk have been found to eat plastic. This shows that plastic levels in the ocean are a problem for seabirds worldwide, even outside of these high exposure areas,” said joint corresponding author Bethany Clark, a Seabird Science Officer at <a href="https://www.birdlife.org/">BirdLife International</a>.



“Many petrel species risk exposure to plastic in the waters of several countries and the high seas during their migrations. Due to ocean currents, this plastic debris often ends up far away from its original source. This highlights the need for international cooperation to tackle plastic pollution in the world’s oceans.”



“While the population-level effects of plastic exposure are not yet known for most species, many petrels and other marine species are already in a precarious situation. Continued exposure to potentially dangerous plastics adds to the pressures,” added co-author Andrea Manica, a zoologist at Cambridge.



“This study is a big leap forward in understanding the situation, and our results will feed into conservation work to try and address the threats to birds at sea.”



The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-38900-z">Nature Communications</a>.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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World’s most endangered seabirds are also threatened by plastic pollution

Petrels are a group of wide-ranging migratory seabirds - including...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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