In the wild mountain ranges of Morocco and northeast Algeria, there’s a small, shimmering butterfly that most people have never heard of. It flutters through cedar forests and scrubby hillsides, unnoticed by nearly everyone. But deep inside its cells, this insect is doing something no other animal has ever been seen to do.



This butterfly, called the Atlas blue, just set a world record. And scientists are paying attention - not just because it’s rare, but because its strange biology could help us understand one of the most complex problems in science: how species evolve, and even how cancer works.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-butterfly-with-chopped-up-chromosomes">Butterfly with chopped up chromosomes </h2>



Inside every living thing, from a mushroom to a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-whale-species-is-already-threatened-with-extinction/">whale</a>, there’s DNA - the instruction manual of life. That DNA is packaged into structures called chromosomes. Humans have 23 pairs, and most butterflies have 23 or 24 pairs.



The Atlas blue butterfly carries 229 pairs of chromosomes - more than any other multicellular animal. Scientists had long suspected it held the record, and new genome sequencing has now confirmed it.



And here’s what’s even more surprising: the butterfly's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dna-analysis-can-predict-which-animals-are-at-risk-of-extinction/">DNA</a> hasn’t been duplicated. Instead, the chromosomes have been chopped up into smaller pieces - like taking 24 books and ripping them into 229 booklets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-peek-into-evolution-s-toolbox">A peek into evolution’s toolbox</h2>



The researchers behind the new study came from the <a href="https://www.sanger.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wellcome Sanger Institute</a> in the UK and the Institute of Evolutionary Biology in Barcelona. They produced the first-ever high-quality genome for the Atlas blue and discovered that its extra chromosomes were not caused by copying, but by splitting.



This process happened fast in evolutionary terms. In about three million years, the butterfly went from 24 to 229 chromosomes. That’s like a blink of an eye for species development.



The cuts happened in parts of the DNA that were loosely packed. That means the total genetic information didn’t really change, it was just reorganized. All of the chromosomes, except for sex chromosomes, were broken up.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-rapidly-evolving-butterfly">A rapidly evolving butterfly </h2>



Changes in chromosome number are one way that species evolve. They can affect how genes are turned on or off, how traits are passed down, and how well an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genomics-can-help-farm-animals-adapt-to-climate-change/">animal adapts</a> to its environment. The Atlas blue butterfly belongs to a group that evolved rapidly, creating lots of closely related species.



This new research helps explain how that might have happened. The split chromosomes may have allowed more mixing and matching of DNA, possibly helping the species survive in tough environments.



But that same complexity could also come with risks. Too many chromosomes might make a species more vulnerable over time. And unfortunately, the Atlas blue is already in trouble. Climate change, overgrazing, and destruction of cedar forests are putting pressure on its populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-butterfly-chromosomes-and-cancer">Butterfly chromosomes and cancer</h2>



The implications go far beyond butterflies. Professor Mark Blaxter noted that genomes hold the key to how a creature came to be, but also, where it might go in the future.



“To be able to tell the story of our planet, we must have the story of each species and see where they overlap and interact with each other. It also allows us to apply learnings from one genome to another."



"For example, rearranging <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-chromosomes-have-conserved-specific-elements-for-600-million-years/">chromosomes</a> is also seen in human cancer cells, and understanding this process in the Atlas blue butterfly could help find ways to limit or stop this in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-scientist-discovers-that-common-non-cancer-drugs-when-combined-can-kill-cancer-cells/">cancer cells</a> in the future.”



That might seem like a stretch - a tiny insect helping us battle a major disease - but it’s happened before. From bacteria to mice and worms, scientists have used all kinds of living things to understand human health. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-extreme-atlas-blue-butterfly">The extreme Atlas blue butterfly</h2>



There are still big questions to answer. What benefits, if any, come from having so many chromosomes? Are there specific genes that make this butterfly more adaptable? Could this give clues about how life responds to a changing planet?



“When we set out to start to understand <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-the-story-of-early-animal-evolution/">evolution</a> in butterflies, we knew we had to sequence the most extreme, and somewhat mysterious, Atlas blue butterfly,” said Dr. Charlotte Wright, first author of the study. 



She noted that it was thanks to Dr. Roger Vila, who had previously worked with his colleague to find and identify this elusive butterfly, that the team was able to sequence this species.



"Being able to see, in detail, how the Atlas blue butterfly chromosomes have been split over time in specific places, we can start to investigate what benefits this might have, how it impacts their ability to adapt to their environment, and whether there are any lessons we can learn from their DNA that might aid conservation in the future.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-species-evolution">Understanding species evolution</h2>



This kind of research is just the beginning. The team now has a “gold-standard” genome to compare with other butterflies and moths, opening the door to understanding more about how species split, adapt, or vanish.



“Breaking down chromosomes has been seen in other species of butterflies, but not on this level, suggesting that there are important reasons for this process which we can now start to explore," said Dr. Vila, senior author of the study. 



"Additionally, as chromosomes hold all the secrets of a species, investigating whether these changes impact a butterfly’s behavior could help form a full picture of how and why new species occur."



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)01098-X?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS096098222501098X%3Fshowall%3Dtrue">Current Biology</a>.



Image Credit: Roger Vila



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Butterfly sets an astonishing  chromosome record

In the wild mountain ranges of Morocco and northeast Algeria, there’s a small, shimmering butterfly that most people have never heard of. It flutters through cedar forests and scrubby hillsides, unnoticed by nearly everyone. But deep inside its cells, this insect is doing something no other animal has ever been seen to do. This butterfly, called the Atlas blue, just set a world record. And scientists are paying attention - not just because it’s rare, but because its strange biology could help us understand one of the...

In the harsh saltpans of North Africa, a unique breed of ants displays remarkable navigational prowess. These desert ants, known as Cataglyphis fortis, traverse vast expanses of desert to gather food for their colonies, journeying far from their nests into this barren and hostile terrain.&nbsp;



The real challenge, however, begins once the ants find food - typically a deceased insect - and must promptly navigate back to their nest through the extremely hot and desolate environment.



Marilia Freire, the lead author of a recent study published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2023.05.019">Current Biology</a>, spoke about the impressive orientation abilities of these insects. "The desert ant Cataglyphis fortis stands out due to its exceptional ability to navigate and forage in the harshest environments," she said.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-ants-have-a-fascinating-internal-navigation-system">Ants have a fascinating internal navigation system</h2>



According to Freire, these ants employ an innate navigation mechanism known as path integration, using a sun compass and step counter to track their covered distances. The ants also use both visible and olfactory cues, an ability likely refined through evolution in their arduous habitat, resulting in a navigation system unparalleled in precision.



The research team, observing these ants in Tunisia, noted an intriguing aspect of their nest structures. The nests situated in the center of the saltpans, where landmarks are sparse, had high mounds at their entrances.&nbsp;



Conversely, nests closer to the shrub-laden edges of the saltpans boasted less pronounced or barely discernible hills. This led the researchers to question if these distinct differences were aiding the ants in homing back to their nests.



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted</h2>



Markus Knaden of the <a href="https://www.ice.mpg.de/">Max Plank Institute for Chemical Ecology</a> described the goal of the study: "It's always challenging to determine if an animal's behavior is purposeful or coincidental. The high nest mounds in the saltpan's center could be an outcome of varying soil structures or wind conditions. For our study, we devised a plan to remove these mounds. We then provided some nests with artificial landmarks and left others without, closely observing the resultant behavior."



The researchers tracked the ants' movements using a GPS device. This method allowed for detailed monitoring of the ants' paths to the saltpans and their journeys back home.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



Freire revealed a surprising discovery: "We noted that desert ants can travel much farther distances than we previously thought, with the longest single distance being over two kilometers. However, we also found a high mortality rate, with around 20% of foraging ants failing to return home after long journeys, succumbing to the harsh conditions. This phenomenon underscores the extreme selective pressure for superior orientation."



Further experiments indicated the vital role of nest hills as visual cues. The researchers painted a grid on the floor, which helped track the ants' movements accurately during their final approach to the nest.&nbsp;



When the nest hills were removed, fewer ants were able to find their way back. Simultaneously, their colony members began rebuilding nest mounds as quickly as possible.&nbsp;



Interestingly, when artificial landmarks - small black cylinders - were placed near the nest entrances from which the researchers had removed mounds, the ants did not invest in constructing new ones, suggesting the cylinders were adequate for orientation.



<h2 id="h-many-questions-left-unanswered">Many questions left unanswered</h2>



In ant colonies, work is divided among the members. Older and more experienced ants typically undertake foraging, while younger ants are tasked with building.&nbsp;



Thus, there must be some communication flow between these groups, though the researchers are still unclear about how this is accomplished. Freire speculated that ants inside the nest might notice fewer foragers returning home, prompting an increase in hill-building activities at the nest entrance.



Markus Knaden, who has been studying desert ants for a quarter of a century, continues to be captivated by their extraordinary capabilities. "These ants, despite their small brains, can learn visual and olfactory cues."



<h2 id="h-more-about-ants">More about ants&nbsp;</h2>



Ants are an integral part of the insect family Formicidae and belong to the order Hymenoptera, which also includes bees and wasps. They are known for their complex social structures and exceptional survival skills. Ant colonies can be found almost everywhere, except Antarctica and a few islands.



Ants come in a wide range of sizes and colors, from as small as 0.03 inches to as large as 2 inches in length. Their colonies are organized with various roles including the queen, workers, soldiers, and in some species, drones. Each caste has a specific duty within the colony.



<h3 id="h-ants-have-a-caste-system">Ants have a caste system</h3>



The queen is the primary reproducing female, usually the largest in the colony, responsible for laying all of the eggs. Some colonies have multiple queens.&nbsp;



The workers, which are typically sterile females, perform tasks like food gathering, nest maintenance, and brood care.&nbsp;



The soldiers are larger workers who defend the colony. Drones are the male ants, whose primary purpose is to mate with the queen.



<h3 id="h-communication-and-diet">Communication and diet</h3>



Ants have a unique form of communication involving pheromones. These chemical signals allow them to leave trails that other ants can follow, alert colony members to danger, and even guide them to food sources.



Their diet varies widely and can include seeds, nectar, fungus, or even other insects and small animals. Some species, like leafcutter ants, farm their own food. They cut pieces of leaves and carry them back to their colony to cultivate a special type of fungus that they eat.



<h3 id="h-extraordinary-strength">Extraordinary strength</h3>



One fascinating aspect of ants is their strength. They can carry objects 50 times their own body weight. This is due to their small size, which allows them to produce more force relative to their body weight.



<h3 id="h-impressive-construction-ability">Impressive construction ability</h3>



Ants are also known for their complex mound-building behaviors, creating intricate underground tunnel systems. Some species, like the red harvester ant, build their nests in a way that helps regulate temperature, humidity, and gas exchange.



<h3 id="h-important-role-in-earth-s-ecosystems">Important role in Earth’s ecosystems</h3>



The study of ants, known as myrmecology, has provided important insights into topics like social organization, navigation, and symbiosis. Ants often form symbiotic relationships with other insects, plants, and even fungi. Their success as a species is often attributed to their social structure, adaptability, and ability to modify habitats.



Despite being small, ants play a crucial role in the environment. They turn and aerate the soil, allowing water and oxygen to reach plant roots. They also help control pests by preying on eggs, larvae, and adults of various pest species.



There are more than 12,000 described species of ants. However, scientists believe there are many more still undiscovered, particularly in tropical areas. Ants have survived on Earth for over 100 million years, which speaks volumes about their adaptability and resilience.



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Ants build higher nests when there are no visible landmarks

In the harsh saltpans of North Africa, a unique breed...

Once threatened by disease and predators and experiencing massive population declines in the 1990s, the tiny channel island foxes off the coast of Southern California (Urocyon littoralis) were saved from extinction in 2016 by the Endangered Species Act. 



Unfortunately, a team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.usc.edu/">University of Southern California</a> (USC) has now found that this species is now facing another threat which could possibly jeopardize their survival and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-biodiversity-crisis-is-actually-worse-than-we-thought/">biodiversity</a> of their habitats: a marked decrease in their genetic diversity.



“The findings of this study highlight the alarming fact that the foxes currently inhabiting six of the Channel Islands possess extremely low genetic diversity, rendering them potentially more susceptible to dangers such as disease outbreaks and climate-induced environmental shifts,” said senior author Suzanne Edmands, a professor of Biological Sciences at USC.



<h2 id="h-significance-of-studying-the-channel-island-foxes">Significance of studying the channel island foxes</h2>



As the largest native land animals on the Channel Islands, these bushy-tailed, big-eared foxes play a critical role in regulating plant and animal populations, by feeding upon a variety of food sources, such as fruit, insects, snails, lizards, birds, and rodents. In fact, many plant species heavily rely on channel island foxes to distribute their seeds through their scat.



“The importance of these animals to the overall biodiversity of the island can’t be over-emphasized. Without them, we could lose other species as well,” Edmands said.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



By comparing historic museum specimens and modern blood samples, the experts discovered that the foxes exhibited an extremely low genetic variation even before their population declines. This variation has further dropped since their population numbers fell, particularly on the islands of San Miguel and Santa Rosa. Other islands, such as Santa Cruz and Santa Catalina, where populations fell moderately, displayed mixed changes in genetic diversity metrics.



Although placing the channel island foxes on the endangered species list from 2004 to 2016 played a major role in their population recovery – with increase from 100 specimens to over 2,000 on Santa Catalina, and from 15 to 1,200 on Santa Rosa – their low genetic diversity continues to hinder their ability to adapt to future challenges, such as climate change and introduced diseases.



However, the researchers also discovered a reasonably good diversity within the foxes’ gut microbiome, which helps boosting immunity and well-being. “This discovery suggests that the foxes may have developed an alternative mechanism to cope with changing environmental conditions,” Edmands explained.



<h2 id="h-what-is-the-best-conservation-strategy">What is the best conservation strategy?</h2>



The analysis also revealed an increased divergence between the six islands over time, a feature complicating the possible conservation strategy of moving channel island foxes between islands to increase genetic variation. Such a method could inadvertently disrupt local adaptation by producing offspring that are less fit and adapted to their specific environments.



Due to their limited capacity to respond to new challenges, long-term monitoring of their populations is crucial, including non-invasive monitoring by sequencing bacterial communities in their scat.



“The recovery of the channel island foxes population numbers is an incredible conservation success, but their fragile genetic condition means that continued vigilance is critical to ensure their survival,” Edmands concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/mec.17025">Molecular Ecology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Channel Island foxes threatened by low genetic diversity

Once threatened by disease and predators and experiencing massive population...

How do flying insects like important <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/south-african-daisy-creates-fake-flies-to-attract-pollinators/">pollinators</a> locate odor sources in the great outdoors, despite encountering highly variable wind conditions? They use odor plumes - which travel like smoke and form when the wind blows odor molecules from their source - to track down sources such as flowers or pheromones.



But wind tunnels are typically unable to replicate realistic outdoor wind conditions. A study published in the AIP journal&nbsp;<a href="https://pubs.aip.org/pof">Physics of Fluids</a> explores microscale wind conditions in various outdoor environments to investigate what flying insects might experience while tracking odor plumes.



Study co-authors Jaleesa Houle and Floris Van Breugel from the <a href="https://www.unr.edu/">University of Nevada at Reno</a> assessed the mechanical turbulence produced by ambient wind flowing over surface roughness elements such as buildings, trees, and fences and its role in odor plume tracking.



“Since we’re studying wind dynamics within the surface roughness sublayer, most known atmospheric similarity theories that describe properties of the wind profile are not applicable,” said Houle. “So, we use statistical analysis to find both spatial and temporally significant correlations between wind measurements for various sites where we collected data.”



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers collected near-surface wind data from several sage steppe (shrub-filled grassland), forest, and urban areas in Northern Nevada and discovered near-surface wind direction is often highly variable over timescales of less than 10 minutes. They also found wind direction variability to be consistently higher in environments with greater surface complexity (urban areas) and lower at higher wind speeds.



“This is important because insects are typically tracking odor plumes in lower wind speeds, which indicates they are somehow making sense of the high directional variability they encounter,” said Houle. “Turbulence intensity is strongly correlated with standard deviations in wind direction, which might be useful for future wind tunnel experimental designs aimed at recreating more ‘natural’ winds.”



<h2 id="h-what-the-experts-learned">What the experts learned&nbsp;</h2>



Based on their findings, Houle and van Breugel hypothesize an optimal range of wind speed and environmental surface complexity may exist to help insects locate an odor source.



“Further experiments will be needed to test our hypothesis and may help us better understand the implications of land fragmentation on the success of ecologically significant plume tracking insects, such as pollinators,” said Houle.&nbsp;



“Beyond this, our results give a compelling reason for researchers to focus on increasing directional variability in wind tunnel studies if they want to uncover plume tracking behaviors that more closely resemble what we might see in nature.”



Next, the researchers will apply their findings to plume tracking wind tunnel experiments and a series of outdoor studies.



“During the summer, we plan to test our hypothesis regarding the types of wind conditions insects might prefer while tracking odor plumes,” said Houle. “In the lab, we’re actively looking for ways to create greater directional variability to better mimic natural wind.”



<h2 id="h-more-about-how-insects-fly">More about how insects fly</h2>



 Insect flight is a remarkable natural phenomenon that has intrigued scientists for centuries. Despite their seemingly erratic patterns, insects are actually incredibly skilled fliers, capable of executing complex maneuvers that even our most advanced aircraft can't duplicate.



At the heart of an insect's flying ability are its wings, which are made of a thin, flexible cuticle - the same material that makes up the insect's exoskeleton. The wings are incredibly light, yet strong enough to withstand the rapid, vigorous beating required for flight.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-two-pairs-of-wings">Two pairs of wings&nbsp;</h3>



Insects typically have two pairs of wings, although in some species, like flies (Diptera), the second pair of wings has evolved into structures known as halteres that help in balance and navigation.



Insect flight involves two primary wing-beating patterns: the figure-eight and the clap-and-fling.



<h4 id="h-figure-eight-pattern">Figure-eight pattern&nbsp;</h4>



This is the most common pattern and is employed by bees, flies, and many other insects. The insect moves its wings in a figure-eight pattern, creating a swirl of air (vortex) above the wing that produces lift. It's an efficient way of flying that allows insects to hover in place, fly backward, and quickly change direction.



<h4 id="h-clap-and-fling-pattern">Clap-and-fling pattern</h4>



In this method, used by smaller insects like thrips and some kinds of beetles, the insect claps its wings together above its body and then flings them apart. When the wings fling apart, the air rushes in to fill the void, creating a vortex that generates lift.



One of the major differences between insect flight and bird or plane flight is how lift is created. Birds and airplanes create lift by moving forward, with air flowing faster over the top of the wing than the bottom due to its shape (an effect described by Bernoulli's principle). Insects, on the other hand, generate lift by flapping their wings back and forth at high frequencies.



Insects are also able to control the angle at which their wings beat, known as the "angle of attack," allowing them to change direction quickly or hover in place. They have an incredible amount of control over their flight, capable of near-instant changes in speed and direction.



The ability of insects to fly has played a critical role in their success as a group, aiding in food acquisition, escape from predators, and dispersion to new habitats. Despite their small size, insects have evolved one of the most effective forms of flight in the animal kingdom.



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How do flying insects fight the wind to reach food?

How do flying insects like important pollinators locate odor sources...

A team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.curtin.edu.au/">Curtin University</a> in collaboration with <a href="https://museumsvictoria.com.au/">Museums Victoria</a> has recently confirmed that the 107-million-year-old <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mystery-solved-pterosaurs-had-colorful-feathers/">pterosaur</a> bones discovered over three decades ago are the oldest of their kind ever found in Australia. The study of the fossils sheds new light on the life of these powerful, flying reptiles that lived among the dinosaurs during the Mesozoic era.



The experts examined a partial pelvis bone and a small wing bone discovered at the Dinosaur Cove in Victoria, Australia in the late 1980s by Dr. Tom Rich, Professor Pat Vickers-Rich, and colleagues.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



The analysis revealed that the bones belonged to two different pterosaurs: while the partial pelvis bone belonged to a pterosaur with a wingspan exceeding two meters, the small wing bone belonged to a juvenile pterosaur (the first ever reported in Australia).



“During the Cretaceous Period (145–66 million years ago), Australia was further south than it is today, and the state of Victoria was within the polar circle — covered in darkness for weeks on end during the winter. Despite these seasonally harsh conditions, it is clear that pterosaurs found a way to survive and thrive,” said study lead author Adele Pentland, a PhD student in Paleontology at Curtin.



“Pterosaurs are rare worldwide, and only a few remains have been discovered at what were high palaeolatitude locations, such as Victoria, so these bones give us a better idea as to where pterosaurs lived and how big they were. By analyzing these bones, we have also been able to confirm the existence of the first ever Australian juvenile pterosaur, which resided in the Victorian forests around 107 million years ago.”



However, further research is needed to determine whether pterosaurs migrated north during the harsh winters to breed, or whether they managed to adapt to polar conditions. “Finding the answer to this question will help researchers better understand these mysterious flying reptiles,” Pentland concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08912963.2023.2201827">Historical Biology</a>.



<h2 id="h-more-about-pterosaurs">More about pterosaurs</h2>



Pterosaurs, often referred to as pterodactyls, were a group of flying reptiles that lived during most of the Mesozoic Era, from the late Triassic to the end of the Cretaceous Period, approximately 228 to 66 million years ago. They were the first known vertebrates to have evolved powered flight, predating the birds and bats by millions of years. Pterosaurs are closely related to dinosaurs but are not considered dinosaurs themselves.



<h3 id="h-size">Size&nbsp;</h3>



Pterosaurs varied greatly in size, with wingspans ranging from a few centimeters to over 10 meters (33 feet). The largest known pterosaurs, such as Quetzalcoatlus, are among the largest known flying animals of all time. On the other hand, some smaller pterosaurs, like Anurognathus, were only about 50 centimeters (20 inches) in wingspan.



<h3 id="h-anatomy">Anatomy&nbsp;</h3>



Pterosaurs had a unique anatomy, which included a body covered by pycnofibres, a type of hair-like covering similar to but not identical with the fur of modern mammals. Some types of pterosaurs also featured crests of various sizes and shapes. Their wings were formed by a skin and muscle membrane that stretched from their elongated fourth finger to their hind limbs.



<h3 id="h-lifestyle">Lifestyle</h3>



The diet and lifestyle of pterosaurs varied significantly among species. Some were fish-eaters, others ate small dinosaurs or insects, and some species may have been scavengers. Despite their reptilian nature, many paleontologists believe that pterosaurs were warm-blooded, similar to modern birds and mammals, allowing them to sustain high levels of activity.



Pterosaurs became extinct at the end of the Cretaceous Period, about 66 million years ago, likely due to the same event that killed off the non-avian dinosaurs - the impact of a large asteroid or comet in what is now the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico.



Pterosaurs remain a subject of active research, and new species and findings continue to expand our understanding of these fascinating prehistoric creatures.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Oldest pterosaur bones found in Australia date back 107 million years

A team of researchers led by Curtin University in collaboration...

In a recent study conducted in the lowland rainforests along the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica, researchers have unraveled fascinating details about the behavior and activity patterns of two sympatric sloth species, Bradypus variegatus and Choloepus hoffmanni. These revelations not only shed light on the ecological dynamics of these intriguing creatures, but also highlight their remarkable ability to adapt to a myriad of environmental conditions.



The elusive nature of sloths has historically posed significant challenges to conducting long-term observational research on them. A team led by Dr. Rebecca Cliffe, Founder and Executive Director of <a href="https://slothconservation.org/">The Sloth Conservation Foundation</a>, set out to use micro data loggers to continuously monitor the activities of both three-toed (Bradypus) and two-toed (Choloepus) sloths.&nbsp;



The observation period spanned over days to weeks, which allowed the researchers to explore how these slow-moving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-will-happen-if-modern-large-mammals-become-extinct/">mammals</a> adjusted their activities in response to fluctuating environmental conditions and how such behavior correlated with their unique low-energy lifestyle.



Published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.15430">PeerJ Life &amp; Environment</a>, the study's findings reveal that both Bradypus and Choloepus sloths display cathemeral activity patterns, which are marked by irregular and variable periods of activity throughout the 24-hour day. This behavior pattern allows the sloths to optimize favorable environmental conditions while minimizing their exposure to predation.



One of the most intriguing findings of this study was the significant variability observed in the activity levels of the sloths. Such flexibility is suggestive of the various strategies these sloths have evolved to adapt to their surroundings, which improves the odds of survival in fluctuating environmental conditions.



Contrary to initial expectations, the researchers found that the daily temperature did not notably influence the sloths' activity. However, the Bradypus sloths displayed an interesting trait: they were more active at night when the temperature dropped, and the nights following colder days saw increased nocturnal activity as well. This observation implies a potential link between temperature variations and the behavioral tendencies of these sloths.



Dr. Cliffe stressed how vital this research is for conservation efforts and for better understanding the repercussions of anthropogenic activities and climate change on the tropical ecosystems of South and Central America. As these ecosystems become increasingly vulnerable, understanding the behavioral ecology of their inhabitants, such as sloths, becomes vital for formulating effective conservation strategies.



The use of micro data loggers in this study has undoubtedly offered unprecedented insights into the behavioral patterns and adaptations of these enigmatic creatures, demonstrating a revolutionary way to investigate the behavioral ecology of elusive species. These findings not only contribute valuable knowledge about sloth ecology, but also underline the importance of preserving and protecting tropical rainforests and their unique inhabitants.



<h2 id="h-more-about-sloths">More about sloths</h2>



Sloths are fascinating creatures that inhabit the tropical rainforests of Central and South America. Belonging to the family Bradypodidae, there are six species of sloths, divided into two groups: the two-toed sloths and the three-toed sloths.



Sloths are arboreal mammals known for their slow movements and unique energy-saving adaptations. These adaptations are part of their survival strategy, as they allow sloths to spend most of their lives in trees, feeding on leaves, twigs, and buds. Their low-energy diet and slow metabolism allow them to conserve energy, which is critical for their survival in resource-poor environments.



One of the most distinctive traits of sloths is their ability to hang from branches with their strong and long claws. This behavior helps protect them from predators like eagles and jaguars. Additionally, sloths are excellent swimmers and can drop from a tree into a river to swim across it.



Sloths have a highly unusual trait: they have the lowest and most variable body temperature of any mammal, ranging from 24 to 33 degrees Celsius. This variability allows them to better regulate their energy usage. Also, sloths only descend from their tree dwellings about once a week to defecate and urinate, a unique behavior among arboreal mammals.



Sloths have a symbiotic relationship with the algae that grow on their fur. The algae provide sloths with camouflage, helping them blend in with the green foliage of their habitat and avoid predators. In return, sloths provide the algae with shelter and water. Additionally, the fur of sloths houses a variety of insects, including beetles and moths.



Sloths are not just slow movers, but they also sleep a lot. Depending on the species, sloths sleep for around 15 to 20 hours a day. This extreme sleep schedule is another energy-saving adaptation.



Conservation efforts are crucial for sloths as they face numerous threats from deforestation, habitat fragmentation, and illegal pet trade. While some sloth species are listed as vulnerable, others, like the critically endangered Pygmy Three-toed Sloth, are on the brink of extinction. Therefore, understanding the behavior and ecological needs of sloths, as demonstrated in the study conducted by Dr. Rebecca Cliffe and her team, is key to ensuring their survival.



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Study reveals the secret survival strategies of sloths

In a recent study conducted in the lowland rainforests along...

In an era of heightened environmental awareness, a new study has shed light on the complex interplay between food production and biodiversity. The research reveals that our quest to feed the world could inadvertently be driving the loss of biodiversity at an alarming rate.



The study focuses on the environmental footprint of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/computational-tools-may-improve-the-future-of-farming/">farming</a>, particularly when it comes to food staples like beef, which are notorious for their substantial carbon emissions. Now, new evidence suggests that these same dietary essentials may contribute significantly to the loss of biodiversity.



Study senior author Keiichiro Kanemoto, an associate professor at the <a href="https://www.chikyu.ac.jp/rihn_e/">Research Institute for Humanity and Nature</a> (RIHN) in Kyoto, Japan, noted that, "Food production remains the main cause of biodiversity loss.”



According to the researchers, the problem intensifies when food production encroaches upon areas of high conservation priority. A prevailing issue is the lack of data that could outline which products and countries contribute most to this biodiversity decline.



The researchers set out to bridge this data gap by merging information on agricultural land use and species habitats. They have now identified the agricultural crops exerting the greatest pressure on biodiversity.



The study, published in the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academies of Science</a>, ranks commodities based on whether they are sourced from high conservation priority regions. While previous studies have attempted to quantify the carbon, land, and water footprints of the agriculture industry, the threat that farming poses to biodiversity has been less understood, and often overlooked.



The new findings will inform policies designed to strike a balance between preserving biodiversity and maintaining global food security. The research data, encompassing 50 agricultural products sourced from 200 countries, has been made publicly available on Google Earth Engine, a platform often utilized for environmental analyses.



The international research team, with members from Norway, the Netherlands, and Japan, further segmented agricultural areas into four tiers based on their conservation priority. The highest conservation priority was assigned to areas where staple commodities like beef, rice, and soybeans were predominantly produced. Conversely, other staples like barley and wheat were found to be more commonly sourced from areas of lower conservation priority.



Daniel Moran is a senior scientist at the Climate and Environmental Institute NILU and a research professor at the <a href="https://www.ntnu.edu/">Norwegian University of Science and Technology</a>'s (NTNU) Industrial Ecology Programme. “A surprising takeaway for me was how much the impact of the same crop can vary based on where it is sourced from,” said Professor Moran.



The study pointed out striking discrepancies in where certain crops are grown. For example, beef and soybeans are produced in high conservation priority areas in Brazil, but not in North America.



The influence of international trade was also highlighted, as the study revealed the significant role of affluent nations like the US in driving agricultural demand in high conservation priority areas. The research revealed how different nations exhibit vastly different biodiversity food footprints. Countries like the United States, EU, China, and Japan heavily depend on imports to meet their beef and dairy consumption needs.



The researchers also touched on the looming threat of climate change. With rising temperatures projected to alter cropping patterns and available habitats, they used their model to examine future scenarios to understand how the relationship between wild biodiversity and farming might evolve.



The experts predict that as the world grows warmer, species will colonize new territories, potentially opening up fresh high conservation priority areas while mitigating conflicts in existing conservation hotspots.



“Our spatial approach is a valuable complementary method with other standard techniques to evaluate the impact agriculture has on biodiversity. The knowledge gained from our study should help reduce the trade-off many nations associate with agriculture production and environmental protection,” said Kanemoto. “It fills in a big missing piece in the footprint of food.”



“Our lifestyles are causing alarming damage to the atmosphere and water supplies. Farmers and governments worldwide are seeking policies that sustain prosperity while minimizing irreversible harm to the environment. Similar sustainable development policies are needed for agriculture. The calculation of detailed footprints for food and other farmed commodities is crucial to support these policies,” said Professor Moran.



—-



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Feeding the world at a cost: Food production and biodiversity loss

In an era of heightened environmental awareness, a new study...

According to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/index.aspx">University of Birmingham</a> and the <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/">British Antarctic Survey</a> (BAS), a tiny flightless midge (Eretmoptera murphyi) that has recently colonized Antarctica’s Signy Island is currently driving major changes to the island’s soil ecosystem. This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tweets-provide-insights-on-how-invasive-insects-spread/">invasive insect</a> significantly increasing the rates of plant decomposition, resulting in three to five-fold rises in soil nitrate levels compared to sites housing only native invertebrates.



“Antarctic soils are very nutrient limited systems because decomposition rates are so slow. The nutrients are there, but it has taken this invasive midge to unlock them on Signy Island. It is an ‘ecosystem engineer’ in a similar way to earthworms in temperate soil systems,” said lead author Jesamine Bartlett, a field ecologist at Birmingham.



“Up until now, low nutrient availability has been as much of a barrier to the establishment of certain terrestrial species in Antarctica as low temperatures or low moisture availability. So the activity of&nbsp;Eretmoptera&nbsp;on Signy, in combination with climate change, potentially ‘opens the door’ for other species to become established which can further accelerate ecosystem change,” added senior author Scott Hayward, a senior lecturer in Biosciences at the same university.



E. murphyi is a native of South Georgia (an island in the sub-Antarctic region), and was first introduced to Signy Island accidentally during a botany experiment in the 1960s. 



After the insect had massively proliferated in the 1980s, the levels of nitrates measured in soil colonized by this midge was comparable to that found close to seal wallows – an amazing phenomenon most likely due to the fact that population densities of midge larvae can reach in excess of 20,000 individuals per m2&nbsp;in some locations. 



Since it can ride on the soles of boots of researchers and tourists, and can survive in sea water for extended periods of time, the insect is expected to soon reach and colonize other islands.



“Physiologically,&nbsp;Eretmoptera&nbsp;has the capacity to survive in many other locations in Antarctica, so monitoring its spread on Signy, and associated ecosystem impacts is important and remains part of our ongoing research,” Hayward said.



“A particular feature of the Antarctic is that it has had very few invading species so far and protecting this ecosystem is a very high priority. While at some level, there’s plenty of awareness of the implications of invading species, this research really highlights how the tiniest of animals can still have a hugely significant impact,” concluded co-author Peter Convey, an expert in Polar Ecology at BAS.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2023.108965">Soil Biology and Biochemistry</a>.



<h2 id="h-more-about-antarctic-soils">More about Antarctic soils</h2>



Antarctic soils are quite different from the soils found in most other regions of the world due to the unique climate and ecological conditions of the Antarctic region.



Antarctica is the coldest, driest, and windiest continent on Earth. Most of Antarctica is covered by ice. The ice-free regions are mainly found in the coastal areas and in the Dry Valleys region of East Antarctica.



Due to the extreme cold, dry, and windy conditions, soil formation processes in Antarctica are very slow compared to those in other parts of the world. These soils also receive very little organic input because there are few organisms (primarily limited to bacteria, lichens, and mosses) capable of surviving in the harsh Antarctic conditions.



The most common types of soil in Antarctica are called "Cryosols". Cryosols are permanently frozen soils (permafrost) that are characterized by ice formations and by the processes, signs and impacts of freezing and thawing. Because of the extreme conditions, Cryosols in Antarctica are often further classified as "Hyperskeletic" (more than 90% coarse material), "Skeletic" (40-90% coarse material), or "Leptic" (thin soils with a maximum thickness of 10 cm over bedrock).



Antarctic soils are also characterized by low nutrient content, high salinity in some areas, and the presence of unique features such as patterned ground and polygonal soil structures caused by freeze-thaw cycles.



These soils are important for studying past climate conditions and for understanding the limits of life on Earth. Because they are so unique and fragile, they are also protected by international treaty (the Antarctic Treaty System) from damage or contamination.



Despite the inhospitable conditions, Antarctic soils harbor diverse microbial communities. These microbes have adapted to survive and thrive in the extreme cold, dryness, and high UV radiation. They play a crucial role in nutrient cycling and organic matter decomposition in these soils, and their study provides insights into the possibilities of life in extreme environments, including other planets.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Invasive insect is transforming Antarctic soils, paving the way for new species

According to a new study led by the University of...

For many across the United States, dogs are not just <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pet-owners-are-happier-than-people-who-dont-have-pets/">pets</a>, they are family. The bond between humans and dogs is unparalleled and has deep roots in the country's culture and lifestyle.&nbsp;



A recent study conducted by pet wellbeing experts at <a href="https://ourfitpets.com/">OurFitPets.com</a> set out to examine which states are the most enamored with their canine companions.



Taking a holistic view, the study analyzed several factors to determine the overall love for dogs in each state. Key factors considered were the number of monthly Google searches for "dog grooming" and "dog toys" per 100,000 residents.



The researchers also considered the quantity of dog parks, the percentage of dog owners, and the number of dog-friendly long-term home rentals. Based on these metrics, each state was awarded a score out of 50 to determine the most dog-loving state.



Topping the list was Colorado, which proved to be the epitome of dog love in America. With a score of 39.3 points out of 50, the state demonstrated its affection towards dogs by registering the highest combined number of monthly searches for "dog grooming" and "dog toys" - approximately 186 searches per 100,000 residents, translating to roughly 10,800 total searches per month.&nbsp;



Furthermore, nearly half of Colorado’s residents (47.2 percent) were found to be dog owners. The state also ranked third in the category of dog-friendly home rentals, boasting 53 rentals per 100,000 citizens. With 110 dog parks statewide, it averages 1.87 parks per 100,000 residents, which is 16.8 percent higher than the national average of 1.6.



Coming in at a close second was Idaho, where the experts discovered that 58 percent of the population own a dog, greatly exceeding the national average of 39.4 percent.&nbsp;



In terms of online dog care queries, Idaho residents made 121 searches for “dog grooming” and “dog toys” monthly per 100,000 citizens. The state also has around 26 dog-friendly home rentals per 100,000 residents and 33 dog parks, equating to 1.67 parks per 100,000 residents.



The study extended to identify the top ten dog-loving states. Arizona came in third, primarily due to its high rates of dog-friendly home rentals, which stands at 50 per 100,000 residents, outpacing the national average of 20.6 by more than 142 percent.&nbsp;



Other states on the list included Florida, Nevada, Washington, Wyoming, Oregon, Tennessee, and Georgia, each displaying distinct dog-loving characteristics, from an extensive number of dog-friendly home rentals to a high percentage of dog owners, and an above-average number of dog care-related searches.



Wyoming, despite its seventh rank, held the highest ratio of dog parks to its population, with 5.4 parks per 100,000 citizens, a number that greatly surpasses the national average of 1.66.



A spokesperson for OurFitPets.com commented on the study's intriguing findings, stating, "It's fascinating to see which states lead the way in terms of dog-loving attributes. Colorado was found to spoil their dogs the most, with the highest rate of pet care related searches, while Idaho boasted the highest ownership rates, with one in two Idahoans found to own a dog."



“The findings shed light on which states place the most emphasis on their dogs' lifestyle and wellbeing, and which ones are less accommodating of our furry friends."



<h2 id="h-more-about-dogs-in-america">More about dogs in America</h2>



According to the <a href="https://www.americanpetproducts.org/">American Pet Products Association</a> (APPA), nearly 70 percent of American households - about 90.5 million families - owned a pet in 2021, with dogs being the most popular choice.



The U.S. is home to diverse breeds, from Labrador Retrievers, German Shepherds, and Golden Retrievers, to Bulldogs, Beagles, and Poodles. Each breed carries its unique traits, temperament, and size, catering to a wide range of personal preferences and lifestyles.



The benefits of owning a dog in America are well recognized and stretch far beyond companionship. Studies have consistently shown that pet ownership, particularly dogs, can contribute to improved physical and mental health. Regular walks with dogs help keep owners active and can lead to lower blood pressure and cholesterol levels. Furthermore, dogs are often used as therapy animals, providing emotional support to those suffering from various mental health conditions.



Various cities across the U.S. are known for their pet-friendly amenities, with parks, housing, and businesses that cater specifically to dog owners. As per the Trust for Public Land, the cities with the most dog parks per resident in 2020 included Boise, Idaho; Portland, Oregon; and Henderson, Nevada.



Moreover, America's love for dogs also fuels a thriving pet industry. A forecast from APPA suggests that in 2021, pet owners in the U.S. spent $99 billion on pet-related products and services, including food, supplies, veterinary care, grooming, boarding, and more.



Notably, adoption is a popular and socially responsible way to acquire a dog, with numerous rescue organizations and shelters across the country offering dogs of all ages and breeds a second chance at finding a loving home.



—-



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Unleashing affection: The most dog-loving states in America

For many across the United States, dogs are not just...

In the long history of companionship between humans and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-can-read-dogs-emotions-from-their-expressions/">dogs</a>, stretching back some 40,000 years, dogs have faithfully been by our side. This loyalty and deep connection has earned them the title of "man's best friend."&nbsp;



However, recent research suggests that not all breeds share an equal fondness for human company. A team of scientists at the <a href="https://www.helsinki.fi/en">University of Helsinki</a> has found that human sociability levels vary considerably among different dog breeds.



Led by Dr. Milla Salonen, the researchers set out to analyze canine personalities, aiming to uncover the variation across breeds.&nbsp;



"The breed of the dog is the most important determinant underlying personality differences," said Dr. Salonen. "All dogs are individuals, and all breeds have different traits, but the breeds differ in what kind of personality most dogs within each breed have."



This extensive study revealed that bull type terriers, teacup dogs, and golden retrievers topped the list of breeds with the highest levels of human sociability, officially affirming their status as "man's best friends." Conversely, livestock guardian dogs, Asian primitive breeds, and primitive sighthounds appeared less inclined to enjoy human company.



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted</h2>



For the investigation, the team amassed an expansive behavioral survey dataset containing information on 11,000 dogs, representing 300 distinct breeds. The dogs were then sorted into 52 groups.&nbsp;



After careful examination, the data demonstrated a strong correlation between breed and seven personality traits: insecurity, training focus, aggressiveness/dominance, energy, dog sociability, human sociability, and perseverance.



In terms of human sociability, bull terriers took the lead, with teacup dogs, Golden Retrievers, Jack Russell Terriers, and Dachshunds following closely behind. On the flip side, livestock guardian dogs, Asian primitive breeds, primitive sighthounds, and Northern hunting spitzes ranked at the bottom of the sociability scale.



This research also explored several factors other than breed that may influence a dog's sociability with humans. The results showed that female dogs generally exhibited higher sociability scores than their male counterparts, and that sociability appeared to decline as dogs aged.



Considering these insights, the researchers recommend that new pet owners should make efforts to expose their puppies to various social environments involving humans from an early age.&nbsp;



"Our findings indicate that new owners should familiarize their puppies as much as possible with unfamiliar people, places, and animals," said Dr. Salonen. "Of course, socialization must always be done on the puppy's terms, which means that the puppy must not be forced into frightening situations."



This groundbreaking study improves our understanding of the diverse personalities of our beloved canine companions. While the breed does play a significant role in defining a dog's personality, pet owners are responsible for creating environments that foster their natural sociability toward people.



<h2 id="h-tips-for-choosing-the-right-dog">Tips for choosing the right dog</h2>



Choosing the right dog is a major decision that can bring immense joy and companionship, but also a significant responsibility. Here's how you can make a thoughtful choice:



<h3 id="h-assess-your-lifestyle">Assess your lifestyle</h3>



Consider your daily routine and living environment. Active breeds like Retrievers or Border Collies may require more exercise and stimulation than, for instance, Bichon Frises or Shih Tzus. Similarly, larger breeds may need more space than smaller ones.



<h3 id="h-understand-dog-breeds">Understand dog breeds</h3>



Different dog breeds have different traits and temperaments. Research various breeds, their energy levels, health concerns, lifespan, and their compatibility with your lifestyle. Keep in mind that certain breeds may be more sociable with humans, as indicated by recent research led by Dr. Milla Salonen from the University of Helsinki.



<h3 id="h-consider-adoption">Consider adoption</h3>



Many dogs of all breeds and ages are waiting for homes in shelters. Adopting can save a life and give a dog a second chance. Remember, puppies may require more training and patience than an older dog.



<h3 id="h-factor-in-lifespan-and-health">Factor in lifespan and health</h3>



Different breeds have different life expectancies and potential health issues. Large dogs generally have shorter lifespans than smaller dogs. Be prepared to take on the financial responsibility for any health issues that may arise.



<h3 id="h-training-and-behavior">Training and behavior</h3>



Dogs vary in trainability and behavior based on their breed and individual personality. Consider if you prefer a dog that is easy to train or one that is more independent. You should also think about their compatibility with other pets or children.



<h3 id="h-time-and-commitment">Time and commitment</h3>



Dogs require time, effort, and emotional investment. They need training, socialization, care, and above all, love. Make sure you are ready for this commitment.



<h3 id="h-consult-professionals">Consult professionals</h3>



Before making a decision, consider talking to veterinarians, dog trainers, or breed-specific rescue groups. They can provide invaluable insight into what owning a particular breed is like.



Choosing the right dog is not just about finding a pet; it's about inviting a new family member into your home.&nbsp;



—-



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Study reveals the dog breeds that are truly man's best friend

In the long history of companionship between humans and dogs,...

Researchers at Western’s <a href="https://birds.uwo.ca/">Advanced Facility for Avian Research</a> (AFAR) have made a remarkable discovery about birds: they can quite literally flick a brain switch to perceive Earth’s magnetic field.&nbsp;



The study sheds new light on the intriguing manner in which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migratory-birds-have-new-strategy-to-cope-with-climate-change/">migratory birds</a> navigate, highlighting the importance of a brain region called "Cluster N" for processing geomagnetic information.



For context, it's vital to recognize that the Earth's magnetic field extends far into space. This protective layer, caused by the flow of molten iron within our planet’s inner core, serves as our shield against the harmful cosmic radiation the Sun emits.&nbsp;



Yet, for some members of the animal kingdom, this invisible force is a natural GPS. Salmon, sea turtles, and migratory birds use the magnetic field to navigate across vast distances.



The process of how and why this happens has been somewhat of a mystery. The new study, led by PhD candidate Madeleine Brodbeck and AFAR co-director Scott MacDougall-Shackleton, has begun to unravel this mystery. The research was focused on white-throated sparrows.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered">What the researchers discovered&nbsp;</h2>



The team found that these birds have the ability to activate Cluster N in their brains at night when they were motivated to migrate. This activation allows the birds to avoid prey and fly during cooler periods. But the birds are also capable of making the region go dormant when they are ready to rest.



Brodbeck explained: “This brain region is super important for activating the geomagnetic compass, especially for songbirds when they migrate at night." The study represents the first evidence of this brain region functioning in a North American bird species, and it builds upon the previous work that was primarily conducted in Europe.



For decades, Earth’s magnetic field has intrigued not only physicists and aerospace engineers, but also creative minds, inspiring the works of renowned science fiction writers like Frank Herbert and Stephen King. The concept of invisible forces guiding our movements, wholly imperceptible to humans, continues to be a fascination for Brodbeck as well.



“Magnetic fields are really fun to think about because they’re invisible to humans. We can’t see them or sense them, but most animals perceive them in some way,” said Brodbeck.



<h2 id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



To navigate and migrate, birds rely not just on Earth's magnetic field, but also on visual cues from the sun and the stars. Unfortunately, our increasingly urbanized landscapes, dotted with artificial lights and glass skyscrapers, disrupt their migratory paths.



“This type of basic research informs us and lets us know the full suite of ways that animals perceive the world when they’re migrating and what we as humans need to do to minimize our impact,” said Professor MacDougall-Shackleton.&nbsp;



He emphasized that understanding the physical mechanisms of animal movement isn't just academic; it's fundamentally important in order to comprehend and possibly mitigate the ways human actions influence their journeys.



This groundbreaking study, published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/14609568">European Journal of Neuroscience</a>, underlines the need for continued exploration into the complex mechanisms that drive animal behaviors. Furthermore, it also provides a perspective into our responsibility towards co-inhabitants of our planet, as our actions inevitably leave a footprint on their migratory paths.



<h2 id="h-more-about-earth-s-magnetic-field">More about Earth's magnetic field</h2>



Earth's magnetic field is a powerful, invisible force that extends from the interior of the planet out into space. It originates from the flow of molten iron and nickel in the planet's outer core, which creates electric currents that, in turn, generate the magnetic field. This is known as the dynamo effect.



The Earth's magnetic field is important for several reasons.



<h3 id="h-protection-from-solar-radiation">Protection from Solar Radiation</h3>



The magnetic field shields the Earth from harmful solar radiation. Without it, life as we know it would not exist, because the atmosphere would be stripped away by solar winds - streams of charged particles from the Sun.



<h3 id="h-aid-to-navigation">Aid to Navigation</h3>



The Earth's magnetic field creates the North and South magnetic poles, which are slightly offset from the geographic poles. These magnetic poles are the basis for magnetic navigation, used by both humans and many animals. Animals such as birds, sea turtles, and even some types of bacteria can sense the Earth's magnetic field and use it to navigate.



<h3 id="h-generation-of-auroras">Generation of Auroras</h3>



The Earth's magnetic field is also responsible for phenomena like the Aurora Borealis (Northern Lights) and Aurora Australis (Southern Lights). These occur when charged particles from the Sun are trapped in the Earth's magnetic field and collide with atmospheric atoms and molecules, causing them to emit light.



The Earth's magnetic field is not static. Over millions of years, it has undergone numerous reversals, where the North and South magnetic poles switch places. The last reversal, known as the Brunhes-Matuyama reversal, occurred approximately 780,000 years ago.&nbsp;



Scientists are still investigating why these reversals occur, but it is believed that changes in the flow of molten iron and nickel in the Earth's outer core are responsible.



Despite its importance, many mysteries remain about the Earth's magnetic field. As studies like the one at Western’s Advanced Facility for Avian Research (AFAR) continue, our understanding of this complex and vital part of our planet will continue to grow.



—-



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Birds can switch their perception of Earth’s magnetic field on and off

Researchers at Western’s Advanced Facility for Avian Research (AFAR) have...

Marine ecosystems of the South Atlantic Ocean that were once vibrant are now teetering on the brink of collapse. Overfishing and habitat degradation have forced a dramatic decline in recent decades, leading these underwater worlds to become shadows of their former selves.&nbsp;



These shocking revelations have been unearthed in a groundbreaking study led by the Institute of Environmental Science and Technology of the <a href="https://www.uab.cat/web/universitat-autonoma-de-barcelona-1345467954774.html">Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona</a> (ICTA-UAB).



The scientists at ICTA-UAB embarked on an innovative research journey that combined the worlds of marine biology and archaeology.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted</h2>



The researchers meticulously examined the archaeological remains of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/japanese-snow-monkeys-have-learned-to-fish-for-food/">fish</a> species from several sites in Brazil. The comparison between these ancient marine fingerprints and the current state of fish populations drew a sobering picture.



Before the surge of modern human activities, indigenous communities thrived along Brazil's southern coast for thousands of years. They were sustained by the rich bounty of the sea, brimming with large, high trophic level fish and apex predators.&nbsp;



Primitive fishing technologies enabled these communities to intermittently exploit the seas without tipping the delicate ecological balance.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



Today, the picture is drastically different. The study revealed a stark decrease in many species, especially sharks and rays, a trend likely tied to the accelerating human impacts of overfishing and habitat degradation.



"Many species documented in archaeological sites are now endangered, while for other species there is insufficient data on their distribution and abundance. By using archaeological data, we can gain insight into these lost environments and can redefine conservation baselines," said study lead author Thiago Fossile.



This work underlines the pivotal role coastal and marine ecosystems once played in sustaining subsistence fisheries for thousands of years.&nbsp;



Study senior author André Colonese emphasized the value of the hundreds of archaeological sites. She noted that they "provide valuable information on past biodiversity, contributing to discussions on fisheries management and conservation."



<h2 id="h-impact-on-fish-biodiversity">Impact on fish biodiversity</h2>



The findings also offered a fresh lens to understand the exploitation of fish biodiversity through time. Study co-author Mariana Bender from the Universidade Federal de Santa Maria stated, "It is amazing what archaeological sites can tell us relative to the impacts of ancient human populations on fish biodiversity. We found evidence that large top predators have long been exploited and recent fisheries have moved towards lower trophic levels. This process has been in place for thousands of years."



Dione Bandeira of the Universidade da Região de Joinville, another contributor to the study, reminded us of the potential lessons we can learn from the past. "Indigenous environmental stewardship serves as a model for sustainable resource utilization and plays a crucial role in conserving biodiversity in tropical and subtropical regions of South America."



The research, funded by the ERC TRADITION project, was a joint venture of experts from ICTA-UAB in Spain, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität in Germany, and several Brazilian universities. The results are published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0285951">PLOS One</a>.



The study's findings underscore the significance of integrating archaeological data into conservation debates, thereby bolstering the discipline's relevance to contemporary environmental issues. As we face the stark realities of environmental degradation, insights from our past might hold the key to a sustainable future.



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-impact-of-overfishing">More about the impact of overfishing</h2>



Overfishing has long-lasting and potentially catastrophic impacts on marine ecosystems, the environment, and humanity at large.



<h3 id="h-impact-on-marine-ecosystems">Impact on marine ecosystems</h3>



Starting with marine ecosystems, overfishing can lead to a significant decline in the population of various fish species. This is especially noticeable with top predators like sharks and tunas. When these species are overfished, it disrupts the balance of the entire marine food web.&nbsp;



For instance, removing top predators can lead to an increase in the population of their prey, which in turn can overgraze on their food source. This phenomenon, known as a trophic cascade, can ultimately alter the structure and function of marine ecosystems, leading to their degradation and even collapse.



<h3 id="h-impact-on-the-environment">Impact on the environment&nbsp;</h3>



Furthermore, overfishing can lead to a decrease in biodiversity, with some species being fished to the point of endangerment or extinction. This not only harms the health of marine ecosystems but also reduces their resilience to other threats, such as climate change and pollution.



On a broader environmental level, overfishing can contribute to the loss of critical habitats. Some fishing methods, like bottom trawling, can destroy seafloor habitats, including coral reefs and seagrass beds, which serve as important nurseries for many fish species.



<h3 id="h-impact-on-humanity">Impact on humanity</h3>



Turning to the impact on humanity, the consequences are equally grave. Many communities around the world rely heavily on fish for their food security and nutritional needs.&nbsp;



According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, fish provide more than 20% of the average per capita animal protein intake for about half the global population.&nbsp;



Overfishing threatens this vital food source and could potentially lead to nutritional deficiencies, particularly in coastal and island nations heavily reliant on seafood.



Moreover, the fishing industry is a significant economic driver and employer. It provides livelihoods for hundreds of millions of people worldwide, particularly in developing countries. Overfishing, therefore, threatens the economic stability of these individuals and can have cascading effects on local and national economies.



Lastly, the cultural importance of fishing should not be overlooked. For many societies, fishing traditions form a vital part of their cultural heritage and identity. Overfishing can erode these traditions and the associated cultural values.



In summary, overfishing is a complex issue with profound implications for marine ecosystems, the broader environment, and human societies. Addressing it requires comprehensive, collaborative, and sustainable fisheries management efforts on a global scale.



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Overfishing and habitat degradation have devastated marine ecosystems

Marine ecosystems of the South Atlantic Ocean that were once...

The Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ) is a massive, mineral-rich region of the Pacific Ocean, spanning six million square kilometers from Hawaii to Mexico (about twice the size of India), which has already been divided up and assigned to companies for future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-mining-poses-unknown-threats-to-whales/">deep-sea mining</a>.&nbsp;



To clarify how these mining operations may impact biodiversity, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/">Natural History Museum</a> (NHM) in London has recently compiled all the species records from previous sea expeditions to the region, and estimated that CCZ is currently home to a total of 5,578 different species, among which 88 to 92 percent are entirely new to science.



“We share this planet with all this amazing biodiversity, and we have a responsibility to understand it and protect it,” said study lead author Muriel Rabone, a deep-sea ecologist at NHM.



In various expeditions, scientists have employed different techniques, ranging from the use of remote-control vehicles traversing the ocean floor to that of sturdy boxes landing on the bottom of the ocean to perform “box core sampling.”



“It’s a big boat, but it feels tiny in the middle of the ocean. You could see storms rolling in; it’s very dramatic. And it was amazing - in every single box core sample, we would see new species,” Rabone explained.



By examining over 100,000 records of creatures found in the CCZ during these deep-sea expeditions, the researchers discovered that only six of the new species found in this region – including a sea cucumber, a nematode, and a carnivorous sponge – have previously been seen in other regions.&nbsp;



The most common types of animals found in the CCZ were arthropods (invertebrate creatures with segmented joints), worms, echinoderms (spiny invertebrates such as sea urchins), and sponges.



“There’s some just remarkable species down there. Some of the sponges look like classic bath sponges, and some look like vases. They’re just beautiful,” Rabone said. “One of my favorites is the glass sponges. They have these little spines, and under the microscope, they look like tiny chandeliers or little sculptures.”



In future studies, the scientists plan to increase cohesive, collaborative, and multidisciplinary research efforts to better understand CCZ’s biodiversity. Learning more about the newly discovered species and their connection to their environment could help experts better understand the risks involved in future mining operations.



“There are so many wonderful species in the CCZ, and with the possibility of mining looming, it’s doubly important that we know more about these really understudied habitats,” Rabone concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2023.04.052">Current Biology</a>.



<h2 id="h-more-about-deep-sea-mining">More about deep sea mining</h2>



Deep-sea mining is the process of extracting mineral resources from the ocean floor. This includes seafloor massive sulphide deposits, polymetallic nodules, and cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts.&nbsp;



As these resources become harder to find and access on land, and as our technology and capability to operate at great depths improves, interest in deep-sea mining has increased.



<h3 id="h-types-of-deep-sea-mining">Types of deep-sea mining:</h3>



<h4 id="h-seafloor-massive-sulphides-sms">Seafloor Massive Sulphides (SMS)</h4>



SMS are rich in copper, lead, zinc, gold, and silver. They are formed by hot springs on the seafloor near volcanically active areas, such as the famous 'black smokers'.



<h4 id="h-polymetallic-nodules">Polymetallic Nodules</h4>



Also known as manganese nodules, these are rock concretions on the seafloor that contain valuable metals like nickel, copper, cobalt, and manganese. They are most commonly found in the Pacific Ocean.



<h4 id="h-cobalt-rich-crusts">Cobalt-rich Crusts</h4>



These crusts are rich in cobalt, but also contain nickel, copper, and platinum. They form on the flanks and summits of seamounts.



<h3 id="h-environmental-concerns">Environmental concerns:</h3>



<h4 id="h-biodiversity-loss">Biodiversity loss</h4>



The deep sea is home to a wide array of species, many of which are not yet known to science. Mining operations could destroy or disturb these habitats and species.



<h4 id="h-sediment-plumes">Sediment plumes</h4>



When machines extract minerals from the seafloor, they generate plumes of sediment that can spread over large areas, suffocating marine life and potentially disrupting the marine food chain.



<h4 id="h-noise-and-light-pollution">Noise and light pollution</h4>



Mining operations would introduce noise and light into the extremely quiet, dark deep-sea environment, with unknown impacts on species that live there.



<h4 id="h-unknown-long-term-effects">Unknown long-term effects</h4>



The deep sea is the least understood ecosystem on Earth. It's difficult to predict what the long-term impacts of mining might be, especially given that operations would likely continue for decades.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Deep sea surveys identify over 5,000 species in future mining hotspot

The Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ) is a massive, mineral-rich region of...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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