Eels move in ways that seem to ignore the rules most vertebrates live by. They swim with flowing body waves, they can scoot across wet ground, and they often keep going even when the spinal cord is cut. 



According to a new paper, two simple body signals, stretch and pressure, help explain how that is possible.



Those signals are not fancy. Stretch tells the body how much each segment bends, and pressure reports forces on the skin from water or from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-new-eel-species-with-fang-like-teeth/">objects</a>. 



When these signals are fed into the spinal circuits that set a basic rhythm for movement, the eel’s whole body keeps time without micromanagement from the brain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-secrets-of-eel-movement">Secrets of eel movement</h2>



Kotaro Yasui is an assistant professor at Tohoku University’s Frontier Research Institute for Interdisciplinary Science (<a href="https://www.fris.tohoku.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FRIS</a>) and lead author of the study



“Our findings will help design highly adaptive robots capable of navigating complex and unpredictable environments,” noted Professor Yasui.



Most vertebrates walk or swim thanks to networks in the spinal cord called central pattern generator <a href="https://openbooks.lib.msu.edu/introneuroscience1/chapter/central-pattern-generators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">circuits</a>. 



These circuits can produce rhythmic muscle commands on their own, then shape that rhythm using feedback from the body. That is why the same overall plan can show up in animals as different as fish, salamanders, and mice.



Eels add a twist by leaning hard on two kinds of sensory input. Proprioception is internal sensing of stretch that tells a segment where it is in the cycle. Exteroception is sensing from outside the body, including water pressure on the sides of the fish or contact with a surface. 



Stretch sensitive neurons like the classic lamprey edge cells have long shown how such bending <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-our-power-our-planet/">signals</a> can tune the spinal rhythm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flexible-robot-mimics-eel-movement">Flexible robot mimics eel movement </h2>



Yasui’s team built a mathematical model in which each body segment has a small local oscillator that produces a timing signal. They wired in two feedback loops, one for stretch and one for pressure, so the oscillators would be tugged into step by what the body feels.



The researchers tested the controller in two settings. First, they used computer simulations that generated body movements and force patterns. Then, they tried it on a physical eel-like robot made of flexible segments and equipped with skin-level sensors.



The same controller worked in both settings, and it produced stable swimming quickly, without central commands to lock the segments together.



The stretch loop had a special job. It sped up the time it took for a smooth traveling wave to appear from random starting positions. It also helped the body hold a strong stride once the pattern settled, even though that gain could cost a little <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-what-were-really-fighting-for/">energy</a> because the joints work harder during sharper turns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spinal-rhythm-and-sensory-feedback">Spinal rhythm and sensory feedback</h2>



The team asked a simple question. If the controller swims well, can it also crawl on land when the ground is dotted with obstacles? They ran the robot through a peg field where pushing and bracing matter more than glide.



Stretch feedback made the difference. With stretch only, the robot found traction on the pegs and made steady headway. 



Pressure alone did not help in that setting, which fits earlier <a href="https://jan.ucc.nau.edu/acg/publications/Pace_%26_Gibb_2011.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a> showing that elongated fishes such as ropefish change their kinematics across water and land in specific ways, with long, slow, high amplitude body waves on land.



The results suggest continuity rather than a clean break between swimming and crawling in these fishes. 



The same spinal rhythm and sensory feedback can drive both swimming and crawling, as long as the environment provides the right reaction forces. The fish doesn’t need a separate land-based neural controller to move



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-spinal-injuries-teach-us">What spinal injuries teach us</h2>



The most striking tests involved spinal cord transection. The group measured swimming in live American eels before and after a complete cut around the middle of the body, then matched those tests with simulation and robot runs using the same controller.&nbsp;



The movement behind the injury kept a similar frequency and phase as the movement in front of it, which echoes decades old <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11744256/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence</a> that eels can recover coordinated swimming after transection as regrowth advances.



In the model, that coordination did not need signals from the brain. It emerged when the local oscillators had some built-in tendency to tick on their own, and when stretch and pressure loops were strong enough. 



The body above the cut tugged the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-secretly-reshape-landscapes-in-powerful-ways/">body</a> below the cut into the same rhythm through passive motion and local sensing.



That simple recipe explains why eels can move immediately after injury while many amphibians and mammals cannot. If the posterior spinal cord cannot oscillate on its own, or if the feedback pathways are too weak, the two halves fall out of step and the body stalls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eel-movement-robots-and-evolution">Eel movement, robots, and evolution</h2>



Robots that move without legs need to live with uncertainty. Water currents change, floors are cluttered, and obstacles shift. Prior <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scirobotics.abf6354" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> has shown that proprioceptive feedback can entrain undulatory robots into reliable patterns despite turbulence and noise.



This study adds pressure sensing on the skin to that recipe and shows how a simple stretch rule helps robots use clutter for propulsion. That means eel-like machines could search pipes, navigate earthquake rubble, or inspect tanks without complex top down control.



There is also a story about evolution here. If a swimming controller can produce useful crawling when the environment offers something to push against, early vertebrates may have needed adjustments more than a full rewrite to move onto land. Flexible circuits and strong local feedback could have carried a lot of that load.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



Biologists can now test specific predictions in the lab. For example, they can look for descending stretch pathways that echo the model’s anterior to posterior copy rule, and they can probe how pressure sensors along the skin tune rhythm in moving fish.



Engineers can search for energy savings by blending stretch rules that boost stride with rules that prevent excessive bending. They can also explore how to route around damaged links in a robot by letting neighboring segments pull each other back into rhythm.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2422248122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Spinal secrets: What eels reveal about the origins of movement

Eels move in ways that seem to ignore the rules most vertebrates live by. They swim with flowing body waves, they can scoot across wet ground, and they often keep going even when the spinal cord is cut. According to a new paper, two simple body signals, stretch and pressure, help explain how that is possible. Those signals are not fancy. Stretch tells the body how much each segment bends, and pressure reports forces on the skin from water or from objects. When these signals are fed...

Black,Widow,Spider,-,Latrodectus,Mactans

Many folks wonder why some spiders deliver mild bites, while others inflict serious harm. This puzzling contrast has caught the attention of scientists who are keen to decode the hidden complexities behind spider venom.



Recent findings reveal how certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spider-man-web-slinging-technology-has-become-a-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> pack a stronger punch than previously suspected. These insights spark curiosity about whether a spider’s prey preferences shape its venom’s strength.



A new study led by Dr. Keith Lyons at the <a href="https://www.universityofgalway.ie" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Galway</a>’s School of Natural Sciences examined over 70 spiders to identify patterns in toxicity. 



The team concluded that a spider’s usual prey can heavily influence its venom’s intensity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prey-type-alters-spider-venom">Prey type alters spider venom</h2>



Scientists have long suspected that <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/neurotoxin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurotoxins</a> might be tailored to subdue specific prey. Some data show that spiders feeding on insects alone tend to develop toxins that target bug physiology.



<a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11627431/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Black widows</a> are known for packing venom reported to be about fifteen times stronger than a rattlesnake’s. 



Such potency makes them a subject of constant study and often overshadows less dangerous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-monitoring-will-help-protect-endangered-spider-monkeys/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>.



Predators adapt to the meals they encounter most. Spiders are no different, and their biological arsenal can shift over time based on typical feeding patterns.



Arachnologist is the term for a scientist who studies <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spider-venom-has-hidden-biochemical-value/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spiders</a>, and many have observed that mammal-hunting species sometimes pose greater risk to humans. According to the team, a venom aimed at rodents might inadvertently affect people.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-spiders-evolved-unique-venom">Some spiders evolved unique venom</h2>



“Our results show that spider venoms have evolved to be especially potent when tested on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/slingshot-spiders-listen-for-the-right-moment-to-launch-their-webs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> found in their diet in the wild,” said Dr. Lyons.



“This may explain why species that are known to occasionally prey upon small mammals, such as the <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9972223/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brazilian wandering spider</a> or Black widow, have venoms that can cause medically significant effects in us humans."



Conversely, species that only prey on invertebrates, such as the <a href="https://pestsense.cahnrs.wsu.edu/Search/MainMenuWithFactSheet.aspx?CategoryId=2&amp;ProblemId=842" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Giant house spider</a>, have evolved venoms that target invertebrate physiologies rather than our own, posing little threat to humans.



“We thought spiders that use webs might not need strong venom since they depend more on their webs to trap prey," explained <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/kevin-healy-2238554" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Kevin Healy</a>, Senior author and Head of the Macroecology lab.



"But to our surprise, there was no link between web use and venom strength, which means webs probably help hold prey in place no matter how powerful the venom is.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-uses-for-spider-venom">Human uses for spider venom</h2>



Dr. Healy explained that the findings offer insight into how spider venom evolves, which could clarify why certain species like the <a href="https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/spiders/false-widow-spider" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Noble False widow</a> become invasive and how some venoms might be useful for creating targeted insecticides or new medicines.



Neurotoxins within these spiders could be harnessed for <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233799365_Arthropod_venoms_A_vast_arsenal_of_insecticidal_neuropeptides" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">medicines</a> that target specific sites in the human body. Researchers see promise in compounds that kill pests but spare beneficial insects.



Some experts believe that a better grasp of how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/enduring-earth-mystery-partially-solved-artificial-intelligence-nazca-geoglyphs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spiders</a> evolve their venoms can advance agriculture and health. Each unique toxin might become a building block for safer pest control.



“By understanding the fundamental drivers of venom evolution we can better predict the types of biomolecules in spider venoms that have yet to be explored for drug discovery and why some species of spiders are more likely to become invasive species,” said <a href="https://www.ted.com/speakers/michel_dugon" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Michel Dugon</a>, Head of the Venom Systems Lab.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-linking-venom-strength-to-spider-diet">Linking venom strength to spider diet</h2>



Encounters with venomous spiders do happen in some places. Bites from a few species can bring serious trouble, though <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/outdoor-workers/about/venomous-spiders.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fatalities</a> are quite rare.



Individuals working in damp cellars or sheds often share space with species like the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537045/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brown recluse</a>. That spider can cause necrotic wounds, though these cases remain uncommon.



Clarifying how feeding habits shape venom potency may explain the differences between notorious spiders and their calmer cousins. 



The research also raises new possibilities for designing pest-control agents that leave pollinators unharmed.



These findings highlight the flexible nature of spider toxins as they respond to different dietary needs. A shift in prey could gradually tune venom toward fresh targets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-both-people-and-bugs">Protecting both people and bugs</h2>



Spider venom research stands at a turning point where ecological insights blend with biochemical exploration. 



Many labs see this field as an opportunity to gather new knowledge that may save lives and protect ecosystems.



Scientists are excited about exploring toxins that target only pest organisms, leaving beneficial creatures unaffected. This approach aligns with increasing demand for safer methods to manage insects.



Better understanding of spider diets might guide the discovery of specialized proteins with therapeutic value. Focusing on diet-venom connections could guide us toward treatments for painful conditions.



Further research is poised to reveal whether new spider species hold potent toxins we have not yet tapped. Observers remain watchful for any next steps that might spark medical innovations.



The study is published in <a href="http://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/epdf/10.1098/rsbl.2025.0133" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology Letters</a>.



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Biologists learn why some spiders have deadlier venom than others

Many folks wonder why some spiders deliver mild bites, while...

The Australian outback once shook under the footfalls of birds taller than a person and five times heavier than a cassowary. For more than a century, scientists knew these giants - called dromornithids - only from scattered and often mangled bones. 



A crushed skull that turned up in 1913 led to wild guesses about how the last of the line, Genyornis newtoni, looked, fed, and sounded. 



Now, freshly unearthed skull bones from the dry bed of Lake Callabonna have changed the picture in a single, definitive stroke.



The discovery rewrites ideas about where these birds fit on the avian family tree and how they made a living in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-age-climate-shifts-changed-early-human-migration-patterns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ice Age Australia</a>. The new evidence even hints at why such a successful lineage vanished around 45,000 years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genyornis-newtoni-found-on-a-lake-bed">Genyornis newtoni found on a lake bed</h2>



<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Callabonna" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lake Callabonna</a>, once a shallow watering hole in South Australia’s desert interior, turned into a natural trap when drought lowered its water level and exposed slick mudflats. 



Many large animals - birds included - blundered in and never made it back out. Their skeletons settled in salt-rich sediments that halted decay, building a fossil trove that rivals the La Brea Tar Pits for completeness. 



Until recent field seasons, though, the site had failed to yield a Genyornis skull that could withstand careful study. 



That changed in 2019 when a field team recovered a nearly complete cranium lying beside limb bones that matched the species’ telltale proportions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-thunder-bird-built-like-a-giant-goose">Thunder bird built like a giant goose</h2>



“Genyornis newtoni had a tall and mobile upper jaw like that of a parrot but shaped like a goose, a wide gape, strong bite force, and the ability to crush soft plants and fruit on the roof of its mouth,” says <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Flinders University</a> researcher Phoebe McInerney. 



At roughly 230 kg - about 507 lb - the adult bird dwarfed today’s heaviest ground birds. That mass rested on thick legs that could outpace most Ice Age predators in a sprint yet showed no sign of the running specializations seen in ostriches. 



Instead, the proportions resemble an oversized goose that traded wings for added muscle below the waist.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genyornis-newtoni-has-ties-to-waterfowl">Genyornis newtoni has ties to waterfowl</h2>



Early researchers grouped dromornithids with emus and ostriches, largely because all three lost the power of flight. The new skull tells a different story. 



“The exact relationships of Genyornis within this group have been difficult to unravel; however, with this new skull we have started to piece together the puzzle that shows, simply put, this species to be a giant goose,” McInerney explains. 



Features in the braincase and palate echo those in modern screamers of South America and the Australian magpie goose - both considered living holdovers from deep <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earliest-modern-bird-lived-in-antarctica-69-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">waterfowl branches</a> that split near the dawn of duck evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-powerful-bite-mechanics">Powerful bite mechanics</h2>



A parrot-like hinge between the beak tip and the rest of the skull let the upper bill lift slightly while biting, increasing leverage on tough food. 



“We were particularly excited to discover the first fossil upper bill of Genyornis. For the first time we could put a face on this bird, one very different from any other bird, yet like a goose,” says co-author Dr Trevor Worthy. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/genyornis-newtoni-skull_thunder-bird_credit-Jacob-Blokland_Flinders-U_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/genyornis-newtoni-skull_thunder-bird_credit-Jacob-Blokland_Flinders-U_1s.webp" alt="Genyornis newtoni skull. Credit: J Blokland, Flinders University" class="wp-image-1971371"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Genyornis newtoni skull. Click image to enlarge. Credit: J Blokland, Flinders University</figcaption></figure>



Muscle scars on the lower jaw support computer models that rank the bite among the strongest ever estimated for a bird, rivaling some small <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-theropod-dinosaurs-thrived-in-polar-environments/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">theropod dinosaurs</a>. That force was likely aimed at aquatic plants, fallen fruit, and maybe freshwater mussels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-living-by-inland-lakes">Living by inland lakes</h2>



Lake Callabonna’s ancient shoreline held patches of reeds, stands of water-loving palms, and seasonal pools teeming with snails and small fish. Genyornis newtoni carried adaptations that make sense in such a setting. 



Bony ridges around the ear opening and a curtain-like flap of bone behind the tongue would have shielded soft tissue when the bird thrust its head underwater. 



Jacob Blokland, who created a digital reconstruction of the skull, notes, “Using modern birds as comparatives, we are able to put flesh back on the fossils and bring them back to life.” 



The casque - a dome of solid bone on the crown - may have anchored display feathers or acted as a resonator for low calls that carried across open flats.



Freshwater oases shrank as Australia drifted north and its interior dried out. Genyornis, tied to lakes and wetlands, found itself hemmed in by spreading salt pans. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tool-flint-discovery-challenges-theory-of-human-cultural-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stone-tool</a> marks on a few bones hint that people living there around 50,000 years ago also hunted the birds. 



Climate pressure, habitat loss, and human predation together may have nudged the last population over the brink by 45,000 years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-genyornis-newtoni-matters-today">Why Genyornis newtoni matters today</h2>



Ice Age giants often feel remote from present-day concerns, yet their stories speak directly to modern conservation. 



The new Genyornis newtoni skull shows how a species can thrive for tens of millions of years, survive continent-wide climate swings, and still succumb once key habitats disappear. 



Reconstructing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biodiversity-loss-can-lead-to-total-ecosystem-collapse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lost ecosystems</a> helps scientists gauge how today’s wetlands might fare under rapid change.



The Lake Callabonna specimen closes a century-long gap in Australia’s fossil record, giving researchers the first true look at Genyornis from the neck up. 



It confirms that dromornithids were titanic waterfowl, not giant emus, and reveals feeding tools as specialized as any living bird. 



Above all, it reminds us that in science, patience pays: even a single skull, pulled from cracked desert clay, can flip long-held assumptions on its head - proving there is always more to learn from bones left in the earth.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08912963.2024.2308212" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Historical Biology</a>.



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Archaeologists find rare skull of an extinct, massive 'thunder bird'

The Australian outback once shook under the footfalls of birds...

A surprising fossil discovery has drawn global attention to a small creature that lived 113 million years ago. Paleontologists working on rare specimens have identified this tiny insect as the oldest ant ever documented, and its bizarre features make it a clear standout.



<a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Anderson-Lepeco" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Anderson Lepeco</a>, from the Zoology Museum at the <a href="https://www5.usp.br/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of São Paulo</a>, led a group of researchers who uncovered this ancient marvel. 



They examined the fossil within layers of rock in northeastern Brazil, helping experts understand more about how early ants appeared on the scene.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-preserved-in-amber">Clues preserved in amber</h2>



Experts are calling this fossil a member of the extinct subfamily <a href="https://www.sci.news/paleontology/amber-hell-ant-attack-08721.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Haidomyrmecinae</a>, once found only in amber - an ideal situation for paleontologists. 



Amber is fossilized tree resin that forms when sticky resin from ancient trees hardens over millions of years, often preserving small organisms like insects, spiders, and even plant material trapped inside it. 



Haidomyrmecinae has scythe-like jaws and measures about 1.5 centimeters. 



Researchers believe that this peculiar structure helped it capture prey differently from modern ants, which usually have sideways-moving mouthparts.



A single specimen was enough to confirm that it predates all other known examples of the <a href="https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/47336-Formicidae" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Formicidae family</a>. Specialists say this discovery adds new layers to the broader history of ants, which are regarded as among the most successful insect groups on Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spotlight-on-the-oldest-ant-species">Spotlight on the oldest ant species</h2>



The team used <a href="https://www.microphotonics.com/what-is-micro-ct-an-introduction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microcomputed tomography</a> to look inside the rock without damaging the fragile remains. They observed intricate structures that reveal aspects of the ancient ant’s head and body shape. 



Such information rarely emerges from ants fossilized in stone, since most past finds have been trapped in amber.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/ant-fossil_Haidomyrmecinae_hell-ant_credit-Anderson-Lepeco_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/ant-fossil_Haidomyrmecinae_hell-ant_credit-Anderson-Lepeco_1s.webp" alt="Haidomyrmecinae fossil. Credit: Anderson Lepeco" class="wp-image-1971446"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Haidomyrmecinae fossil. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Anderson Lepeco</figcaption></figure>



This fossil came from the <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/crato-fossil-beds-of-brazil/introduction-to-the-crato-formation/9A5D6F8B8B646B3DF1D2EC58EBF8824A" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Crato Formation</a>, where fine-grained limestone preserves organisms in impressive detail. 



Until now, no one had found a “hell ant” in rock form, making this a one-of-a-kind record for researchers who study these extinct insects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-naming-the-oldest-ant-species">Naming the oldest ant species</h2>



Scientists have dubbed the new species Vulcanidris cratenis, giving it a name that recognizes the Vulcano family for their longstanding contributions to paleontological collections. 



They donated critical specimens that enriched the Zoology Museum’s archives, which allowed the team to compare and classify this ant’s features.



“When I came across this extraordinary specimen, we immediately recognized its importance,” explained Anderson Lepeco. 



His work focuses on tracing ant evolution and understanding how such old lineages connect to those we see now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-ants-captivate-researchers">Why ants captivate researchers</h2>



Ants appear in almost <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/just-a-few-ants-can-change-an-entire-colonys-social-structure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">every terrestrial ecosystem</a> and have intrigued scientists for decades. More than 12,000 species are recognized, but some <a href="https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674040755" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experts</a> suspect there may be nearly double that number in total. 



These insects showcase complex social structures that include specialized roles such as workers, soldiers, and queens.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/ant-fossil_Haidomyrmecinae_hell-ant_illustration_credit-Diego-M-Matielo_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/ant-fossil_Haidomyrmecinae_hell-ant_illustration_credit-Diego-M-Matielo_1s.webp" alt="A paleoartistic reconstruction of the new species, based on the fossil and on a close relative species found in amber from Myanmar. Credit: Diego M. Matielo" class="wp-image-1971450"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A paleoartistic reconstruction of the new species, based on the fossil and on a close relative species found in amber from Myanmar. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Diego M. Matielo</figcaption></figure>



There is a consensus that ants arose in the <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/the-cretaceous-period.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cretaceous period</a>, although exact timelines have shifted with each new find. 



This fossil once again pushes that clock backward, offering a fresh data point for people who piece together the puzzle of insect evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-a-rock-impression-changes-the-story">How a rock impression changes the story</h2>



Most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-many-ants-live-on-earth-at-any-point-in-time-total-number-is-astounding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prehistoric ants</a> have shown up trapped in tree resin. That environment tends to preserve external features well. Stone fossils, on the other hand, can capture deeper layers and allow the investigation of inner details. 



This difference is crucial for interpreting how structures like jaws and antennae attach internally, shaping how these insects fed and communicated.



Given that amber-based ants rarely expose these hidden traits, a stone-based example is a rare treat for those who map out the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article/195/4/1355/6523228" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">earliest stages</a> of ant diversity. 



Traces of muscles and soft tissues sometimes remain in the rock, broadening our understanding of how these creatures functioned millions of years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oldest-ant-species-and-evolution">Oldest ant species and evolution</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-perform-life-saving-amputation-surgeries-on-injured-nest-mates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Modern ants</a> display remarkable adaptability, spanning habitats that range from steamy jungles to harsh deserts. They occupy many ecological niches and can form massive colonies. 



This wide success stems from key traits, including division of labor and efficient communication via pheromones. 



Observing an early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-destabilizing-ant-plant-relationships/">ant</a> that lacked certain modern features helps clarify the gradual steps that led to today’s species.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/ant-fossil_Haidomyrmecinae_hell-ant_CT-Scan_credit-Odair-M-Meira_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/ant-fossil_Haidomyrmecinae_hell-ant_CT-Scan_credit-Odair-M-Meira_1s.webp" alt="CT-Scan reconstruction of the hell ant fossil. Credit: Odair M. Meira" class="wp-image-1971448"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">CT-Scan reconstruction of the hell ant fossil. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Odair M. Meira</figcaption></figure>



The new fossil also highlights the speed at which adaptive traits emerged. It suggests that ants were already exploring different predatory tactics during their initial branches on the evolutionary tree. 



This aligns with theories that early ants evolved innovative feeding strategies, setting the stage for their future rise in terrestrial ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-public-backing-and-scientific-rigor">Public backing and scientific rigor</h2>



Fossil excavations are often slow, careful operations that involve advanced imaging tools and patient analysis. 



Detailed scans of the newly found ant provided an unprecedented look at internal features that set it apart from every known species.



The resulting data will feed into larger discussions about how insects responded to shifting climates in ancient times. 



Documenting the range of forms found in older layers is necessary for those who look at long-term ecological patterns. 



Each fossil that broadens our perspective can spark new questions about the pace of biodiversity change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-insect-research-goes-next">Where insect research goes next</h2>



Now that the oldest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-you-give-caffeine-to-ants-many-interesting-things-happen/">ant</a> species known to date has reshaped some ideas of when and how early forms appeared, researchers can revisit other puzzling specimens. 



A single discovery can challenge longstanding assumptions, offering a nudge toward more in-depth analyses of under-studied rock formations. 



The proven success of scanning technology may also push more institutions to re-examine older collections.



Each additional data set refines how scientists track branching lines of insect ancestry. 



Since <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-extinction-led-to-the-emergence-of-ant-agriculture/">ants</a> are a central focus for behavioral studies, new insights into their origins could inspire fresh approaches to investigating how modern colonies coordinate and adapt.



Interest in ancient insects has never been higher. With every development in imaging techniques and field geology, the door widens for other revelations about the hidden past.&nbsp;



Many specialists anticipate that continuing analysis of rock-based specimens might reveal features overshadowed by the more common amber deposits. 



This broadened perspective supports an inclusive narrative of ant diversity that spanned various prehistoric landscapes.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/abstract/S0960-9822(25)00308-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> (Image credit: Anderson Lepeco).



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Paleontologists found the oldest ant species on Earth, 113-million-years-old with scythe-like jaws

A surprising fossil discovery has drawn global attention to a...

Songbirds crossing the U.S. Midwest face challenges beyond distance. A new study reveals that the Corn Belt functions as a significant obstacle during migration. The research draws comparisons between this agricultural zone and the Gulf of Mexico.



The researchers analyzed five years of radar data from 47 stations across the eastern United States. 



The results show that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/songbirds-with-longer-migrations-have-greater-genetic-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> change their flight behavior to cross the Corn Belt, which has lost over 76% of its original forests and grasslands since the 1850s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-fly-faster-to-cross-the-corn-belt">Birds fly faster to cross the Corn Belt</h2>



"Birds are showing clear behavioral changes when crossing this agricultural landscape compared to more forested landscapes," said lead author Fengyi Guo, postdoctoral researcher at the <a href="https://www.birds.cornell.edu/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell Lab of Ornithology</a>.



Birds flying over the Corn Belt reached speeds averaging 6.9 m/s in spring and 6.4 m/s in autumn. That’s faster than their flight speeds over the eastern forest, which were 4.7 m/s and 5.5 m/s respectively. 



The birds also showed a strong preference for tailwinds, selecting conditions with up to 65% better support compared to more forested <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-migration-is-influenced-by-social-relationships/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">regions</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tailwinds-help-birds-save-energy">Tailwinds help birds save energy</h2>



Selection for tailwind is a smart energy-saving strategy. Birds adjust their timing and altitude to catch favorable winds. 



This tactic, previously seen in desert and ocean crossings, now appears during flight over the Corn Belt. Such adaptation reduces energy costs and shortens flight time.



"Still, we found that birds tend to concentrate in areas with more forest cover within the Corn Belt, highlighting how important these remaining woodlands are for migrating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-navigate-using-clues-from-earths-magnetic-field/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a>," Guo added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forest-patches-offer-resting-points">Forest patches offer resting points</h2>



Though the Corn Belt poses difficulties, it's not an uninterrupted barrier. Birds use remaining patches of deciduous forest as stopover points. These small patches - sometimes less than 5% of the surrounding landscape - become crucial.



“For those birds that do not cross the Corn Belt in a single flight, the radar pattern also shows that they are more likely to make stops in areas with more forest cover within the Corn Belt,” said Guo.



This pattern was consistent during both spring and autumn <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/songbirds-benefit-from-social-networks-during-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migrations</a>. Stopover rates increased as birds approached the end of the Corn Belt, suggesting they rest after crossing longer stretches of inhospitable terrain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-behavior-in-the-corn-belt">Bird behavior in the Corn Belt </h2>



The Gulf of Mexico requires a nonstop flight of 15 to 35 hours. Birds landing on the Gulf Coast often do so immediately after this effort. In contrast, the Corn Belt allows for mid-journey stops, which makes it less extreme.



However, the study showed that birds still changed behavior in similar ways. The birds flew faster and made calculated use of wind when crossing both regions. 



Unlike the Gulf, SPR (stopover-to-passage ratio) patterns were weaker in the Corn Belt, likely due to its patchy forest remnants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lost-forests-and-bird-migration">Lost forests and bird migration</h2>



From 1630 to 2020, forest cover in the Corn Belt dropped from 63.4 percent to just 19 percent.



Grasslands also declined, replaced by cropland now dominating 51.1 percent of the region. These changes forced birds to adapt to a more fragmented and challenging environment.



Additional cropland expansion since the 2000s has likely made things worse. The conversion continues, pushing birds to rely even more on the few forest remnants that remain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-a-clear-path-forward">Conservation: A clear path forward</h2>



"With continuing agricultural expansion and coastal development, both the Corn Belt and Gulf Coast are becoming increasingly challenging for migrating birds," said co-author Adriaan Dokter, research associate at the Cornell Lab of Ornithology.



The authors urge stronger protection of forest patches in both regions. Deciduous forests provide essential rest and refueling opportunities. 



While many hotspots along the Gulf and Midwest are unprotected, they support billions of birds each year.



Guo and team also suggest targeting underperforming farmland for habitat restoration. Some croplands yield low returns and could support reforestation without major impact on food production.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-corn-belt-affects-how-birds-migrate">Corn Belt affects how birds migrate</h2>



Not all birds use the same approach. Radar data suggest two main strategies across the Corn Belt: nonstop crossings and flights with intermittent stopovers in forest-rich zones. Both depend on access to suitable patches for rest and recovery.



The researchers recommend more field studies to explore species-specific strategies and the physiological costs of crossing this altered landscape.



This study confirms what radar, birds, and landscapes have hinted at for years. The Corn Belt, transformed by human hands, now acts as a migration barrier. 



Birds adapt with faster flights and smarter wind use. But without preserving the forest islands they depend on, those adaptations may fall short in the years ahead.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cobi.70070" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Conservation Biology</a>.



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Vanishing forests make bird migration harder across the Corn Belt

Songbirds crossing the U.S. Midwest face challenges beyond distance. A...

Every year, on the last Wednesday of May, we observe World Otter Day - a time to honor these remarkable animals and recognize the growing challenges they face.



Otters have charmed humans for centuries. Their playful antics make them captivating to watch. But these charismatic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-otter-populations-thrive-when-sea-stars-vanish-from-an-area-but-why/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> are also indicators of ecosystem health. Where otters live and flourish, biodiversity tends to follow.



In many parts of the world, otters are vanishing silently due to pollution, habitat destruction, and poaching. World Otter Day reminds us that their protection is not optional. It is essential.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shared-risks-across-species">Shared risks across species</h2>



Otters are widespread. They live on every continent except Australia and Antarctica. There are 13 known species. These range from the&nbsp;giant otter, which lives in the Amazon and is known for its size and loud vocalizations, to the&nbsp;sea otter, which floats in cold Pacific waters and is famous for using rocks to crack shellfish. 



Otters are carnivorous and hunt live prey. They catch fish, frogs, crabs, and other small aquatic animals. 



But food isn’t their only need. Otters also require a clean, undisturbed habitat. That means water free of pollution, shores not torn up by development, and ecosystems where prey species still exist. 



When otters start disappearing, it often goes unnoticed, but their disappearance signals serious environmental trouble. 



If otters leave, it's likely because the water is polluted, the fish are gone, or the area has been disturbed. Their absence is a silent alarm for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/otters-have-the-ability-to-restore-delicate-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystem</a> imbalance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-when-otters-leave">What happens when otters leave</h2>



Otters do more than just swim and hunt. They shape the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-otters-use-tools-to-access-larger-prey-and-protect-their-teeth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> around them. Sea otters, for example, keep sea urchin populations in check. Without them, urchins destroy kelp forests. With them, the kelp returns, and so do fish, birds, and even whales.



River otters, though smaller, are no less powerful. They stop invasive species from spreading. They dig dens into banks, which offer homes to birds, insects, and small mammals.



In short, otters keep everything flowing the way it should. But when they’re gone, the water tells the story. Riverbanks crumble. Fish populations crash. Pests take over. Entire systems begin to break down.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-otters-face-threats-from-human-activity">Otters face threats from human activity</h2>



Otters have many threats. Most come from us. Once, people hunted them for fur, which drove many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-otters-have-protected-california-kelp-forests-for-a-century/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> close to extinction. 



Now, a different danger has taken over. In parts of Asia, smugglers steal baby otters from the wild. They sell them online as exotic pets. Many die before anyone buys them. Their mothers often die trying to fight off the poachers.



Pollution doesn’t spare them either. Farms leak chemicals into rivers, fish die and otters go hungry. Plastics float everywhere. Oil spills cover their fur, destroying the warmth they need to survive cold water.



Then there’s construction. Dams flood their dens. Roads and buildings break apart their hunting grounds. Rivers no longer flow the way they should. Otters end up trapped in shrinking, isolated patches.



And hanging over it all is climate change. Food becomes scarce, temperatures shift and seasons no longer follow the rules. For otters, the pressure never lets up.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-conservation-efforts">Global conservation efforts </h2>



There’s good news too. Around the world, people are fighting to protect otters. In the UK, otters once nearly vanished. Water pollution and hunting pushed them to the edge. But cleaner rivers, legal protection, and habitat recovery brought them back.



Today, they swim in places where they hadn’t been seen for decades. Groups like the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wildlife Trusts</a>&nbsp;and the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.cardiff.ac.uk/otter-project/about-us/funder-links/environment-agency" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Otter Project at the Environment Agency</a>&nbsp;have played a role in their return.



In the U.S., reintroduction programs helped river otters return to regions like Missouri and Indiana. The&nbsp;<a href="https://www.fws.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">US Fish and Wildlife Service</a>&nbsp;worked with local communities to restore habitat, reduce traps, and track success.



In South America, ecotourism plays a surprising role. In Peru’s&nbsp;Tambopata National Reserve, tourists come to see giant otters. Their money helps pay for patrols, education programs, and jobs that don’t require cutting down the forest.



Conservation doesn’t need to be huge to matter. Sometimes, one small act protects a whole population.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-take-action-on-world-otter-day">Take action on World Otter Day </h2>



When it comes to taking action on World Otter Day, your choices echo farther than you think. Choose seafood from sustainable sources. Overfishing hurts otters because it shrinks their food supply.



Buy less plastic. It keeps waterways cleaner and reduces the risk of entanglement or poisoning. Support wetland restoration projects. Even donations as small as a few dollars can rebuild homes for these animals.



Avoid spreading pet otter videos on social media. Many of those clips come from the illegal wildlife trade. 



You can adopt an otter symbolically through the <a href="https://gifts.worldwildlife.org/gift-center/gifts/Species-Adoptions/North-American-River-Otter?sc=AWY1800OQ18352A01768RX&amp;gad_source=1&amp;gad_campaignid=23401866&amp;gclid=CjwKCAjw6NrBBhB6EiwAvnT_rsqMG3d951CdMry9nlQRs7QBPNhcBuDECd98jWljFpXobHIYGXScBRoCac4QAvD_BwE" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">World Wildlife Fund</a>. The money goes straight to education, research, and protection efforts.



And finally, spread awareness. The goal is to inspire action and promote a deeper appreciation for otters. To amplify your message, you can share information on social media using #WorldOtterDay.



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World Otter Day 2025: On the front lines of a habitat crisis

Every year, on the last Wednesday of May, we observe...

About 85 million years ago, when dinosaurs still walked the Earth, the ocean that covered parts of what is now Vancouver Island was home to many types of long-necked marine reptiles called elasmosaurs - a family of marine reptiles that fell under the broader group known as plesiosaurs.



In 2002, scientists discovered the first fossil of one of these creatures in a rock layer known as the Haslam Formation. Since the original discovery, more bones have turned up, including a nearly complete skeleton of a young animal.



Thanks to these finds, researchers from <a href="https://www.marshall.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marshall University</a>, alongside colleagues in Canada and Chile, have confirmed that this fossil, along with bones from two others, belong to a brand-new genus and species of elasmosaur that they named Traskasaura sandrae.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-traskasaura-sandrae-is-special">Why Traskasaura sandrae is special</h2>



What makes Traskasaura so fascinating is the strange way it blends features from both ancient and more advanced versions of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-ever-marine-reptile-ichthyotitan-severnensis-discovered-by-11-year-old-girl/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine reptiles</a>. Its jaw and neck look a lot like what you’d see in older elasmosaurs, with big teeth and a long string of neck bones. 



But parts of its shoulders and flippers seem more modern - closer to those of the newer species in its family. It’s kind of like finding an old car with a futuristic dashboard inside.



"When I first saw the fossils and realized they represented a new taxon, I thought it might be related to other plesiosaurs from the Antarctic," explained Professor F. Robin O’Keefe, the study's lead author.



Even though it shares some advanced features, it turns out Traskasaura sandrae didn’t evolve from those more modern elasmosaurs. Instead, it developed similar traits on its own path - what scientists call convergent evolution. 



"My Chilean colleague Rodrigo Otero thought differently, and he was right; Traskasaura is a strange, convergently evolved, fascinating beast.”



When researchers placed it in the family tree, it landed closer to the earlier branches, meaning it's more primitive overall, but with some clever upgrades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fearsome-marine-predator">Fearsome marine predator</h2>



Measuring around 12 meters (39 feet) in length and boasting a neck made up of at least 50 bones, Traskasaura sandrae was unlike any other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/research-ship-finds-palau-nautilus-sea-creature-untouched-since-dinosaur-times/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea creature</a> of its time.



Its teeth were sharp, strong, and thick - perfect tools for crushing prey. Researchers believe these features indicate a unique hunting behavior.



Rather than attacking from below or the side, Traskasaura likely descended from above, using its downward swimming ability to ambush prey.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/elasmosaurs_Traskasaura-sandrae_late-cretaceous_credit-Robert-O-Clark_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/elasmosaurs_Traskasaura-sandrae_late-cretaceous_credit-Robert-O-Clark_1s.webp" alt="Two individuals of Traskasaura sandrae hunt the ammonite Pachydiscus in the northern Pacific during the Late Cretaceous. Traskasaura sandrae, named today in the Journal of Systematic Paleontology, was declared the Provincial Fossil of British Columbia in 2023. Credit: Robert O. Clark" class="wp-image-1971333"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Two individuals of Traskasaura sandrae hunt the ammonite Pachydiscus in the northern Pacific during the Late Cretaceous. Traskasaura sandrae, named today in the Journal of Systematic Paleontology, was declared the Provincial Fossil of British Columbia. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Robert O. Clark</figcaption></figure>



The team also proposed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ammonites-extinction-was-complex-not-inevitable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ammonites</a> - shell-covered marine animals that were common in the area - may have been on the menu. 



These would have been a suitable prey since Traskasaura's robust teeth were ideal for crushing ammonite shells, according Professor O’Keefe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-traskasaura-sandrae-s-scientific-journey">Traskasaura sandrae's scientific journey</h2>



Although the species has only now been formally named, its fossils have been part of scientific and public life for years.



The first specimen from the <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/sepm/jsedres/article-abstract/52/3/975/97637/The-Haslam-Formation-a-late-Santonian-early" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Haslam Formation</a> was uncovered in 1988 by Michael and Heather Trask, along the banks of the Puntledge River. Since then, two more fossilized individuals have been recovered from the same area.



The original 1988 fossil was initially described in 2002 but wasn't immediately classified as being in a new genus. The evidence wasn’t strong enough at the time - there simply weren’t enough clear, distinct features in the adult skeleton. 



That changed when a new, well-preserved juvenile skeleton was found. This new discovery gave scientists the confidence to identify and officially name the genus and species.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/elasmosaurs_Traskasaura-sandrae_museum-fossil-display_credit-Robert-O-Clark_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/elasmosaurs_Traskasaura-sandrae_museum-fossil-display_credit-Robert-O-Clark_1s.webp" alt="Museum display of Traskasaura sandrae. Credit: The Courtenay and District Museum and Paleontology Center, Courtenay, British Columbia" class="wp-image-1971335"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Museum display of Traskasaura sandrae. Click image to enlarge. Credit: The Courtenay and District Museum and Paleontology Center, Courtenay, British Columbia</figcaption></figure>



“The scientific confusion concerning this taxon is understandable,” O’Keefe continued. “It has a very odd mix of primitive and derived traits. The shoulder, in particular, is unlike any other plesiosaur I have ever seen, and I have seen a few.”



In 2018, the fossils gained wider fame when they were selected as the Provincial Fossil of British Columbia, following a public poll. They now reside on public display at the <a href="https://www.courtenaymuseum.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Courtenay and District Museum and Palaeontology Centre</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pride-of-british-columbia">Pride of British Columbia</h2>



The genus name Traskasaura honors the discoverers, Michael and Heather Trask. This is combined with "saura" which is derived from the Greek word for lizard.



The species name sandrae pays tribute to Sandra Lee O’Keefe, who is remembered by the authors as a valiant warrior in the fight against breast cancer.



“Fittingly, a region known for its rich marine life today was host to strange and wonderful marine reptiles in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-lizards-were-thriving-during-the-age-of-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Age of Dinosaurs</a>, Professor O'Keefe concluded.”



To sum it all up, Traskasaura sandrae brings a long-standing mystery to an end and gives British Columbia a marine reptile it can truly call its own. 



After decades of uncertainty, thanks to a remarkable juvenile fossil and a team of international scientists, this ancient sea creature finally has a name, a story, and a place in the prehistoric spotlight.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14772019.2025.2489938" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Systematic Palaeontology</a>.



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Scientists identify a 'very odd' new sea monster, unlike any previously known

About 85 million years ago, when dinosaurs still walked the...

This is not your father’s Kawasaki. And it’s definitely not your great-grandfather’s horse. Kawasaki recently previewed a mechanical, horse-like creature at the <a href="https://www.japan.travel/en/expo2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Osaka-Kansai Expo</a>. 



Known as CORLEO, it relies on a hydrogen engine to strut across tough terrain, offering a different view of Japan’s clean-energy goals.



Seen walking on four metal legs, this technological marvel sparked many questions about blending robotics with sustainable power.



<a href="https://www.ece.cmu.edu/directory/bios/Shinji%20Watanabe.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Shinji Watanabe</a> from Kawasaki's Advanced Robotics Division noted that this concept is still in its infancy. The design pulls ideas from video games, mixing the look of a panther with the carriage of a military stallion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-corleo-rides-on-ai-and-hydrogen">CORLEO rides on AI and hydrogen</h2>



CORLEO’s 150 cubic-centimeter engine runs on hydrogen, which produces only water as its byproduct. That detail lines up with growing national interest in lowering <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/5/1190" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon emissions</a> through next-generation energy.



“<a href="https://www.khi.co.jp/expo2025/concept01/index_en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The vehicle is beginner-friendly</a>,” Kawasaki claims. His statement hints at a vehicle that moves according to body shifts instead of complicated controls. 



Weight-based steering is meant to feel closer to horseback riding than operating a typical motorcycle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-four-legs-make-corleo-different">Four legs make CORLEO different</h2>



Unlike typical motorcycles, this machine doesn’t rely on two wheels or treads. Its four-limbed frame steps one foot at a time, guided by an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/using-artificial-intelligence-ai-to-make-quantum-computers-reality/">artificial intelligence</a> system that adapts to dips and rises in the path.



The motion is reminiscent of large animals, though Kawasaki’s approach tries to merge mechanical precision with a natural gait. Bifurcated hooves with rubber pads help it tackle bumpy roads and even rocky hills.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-concept-vs-real-world-use">Concept vs. real-world use</h2>



At the expo, CORLEO mostly showed off its ability to stand and shift positions. The promise of galloping at high speed is still far off.



The timeline for any large-scale production is unclear, though Kawasaki has said it hopes to see real-world use before 2050. The video teased at the event was computer-generated, so the actual leaps remain hypothetical.



Some watchers might think this concept is just for show. Yet it hints at more serious <a href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7758092" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">robotic</a> efforts across Japan, including cargo carriers and <a href="https://www.ifi.uzh.ch/dam/jcr:49a7b802-a891-4393-ade2-36dce8aa56ca/JFR15_Majdik.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rescue machines</a> that benefit from walking mechanisms.



The capacity to navigate uneven terrain could be a game-changer in remote areas. A system that requires no heavy batteries and only outputs water may eventually help reduce pollution in pristine locations.



Kawasaki isn’t alone in dreaming up a rideable animal-like robot. <a href="https://www.xpeng.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">XPeng</a> from China introduced smaller quadrupeds styled as a unicorn and a pony, though their designs target younger riders.



For grown adults seeking a futuristic mount, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-hydrogen-reserves-discovered-beneath-earths-mountains/">hydrogen</a> power brings more torque and range than many battery-based approaches. Still, the gap between entertaining concept and everyday transport is huge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-corleo">What's next for CORLEO?</h2>



CORLEO might overshadow other projects in Kawasaki’s robotics division, but the company has a long history in industrial automation. 



Its CL series robots handle demanding tasks like welding and heavy lifting in factories across the globe.



Balancing that practical side with a sleek consumer-facing creation is part of a broader trend. Machines that look more animal than robot might appear in theme parks, tourism, or even specialized military roles someday.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/kawasaki_CORLEO_horse-robot_hydrogen-powered_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/kawasaki_CORLEO_horse-robot_hydrogen-powered_1s.webp" alt="Kawasaki’s revolutionary off-road personal mobility vehicle, CORLEO, offers excellent all-terrain capability, powered by four robotic legs, together with the handling and stability of Kawasaki’s motorcycles. While preserving the joy of riding, the vehicle continually monitors the rider’s movements to achieve a reassuring sense of unity between human and machine. Credit: Kawasaki" class="wp-image-1971297"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Kawasaki’s revolutionary off-road personal mobility vehicle, CORLEO, offers excellent all-terrain capability, powered by four robotic legs, together with the handling and stability of Kawasaki’s motorcycles. While preserving the joy of riding, the vehicle continually monitors the rider’s movements to achieve a reassuring sense of unity between human and machine. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Kawasaki</figcaption></figure>



CORLEO stands as a bold demonstration of what hydrogen-based designs might achieve if the core technology matures. 



It could one day march through rocky trails and mountain paths with no carbon footprint, though for now, it remains an ambitious prototype.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hydrogen-combined-with-ai">Hydrogen combined with AI</h2>



Japan has poured resources into fueling stations, aiming to power buses and trucks with cleaner energy. Some experts see <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-largest-natural-hydrogen-deposit-discovery-is-worth-a-staggering-184-billion/">hydrogen</a> adoption as a way to stabilize electricity demand, although high production costs remain a sticking point.



Commercial success hinges on robust infrastructure and accessible refueling sites. Without enough stations, even the best hydrogen engine could stall in terms of widespread acceptance.



Many robotics labs incorporate advanced <a href="https://www.jmlr.org/papers/volume17/15-522/15-522.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">algorithms</a> to help machines plan routes and respond to sudden shifts in their environment. CORLEO’s system may follow the same path, using sensors to adjust each footfall in real time.



That kind of intelligence allows the machine to assess whether a slope is safe or if it should slow down. It might also enable future versions to detect obstacles like fallen branches or ditches before taking a step.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-on-the-horizon">Challenges on the horizon</h2>



Hydrogen <a href="https://acris.aalto.fi/ws/portalfiles/portal/61225644/ENG_Elberry_et_al_Large_scale_compresssed_hydrogen_storage_International_Journal_of_Hydrogen_Energy.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">storage</a> involves high pressures or super-cold temperatures, which can raise costs and complexity for consumer vehicles. 



AI-driven controls also demand significant processing power, pushing companies to refine hardware that can handle heavy computation without draining too much energy.



There is also the issue of public perception. A mechanical horse may intrigue some, but others may find it too futuristic to trust on busy roads or remote trails. It marks a bold early milestone in hydrogen-driven innovation.&nbsp;



Click here to <a href="https://youtu.be/vQDhzbTz-9k" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watch a video of CORLEO in action...</a>



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Kawasaki unveils a robotic horse that gallops using hydrogen fuel and artificial intelligence

This is not your father’s Kawasaki. And it’s definitely not...

Spinner,Dolphins,Underwater,In,Blue,Ocean

In the sunlit shallows of Sarasota Bay, something extraordinary is unfolding. For over five decades, researchers have observed and recorded a resident community of bottlenose dolphins. Their goal has always been to better understand these intelligent marine mammals. 



But now, one group of scientists may have taken a significant step forward - toward understanding how dolphins might speak to each other.



This step comes not through hopeful speculation but through data, audio analysis, and decades of patient fieldwork. 



With support from institutions like the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (<a href="https://www.whoi.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WHOI</a>) and Brookfield Zoo Chicago’s Sarasota Dolphin Research Program (<a href="https://www.brookfieldzoo.org/sdrp" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SDRP</a>), a new frontier in dolphin communication has opened.



Laela Sayigh and her colleagues have uncovered striking patterns in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-dolphin-day-2025-honoring-the-oceans-most-playful-minds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dolphin</a> whistles - sounds that may be more than random noise. They may hold meaning, even language-like qualities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-dolphins-for-over-50-years">Studying dolphins for over 50 years</h2>



The dolphin <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-dolphins-who-play-with-others-become-successful-adults/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">population</a> studied by Sayigh’s team is not anonymous. Researchers have tracked individual dolphins over decades, identifying them through physical markings and behavioral patterns. 



This has allowed them to build one of the most comprehensive sound libraries in marine mammal research.



By using suction-cup hydrophones and digital acoustic tags (DTAGs), the team recorded dolphins under natural conditions during brief health assessments. 



These methods yielded high-quality audio while maintaining the animals’ safety and well-being. Over 300 individual dolphins have been recorded this way, forming a unique archive of signature and non-signature whistles.



Several decades ago, signature whistles (SWs) were identified as unique, name-like vocalizations. They have long been the focus of research. But half of the whistles produced by Sarasota dolphins do not fall into this category. 



These lesser-studied sounds, called non-signature whistles (NSWs), have become the new focal point for research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dolphins-use-shared-whistles">Dolphins use shared whistles</h2>



The team identified 22 stereotyped NSW types. Two stood out for their frequency of use: NSWA and NSWB. 



NSWA has been recorded from at least 25 dolphins, while NSWB has appeared in the vocalizations of more than 35 individuals. These whistles are not just common - they are repeated, shared, and distinct in structure.



"Bottlenose <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fentanyl-discovered-in-dolphins-what-it-means-for-marine-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dolphins</a> have long-fascinated animal communication researchers," said Sayigh. "Without the over five-decade-long study by the Sarasota Dolphin Research Program, we would not have such an extensive library of vocalizations for individual dolphins." 



"With this, we can study non-signature whistles, which have received very little research attention to date. Our work shows that these whistles could potentially function like words, shared by multiple dolphins."



This is not a casual observation. Playback experiments revealed something compelling: dolphins responded differently depending on the type of whistle played back. 



NSWA often triggered avoidance, while NSWB provoked curiosity or query-type behavior. These are not random reactions - they suggest meaning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-dolphins-respond-to-different-whistles">How dolphins respond to different whistles</h2>



To test the whistles’ roles, the researchers conducted playback experiments in two settings. The first took place during brief catch-and-release health assessments. The second, more complex setup, involved free-swimming dolphins monitored by drones and tagged with DTAGs.



The playback protocol involved presenting two whistle examples, followed by a silence period. Whistles included signature whistles, SW copies (SWCs), NSWs, and unfamiliar sounds. 



Researchers recorded behavioral responses such as turning, movement, or vocal mimicry. The orientation and motion data collected through accelerometers gave an additional dimension to the findings.



NSWA playbacks resulted in avoidance behaviors in most trials, suggesting an alarm function. NSWB, on the other hand, was linked to uncertain or inquisitive behavior. In some cases, dolphins even responded with a vocalization of their own - often NSWB itself.



In one notable trial, two allied male <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dolphins-smile-at-each-other-when-they-are-feeling-playful/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dolphins</a> heard playbacks of their own whistles. Despite being together, they both responded by producing NSWB. This indicated the playback was unexpected and possibly confusing, prompting a query-like response.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signs-of-social-significance">Signs of social significance</h2>



A juvenile male once engaged in a 15-minute call-and-response session upon hearing his mother’s whistle played back. He mimicked all 148 stimuli with his own signature whistle. 



This behavior points to the existence of intentional, structured vocal exchange. It wasn't reflexive - it appeared thoughtful, even emotional.



In another case, dolphins copied a noisy NSW played during trials. These repeated interactions mimic elements of dialogue, implying these animals are not only hearing but replying in kind. This turns the idea of passive vocalization on its head and brings it closer to conversation.



The researchers noted that NSWB typically contains a constant frequency portion centered around 3kHz - a rare feature in Sarasota dolphin sounds. NSWA includes sharp upsweeps and downsweeps. 



These features, while unusual, appeared consistently across multiple individuals, further strengthening the case for shared meaning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dolphin-reactions-depend-on-sound-type">Dolphin reactions depend on sound type</h2>



Early trials showed that high-volume playbacks caused dolphins to avoid the source. 



The team then reduced the playback volume to match natural vocal levels. With this adjustment, dolphins still showed orientation shifts but were less likely to flee. This showed that it wasn’t just the sound’s volume, but its content, that shaped responses.



Control trials using a dolphin’s own signature whistle evoked mostly positive reactions. This reinforced previous findings that dolphins recognize their own names and respond to them in affiliative ways. 



Meanwhile, other NSW types produced mixed responses, depending on context and individual identity.



Jeremy Coller, founder of the challenge, noted that humans share this planet with millions of other species, but for far too long we've only talked among ourselves. 



"The Coller Dolittle Challenge aims to change that, so I'm excited by the fascinating work Laela and her team have done on dolphin communication. They are worthy winners and I can't wait to see how they use AI to further interpret this vast set of data."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dolphins-understand-whistle-meanings">Dolphins understand whistle meanings </h2>



This study provides the first concrete evidence that dolphins may use shared, learned, context-specific vocalizations that resemble elements of human language. 



Like SWs, which serve as vocal labels for individuals, NSWs may represent objects, events, or intentions.



The variation in responses across individuals also points to complexity. Just as humans do not all react the same way to the same word, dolphins may interpret whistle meanings based on age, sex, mood, or social context. 



In some cases, a group would approach a new subgroup after a playback. In others, individuals would turn away or stay put. Some responses suggest curiosity. Others hint at ambivalence.



The team hopes to refine their analysis further by incorporating new response categories such as "interest" and "ambivalent." With more trials and deeper analysis, the functions of each whistle type may come into clearer focus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dolphins-and-their-whistle-language">Dolphins and their whistle language</h2>



The idea that dolphins use vocal labels for more than just identifying each other opens the door to a deeper understanding. 



If non-signature whistles are learned and referential, as the data suggest, dolphins may possess a basic but real vocabulary. This is not language in the human sense - but it may not be far from it.



The study is far from over. Sayigh and her team continue to expand their whistle library and run playback experiments. They hope to map more of this vocal landscape and decode the nuances of dolphin interaction.



With each recording and each trial, researchers move closer to decoding a language that has echoed across the sea for millennia - only now are we beginning to hear it.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2025.04.21.647658v1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bioRxiv</a>.



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Dolphins use whistles to communicate in what scientists believe is specialized language

In the sunlit shallows of Sarasota Bay, something extraordinary is...

The scene near Starkville, Mississippi, was calm, yet something surprising was hidden below the surface. A small team of researchers was exploring local creek beds and stumbled upon a giant vertebra so large it broke their expectations.



They eventually identified it as the vertebra of a creature from millions of years ago. The bone came from a <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0011998" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mosasaur</a>, a powerful marine reptile that roamed the planet during the late Cretaceous period.



<a href="https://www.mdeq.ms.gov/about-mdeq/contact-mdeq/staff-directory/id/starnes-james/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Starnes</a>, from the Mississippi Department of Environmental Quality’s Office of Geology, played a key role in determining the fossil’s identity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovery-of-giant-vertebra">Discovery of giant vertebra</h2>



Researchers spotted the muddy outline of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/archaeopteryx-fossil-soft-tissue-flight-evolution-proves-darwin-right/">fossil</a> during routine mapping of ancient rock layers. They retrieved the object and quickly realized it belonged to a massive predator that had once dominated the waters covering much of what is now Mississippi.



“This is a true, true sea monster,” exclaimed Starnes. The discovery measured more than seven inches (18 centimeters) across, leading team members to conclude that it was one of the largest mosasaur vertebrae ever found in the state.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predator-with-staggering-proportions">Predator with staggering proportions</h2>



These creatures were known to be <a href="https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/mosasaur.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">apex predators</a> that thrived in warm, shallow seas. They could reach lengths of more than 30 feet (9 meters) and sometimes exceeded weights that were rarely seen in land-based dinosaurs.



Their jaws were lined with rows of sharp, curved teeth suited for grasping prey. “The maximum (weight) is about 20,000 pounds (9,000 kilograms) that this animal could have gotten. This is bigger than most dinosaurs walking around on land,” exclaimed Starnes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-state-museum-studies-giant-vertebra">State museum studies giant vertebra</h2>



Team members passed the vertebra to the Mississippi Museum of Natural Science for further study. <a href="https://www.mmnsfoundation.com/news/2019staffspotlightgeorgephillips" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">George Phillips</a>, the museum’s paleontology curator, examined its shape and size to confirm it belonged to the species <a href="https://paleobiodb.org/classic/basicTaxonInfo?taxon_no=170671" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mosasaurus hoffmannii</a>.



“It’s the largest one from the back, or the neck for that matter, that I’ve seen,” said Phillips. Experts compared it with other specimens, noting that this single vertebra hinted at a creature that was easily 30 feet (9 meters) in length.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-giant-vertebra-fossil-matters">Why the giant vertebra fossil matters</h2>



Mosasaurs prowled the ancient seas, sharing the waters with fish, sharks, and even relatives of modern octopus-like animals called ammonites. With powerful tails and paddles for limbs, they moved rapidly in pursuit of prey.



Finds such as the giant vertebra captivate the public because they offer a look at life just before an <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/2016GL072241" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asteroid impact</a> contributed to the extinction of these reptiles, around 66 million years ago. 



With each discovery, paleontologists gather data that helps fill in gaps about what the region’s ecology once looked like.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reactions-from-the-field">Reactions from the field</h2>



“It might be the biggest one ever collected in Mississippi. That was the find of the day,” remarked Jonathan Leard, another researcher who was working with Starnes.



Beyond its sheer size, the bone’s excellent state of preservation impressed scientists. Museum specialists plan to protect and catalog it, adding crucial data to ongoing studies of Cretaceous-era species in Mississippi.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-seas-in-modern-landscapes">Ancient seas in modern landscapes</h2>



Coastal waters of the late Cretaceous covered much of North America’s southern region. Vast inland seas teemed with predators that now inspire awe for their ferocity and scale.



The land around Starkville, which is dotted with creeks, was once submerged beneath waves that were home to mosasaurs. 



By mapping these deposits, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/geologists-discover-the-largest-copper-gold-and-silver-deposit-in-the-last-three-decades/">geologists</a> piece together how shorelines shifted over time and how different species adapted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glimpse-into-powerful-hunters">Glimpse into powerful hunters</h2>



Mosasaurs, including Mosasaurus hoffmannii, blended lizard-like bodies with aquatic adaptations. They used flippers instead of legs and had long tails that propelled them with surprising speed.



These reptiles were not shy about eating fish, smaller marine reptiles, or even members of their own kind. 



Their place in the food web allowed them to dominate waters until the abrupt changes that were triggered by the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2006087117" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cretaceous-Paleogene</a> extinction event.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-broader-impact-of-each-fossil">The broader impact of each fossil</h2>



Every large fossil expands our knowledge of ancient biodiversity. Even a single vertebra reveals new details about feeding habits, possible migration routes, and interactions with other marine predators.



Researchers frequently compare bones from different deposits to understand variations in size among mosasaurs. They also examine growth rings, bite marks, and other clues that may unravel behavior in these massive reptiles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ongoing-efforts-in-mississippi">Ongoing efforts in Mississippi</h2>



Local museums aim to conserve each piece of the state’s fossil record. Curators study everything from shells to entire skeletons, building a clearer timeline of ancient life.



Collaborations between government agencies and academic experts improve the understanding of life in prehistoric <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/incredibly-unusual-dinosaur-unearthed-in-mississippi/">Mississippi</a>. 



This recent giant vertebra find has deepened excitement for future surveys in the region, which might unveil more evidence of formidable sea creatures.



Information for this article came from a Mississippi State University <a href="https://www.msstate.edu/newsroom/article/2025/05/msu-researchers-both-mgs-geologists-help-unearth-giant-mosasaur-fossil" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">press release</a>.



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Vertebra found from giant predator that ruled Earth when Mississippi was under an ocean

The scene near Starkville, Mississippi, was calm, yet something surprising...

Anyone who's ever flinched during a dental cleaning knows how sensitive our teeth can be. That pain is actually useful - it helps us to detect pressure, temperature, and other sensations as we chew. But this sensitivity didn't start in our mouths.



It turns out that the inner layer of teeth, known as dentine, originally evolved for an entirely different purpose, that of helping ancient fish sense the world around them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teeth-started-out-as-armor">Teeth started out as armor</h2>



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Chicago</a> have found that dentine first appeared in the armored skeletons of ancient fish. Their study looked at fossils from around 465 million years ago, during the Ordovician period. 



Back then, this tissue wasn't used for chewing. Instead, it helped <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/in-schools-fish-have-mastered-the-skill-of-moving-without-sound/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> detect movement and changes in the water - an essential survival skill in a predator-filled environment.



The researchers confirmed that early vertebrate fish had dentine-lined structures in their external armor. These were not teeth but sensory tools. They helped the fish react to their surroundings - similar to how modern animals use skin or antennae.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-vertebrate-teeth">First vertebrate teeth</h2>



Some fossil teeth from even earlier - dating to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-did-the-first-animals-appear-on-earth-we-are-now-one-step-closer-to-knowing-the-answer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cambrian period</a>, between 485 and 540 million years ago - were also examined. These were thought to be the earliest examples of vertebrate teeth.



But when the scientists compared them to the shells and armor of invertebrates like crabs and shrimp, they saw striking similarities. It now appears that both invertebrates and vertebrates developed sensory armor independently.



“When you think about an early animal like this, swimming around with armor on it, it needs to sense the world. This was a pretty intense predatory environment and being able to sense the properties of the water around them would have been very important,” said Neil Shubin,&nbsp;senior author of the new study.



“So, here we see that invertebrates with armor, like horseshoe crabs, need to sense the world too, and it just so happens they hit on the same solution.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-searching-for-the-first-vertebrate">Searching for the first vertebrate</h2>



Yara Haridy, a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Chicago, began the project hoping to find the oldest known <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plesiosaur-fossils-are-the-first-evidence-of-jurassic-vertebrates-in-texas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vertebrate</a>. 



She asked museums across the country for Cambrian-era fossils to scan for vertebrate features. One feature she looked for was dentine inside small armor bumps known as odontodes.



Many of the samples were tiny - small enough to sit on a toothpick. To study them in detail, she brought them to <a href="https://www.anl.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Argonne National Laboratory</a>. 



There, the team spent an entire night scanning the fossils using a high-powered synchrotron at the Advanced Photon Source.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/teeth_fish-armor_odontode-structure_credit-Yara-Haridy_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/teeth_fish-armor_odontode-structure_credit-Yara-Haridy_1s.webp" alt="Segmented confocal scan of the tooth-like-odontode structure from suckermouth catfish fish, showing nerves (in green) that allow transmission of sensory information from the tooth like odontode to the nervous system. Credit: Yara Haridy" class="wp-image-1971199"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Segmented confocal scan of the tooth-like-odontode structure from suckermouth catfish fish, showing nerves (in green) that allow transmission of sensory information from the tooth like odontode to the nervous system. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Yara Haridy</figcaption></figure>



“It was a night at the particle accelerator; that was fun,” Haridy said.



One fossil, called Anatolepis, showed promise. The scans revealed tubules beneath its armor, filled with dentine-like material. 



At first glance, it looked like a vertebrate. If confirmed, this would have pushed the record for the earliest vertebrate back by tens of millions of years.



“We were high fiving each other, like ‘oh my God, we finally did it,’” Haridy said. “That would have been the very first tooth-like structure in vertebrate tissues from the Cambrian. So, we were pretty excited when we saw the telltale signs of what looked like dentine.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-anatolepis-wasn-t-a-vertebrate-after-all">Anatolepis wasn’t a vertebrate after all</h2>



To be sure, the team started comparing Anatolepis to other ancient and modern animals. This included everything from sharks and skates to barnacles, snails, and even catfish that Haridy had raised in her own aquarium.



The comparisons led to a surprising discovery. The structures in Anatolepis looked almost identical to the sensilla found in the shells of modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-urbanization-shape-arthropod-communities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a> - tiny sensory organs that help crabs and shrimp feel their environment. It turns out that Anatolepis wasn’t a vertebrate after all. It was most probably an arthropod.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/teeth_fish-armor_skate-face_ct-scan_credit-Yara-Haridy_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/teeth_fish-armor_skate-face_ct-scan_credit-Yara-Haridy_1s.webp" alt="CT scan of the front of a skate, showing the hard, tooth-like denticles on its skin (shown in orange). Credit: Yara Haridy" class="wp-image-1971201"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">CT scan of the front of a skate, showing the hard, tooth-like denticles on its skin (shown in orange). Click image to enlarge. Credit: Yara Haridy</figcaption></figure>



“This shows us that ‘teeth’ can also be sensory even when they're not in the mouth. So, there's sensitive armor in these fish. There's sensitive armor in these arthropods," Haridy enthused.



"This explains the confusion with these early Cambrian animals. People thought that this was the earliest vertebrate, but it actually was an arthropod.”



Another fossil, this time a vertebrate called Eriptychius, did have dentine in similar structures, confirming that sensory armor was also present in true vertebrates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-armor-defense-and-teeth-origins">Armor, defense, and teeth origins</h2>



The study also offers a fresh perspective on how teeth evolved, likely from a type of defensive armor used by the first vertebrates. Sharks, skates, and catfish today have tooth-like skin structures called <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shark-denticles-reveal-human-impacts-over-centuries/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">denticles</a>.



When Haridy examined her catfish, she found that these denticles were connected to nerves - just like real teeth.



“We think that the earliest vertebrates, these big, armored fish, had very similar structures, at least morphologically. They look the same in ancient and modern arthropods, because they're all making this mineralized layer that caps their soft tissue and helps them sense the environment,” she explained.



There are two main theories about the origin of teeth. One says teeth evolved inside the mouth and later appeared on body armor. 



The other suggests they started as external sensory structures and were adapted into teeth later. This study supports the second idea.



While they didn’t find the earliest vertebrate fish, the researchers still uncovered something important.



“For some of these fossils that were putative early vertebrates, we showed that they’re not. But that was a bit of misdirection,” Shubin said. “We didn’t find the earliest one, but in some ways, we found something way cooler.”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08944-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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500-million-year-old fish armor may be the reason your teeth hurt

Anyone who's ever flinched during a dental cleaning knows how...

Living organisms have always been a source of fascination. Recent work has suggested that all living things give off a subtle glow during life and that this disappears with death.



These findings come from a team of researchers led by Dr. Daniel Oblak at the <a href="https://www.ucalgary.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Calgary</a>. The experts investigated a phenomenon known as ultraweak photon emission.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-living-organisms-emit-a-faint-glow">Living organisms emit a faint glow</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-what-were-really-fighting-for/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Life</a> involves constant chemical activity inside each cell. Sometimes, these <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10634501/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">metabolic processes</a> release extremely low-intensity light in the spectral range of 200 to 1,000 nm. 



This is too faint for the naked eye to see, but many animals, plants, and even bacteria give off this gentle energy.



Experts studying this glow see potential in measuring it for non-invasive tests. By tracking light changes, they can learn how organisms respond to challenges such as heat or chemicals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-light-emission-reveals-cellular-health">Light emission reveals cellular health</h2>



The researchers discovered that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/luca-last-universal-common-ancestor-progenitor-all-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">living</a> animals show higher emissions than animals that have recently died. They used specialized imaging setups to capture the photons in a pitch-black space. 



These setups included electronic sensors that detect light at the single-photon level.



A rise or drop in glow intensity might hint at shifts in cellular health. Scientists believe <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/reactive-oxygen-species" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reactive oxygen species</a> are a key factor in generating the light. These molecules form naturally in cells as they process oxygen, but they can build up under stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-respond-to-stress-with-light">Plants respond to stress with light</h2>



In botanical studies, experts have observed that plants alter their glow after temperature changes or physical injury. 



Burns or cuts induce a measurable spike in the faint light. Research has also indicated that certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exoplanet-k2-18b-strongest-evidence-yet-of-extraterrestrial-life-discovered-webb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemicals</a> cause the injured spots to intensify their emissions.



<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11035250/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oxidative stress</a> seems to accompany these brightening effects. Under normal conditions, cells keep a balanced environment. 



When that balance is lost, however, the glow appears to increase, offering a handy way to gauge how a plant is coping.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detecting-disease-through-living-glow">Detecting disease through living glow</h2>



Scientists have been exploring whether this emission can serve as a biological gauge. Some suspect it could help detect early signs of disease. 



A surge in low-intensity light might pinpoint internal damage before more serious outcomes develop.



Researchers have also looked at plant-based healing or protective strategies. If the glow diminishes after a treatment, that may suggest a recovery in the tissues. This opens new avenues for studying plant physiology without inflicting harm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-it-matters-for-medicine">Why it matters for medicine</h2>



The potential for non-invasive testing is of great interest to clinical science. Experts foresee scenarios where measuring these emissions could aid in monitoring tissue recovery or spotting damage.



The method offers a gentle approach. No extra dyes or radioactive substances are needed. If perfected, it could simplify certain diagnostic tasks by highlighting subtle changes in cells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-glow-to-find-life-beyond-earth">Using glow to find life beyond Earth</h2>



Some scientists are asking whether ultraweak photon emission could help in the search for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/detecting-life-on-mars-a-breakthrough-in-space-research/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extraterrestrial life</a>. 



If all living systems emit faint light, then detecting these emissions on other planets, or in enclosed ecosystems like Mars habitats, might serve as a low-risk method for life detection.



It also sparks new ideas in science fiction and future tech. If bodies truly glow when alive and stop glowing when dead, visual tools might someday be built to “see” vitality itself, offering a new way to tell whether something is alive, under stress, or dying.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-applications-of-the-living-glow">Applications of the living glow</h2>



Scholars have been investigating ways to enhance sensitivity to this weak light. Some advanced cameras can capture more detail by lowering background noise. 



Other experts are testing portable systems that might track changes in real time, allowing for field studies that document plant health or monitor animals in outdoor settings.



Though still in early stages, the technology points toward a future where farmers, veterinarians, or wildlife experts might benefit from such tools. They could respond quickly to unseen stresses and intervene before problems get out of hand.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-glow-patterns">Future research on glow patterns</h2>



Future directions include mapping each type of organism’s signature light pattern. Different species may have distinct behaviors under stress. 



By collecting more data, experts aim to understand how quickly these emissions change and whether they can predict outcomes for sick or damaged tissue.



Researchers also plan to study a broader range of organisms to see if there are exceptions or special cases. These efforts might reveal unique biological adaptations in creatures that live in extreme habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-questions-about-glow-in-living-organisms">Questions about glow in living organisms</h2>



Researchers still don’t fully understand the biological purpose of this faint light. Is it just a byproduct of stress and metabolism, or does it serve a deeper function in communication or defense within cells?



There’s also uncertainty about how consistent the glow is across different species or life stages. Do younger or older organisms emit more light? Can emotions or circadian rhythms influence emission levels in humans?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-faint-light-and-health-diagnostics">Faint light and health diagnostics</h2>



The science behind this faint glow is still growing. The discovery of its link to life signals an intriguing frontier that blends physics, biochemistry, and environmental research. As sensors become more refined, further breakthroughs seem likely.



Although the light is faint, it might hold an abundance of clues. This once-overlooked signal could help diagnose diseases or track how organisms cope under challenging conditions.



The study is published in <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.jpclett.4c03546" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters</a>.



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All living things emit a subtle glow that ceases at the time of death

Living organisms have always been a source of fascination. Recent...

What if saving a forest helped both birds and humans? What if the same landscape that shields towns from floods also offered refuge to songbirds? For decades, conservationists and policy makers have argued that nature's benefits reach far beyond wildlife. 



But measuring where and how those benefits align has remained elusive. Now, a new study provides some answers.



Scientists from <a href="https://www.cornell.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell University</a> and the Wildlife Conservation Society (<a href="https://www.wcs.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WCS</a>) explored where areas valued by humans for things like clean water, flood control, and carbon storage also help conserve bird populations.



Their work is rooted in data - over 1.5 billion bird observations from eBird and high-resolution mapping of eleven <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-day-of-forests-2024-new-solutions-for-a-better-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystem</a> services. It’s an approach that seeks win-wins, or even win-win-wins: for biodiversity, climate, and people.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-helping-birds-people-and-climate">Helping birds, people, and climate </h2>



"We all know that nature provides us with many benefits - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-are-still-fighting-climate-change-against-all-odds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>, climate regulation, recreation, and many others - but until now, we haven't been able to demonstrate where those benefits coincide in space," noted Dr. Rachel Neugarten, formerly of Cornell and now at WCS.



"Given the limited resources for conservation, this information is critical for helping decision-makers protect our natural heritage. The paper shows that win-win-wins for biodiversity, climate, and people are possible but not guaranteed."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-birds-and-human-needs-overlap">Where birds and human needs overlap</h2>



To find these overlaps, the researchers examined maps that captured where ten ecosystem services - such as food provisioning, flood control, and recreation - are most concentrated.



The team also used separate maps for carbon storage, a priority in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-orangutan-day-2024-protecting-the-people-of-the-forest/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a> mitigation. These ecosystem service (ES) and carbon priority areas covered 37% and 44% of the U.S. land area, respectively.



Next, they overlaid these areas with population estimates for 479 bird species. These estimates came from eBird’s Status and Trends project, which uses a sophisticated modeling system to handle observer bias and detectability differences. 



The experts assessed how much of each species’ population lived within these ES or carbon priority zones. The results were surprising and hopeful. More than half of all species - 257 of 479 - had populations better represented in ES priority areas than random chance would predict. 



Carbon storage areas fared slightly worse, with 204 species seeing better-than-random coverage. However, the benefits weren’t evenly spread across species or habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-benefit-birds-and-ecosystems">Forests benefit birds and ecosystems</h2>



Forest-dwelling species saw the most gains from ES and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-relocating-in-a-race-against-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon</a> conservation priorities. Of the 202 forest species analyzed, 151 were well represented in ES zones and 159 in carbon-rich zones. This is likely because forests provide many overlapping services: timber, flood control, water purification, and carbon sequestration.



Species like the Cerulean Warbler thrived in these protected forests. Ninety percent of this species' U.S. population lives in ES priority areas. Even more - 93% - overlaps with carbon storage zones.



Other forest birds, such as the Prairie Warbler, Hooded Warbler, and Eastern Whip-poor-will, also saw high representation. These findings support the idea that forests are ecosystem service powerhouses. Protecting them meets multiple goals at once.



Some of the country’s richest landscapes for both birds and ecosystem benefits include the Appalachian Mountains, the southeastern U.S., New England, the Ozarks, and the Cascade and Sierra ranges. 



In these regions, forest protection is not just a biodiversity issue - it's a climate and public health matter too.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-at-the-margins">Birds at the margins</h2>



However, not all habitats shared in the success. Birds living in wetlands and aridlands were poorly represented within ES and carbon zones. 



Only 34% of wetland species and 42% of aridland species were well represented in ES priority areas. The numbers were worse for carbon zones: 23% for wetland birds and a mere 10% for those in aridlands.



Tipping Point species - those that have lost more than 50% of their populations in the past 50 years - also faced mixed outcomes. Of the 57 such species examined, fewer than half were well supported by either ES or carbon zones. This suggests that many vulnerable birds occupy habitats outside human-prioritized landscapes.



Some species, like the Yellow-billed Loon and Bendire’s Thrasher, had less than 10% of their populations within conservation priority zones. Others, like the King Eider, had virtually no overlap with carbon-focused areas. 



These gaps show the limits of relying solely on ecosystem services as a guide for biodiversity protection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forest-birds-benefit-from-carbon-zones">Forest birds benefit from carbon zones</h2>



Carbon priority areas - identified for their role in holding vulnerable carbon stocks - overlapped best with forest species.



For example, the Black-backed Woodpecker, Red-faced Warbler, and Mountain Quail had over 90% of their populations in carbon-rich zones. These findings support policies that link biodiversity protection with climate action.



But the overlap breaks down outside forests. Aridland and wetland species showed little representation in carbon zones. This mismatch suggests that climate-focused conservation, if not paired with broader ecological goals, may overlook entire communities of at-risk birds.



"This study is especially timely, given recent reports of continued, if not worsening, population declines in North American birds," said Amanda Rodewald, co-author and faculty director at the Cornell Lab.



"Now more than ever, we must find ways to conserve birds as part of broader efforts to protect the environment - in this case, safeguarding the ecosystem services that support human health and well-being."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smart-maps-can-guide-better-plans">Smart maps can guide better plans</h2>



The study's most important takeaway is this: co-benefits exist, but they cannot be assumed. High-quality spatial data allows for smarter, more inclusive planning. 



The areas where bird conservation aligns with ecosystem services can be prioritized first. But other areas - particularly wetlands, deserts, and grasslands - need additional, targeted protection.



The researchers urge caution in generalizing the co-benefit narrative. "While win-win situations do exist, we should be careful not to generalize about biodiversity and ecosystem service benefits," noted Neugarten.



"With limited resources and competing demands for land, we need data-driven approaches to achieve multiple conservation goals simultaneously."



Future work should refine ecosystem service models with local data, include cultural values of nature, and consider the needs of vulnerable human communities. Only then can conservation support both people and the full richness of life on Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-forests-to-save-birds">Looking beyond forests to save birds</h2>



This study, supported by the National Science Foundation and Cornell’s environmental institutes, provides more than insight. It offers a framework. By mapping where people’s needs and wildlife conservation meet, decision-makers can act with greater precision.



Forests shine as clear examples of mutual benefit. But wetlands, deserts, and many bird species still wait for their moment in the spotlight. 



Protecting these regions will require more than ambition. It will demand targeted action, guided by science and shaped by shared values. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212041625000373?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecosystem Services</a>.



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Protecting forests helps birds and humans in many ways

What if saving a forest helped both birds and humans?...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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