Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

The slow march of seawater across riverbanks and through underground aquifers may not grab headlines like a flood or wildfire. Yet, in many coastal regions, especially in river deltas, salinity is advancing with relentless force.



Salinization - the intrusion of saltwater into freshwater systems - is reshaping landscapes, threatening crops, displacing families, and challenging the resilience of communities.



This creeping threat stems from rising seas, dwindling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-about-earths-bending-rivers-could-help-us-find-water-on-other-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">river</a> flows, and intensifying storms. The changes are quiet but far-reaching. 



One of the most vivid and instructive examples comes from the Bengal Delta in Bangladesh, where scientists have tracked salinity changes for nearly two decades. Their work is more than a regional study; it’s a glimpse into the future of low-lying coasts everywhere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-salinity-rises-across-bangladesh">Salinity rises across Bangladesh</h2>



The Bengal Delta, formed by the mighty Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna Rivers, is home to over 150 million people. 



Its vast wetlands and intricate network of rivers, creeks, and estuaries support rice paddies, mangrove forests, and some of the densest rural populations on Earth. But as global temperatures rise, this fragile <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-amount-of-water-do-earths-rivers-hold/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystem</a> is being transformed.



Salinity has become an especially serious concern here. Ocean tides, which already reach deep inland through the delta’s tidal creeks, are now carrying more salt. 



Researchers found that since the mid-2000s, salinity levels have climbed steadily, especially in the western delta near Khulna, where levels exceed 25,000 µS/cm. In comparison, the eastern stretches near the Meghna River maintain much lower levels below 3,000 µS/cm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-decades-of-growing-salinity">Two decades of growing salinity </h2>



The study, conducted by researchers from the <a href="https://www.port.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Portsmouth</a>, <a href="https://www.du.ac.bd" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dhaka University</a>, and <a href="https://www.curtin.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Curtin University</a>, used data from 54 monitoring stations from 2000 to 2017. 



The team discovered an average annual rise in river salinity of 76 µS/cm, with some sites recording increases above 800 µS/cm per year. These rates are not uniform. The western delta shows the fastest and most intense changes, while the east remains relatively buffered.



But the most striking observation was the pattern of stepwise increases. Around 2007, salinity jumped noticeably and remained elevated. This sudden rise coincided with major cyclonic events, including Cyclone Sidr. 



The data showed that storm surges, compounded by rising sea levels and shifting offshore dynamics, played a central role in pushing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-disrupting-the-seasonal-flow-of-rivers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">saltwater</a> inland and keeping it there.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-delta-salinity-is-rising-faster">Why delta salinity is rising faster</h2>



To decode these changes, the researchers proposed a new conceptual model: the Offshore Controlled Estuarine and Aquifer Nexus (OCEAN) framework. 



This model explains how offshore bathymetry, particularly steep underwater slopes like the Swatch-of-No-Ground, interacts with tides and sedimentation to trap salt in estuarine and groundwater systems.



The steeper gradient in the west dissipates tidal energy, leading to slower water flushing and more salt entrapment. Embankments and polders - human-made dikes - exacerbate the issue by limiting the movement of freshwater. 



Dense networks of tidal creeks in these low-lying zones act as storage areas for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-heat-of-2024-triggered-a-surge-in-sea-level-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">saline</a> water, which eventually seeps into shallow aquifers.



“What we’re seeing in the Bengal Delta is not just a local crisis, it’s a signal of what’s coming for low-lying coastal areas around the world,” Dr. Mohammad Hoque explained.



“Salinity is rising faster and reaching farther inland than many people realise, and it's happening quietly with major consequences for water security, agriculture, and livelihoods. This study helps us understand the mechanics behind it, and underscores the urgency for coordinated, global action.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reduced-river-flow-makes-salinity-worse">Reduced river flow makes salinity worse </h2>



Seasonal changes in river discharge used to help flush salt from the delta during monsoons. However, upstream water withdrawals, reduced rainfall, and sediment buildup are weakening this natural defense. 



The experts found that salinity levels surged when river flows dropped, especially in the dry months. In the Gorai River system, for example, reduced freshwater flow correlated closely with rising salinity at sites like SW241 and SW244.



The fluvial dominance of the eastern delta helps maintain lower salinity. The eastern zone receives stronger flows from the Ganges and Brahmaputra Rivers, which dilutes incoming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/salty-plants-can-teach-us-how-to-grow-crops-with-seawater/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">salt</a>. In contrast, the western zone, with fewer freshwater inputs, is at greater risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cyclones-transfer-seawater-to-rivers">Cyclones transfer seawater to rivers</h2>



Cyclonic storms have become increasingly destructive, not only due to wind and rain but because they carry seawater deep into freshwater regions. During La Niña years, which are linked to intensified cyclonic activity in the Bay of Bengal, salinity spikes have been particularly severe.



Between 2006 and 2009, the study recorded a pronounced rise in salinity across the delta. This period coincided with Cyclones Akash, Sidr, Bijli, and Aila. 



The geomorphological disruptions caused by these storms - such as scouring of riverbeds and changes in sediment flow - may have altered the very shape of channels, making them more vulnerable to future saltwater intrusions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fertile-lands-turning-into-barren-fields">Fertile lands turning into barren fields</h2>



Rising salinity in rivers is not just a water issue. It is also a soil issue. The researchers used satellite imagery to observe trends in soil salinity near monitoring stations. 



The team found that areas like SW24, SW258, and SW259 experienced increased soil salinity between 2000 and 2020, especially after 2007. As river water became saltier, the soil nearby became less fertile.



This affects farmers first. High salt levels reduce crop yields, damage irrigation systems, and push families toward debt or migration. The mangrove-rich Sundarbans region, which buffers the coast from storms, also faces threats. 



With higher salinity, its delicate ecosystem may struggle to survive, further exposing inland areas to climate extremes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-bangladesh-s-crisis-means">What Bangladesh’s crisis means</h2>



“While the focus is on Bangladesh, the study’s implications are global,” noted Dr Sean Feist, a co-author of the study.



“Coastal regions from the Mekong Delta in Vietnam to Louisiana’s wetlands in the United States face similar pressures. As sea levels continue to rise, the risk of agricultural land turning salty, drinking water becoming undrinkable, and shallow groundwater becoming permanently brackish grows ever more serious.”



The patterns seen in Bangladesh are also emerging in the Mekong and Pearl River Deltas. Model projections show that even a modest 30 cm rise in sea level could significantly increase salinisation in these areas. This study offers a roadmap to understand and manage similar risks elsewhere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-planning-is-key">Long-term planning is key</h2>



The researchers call for long-term monitoring, not just short-term surveys. Data from 1965 to 2017 helped them detect slow-building patterns that would have been missed otherwise. 



Using robust statistical methods like the modified Mann-Kendall test and robust linear models, they were able to identify critical change points, especially around 2007.



Solutions require more than engineering fixes. Short-term projects like dredging rivers or building embankments may help temporarily but won’t reverse the underlying trend. 



The study stresses the need for integrated planning - across river basins, national boundaries, and environmental systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-call-to-protect-the-future">A call to protect the future</h2>



“Ultimately, this study highlights that the creeping salinisation of deltas is a slow-moving but deeply disruptive force," noted Dr. Ashraf Dewan.



"Without urgent investment in salt-tolerant agriculture, better water storage, and strategic planning across entire river basins, the disruptive impacts of salinity are likely to intensify."



“The Bengal Delta is on the frontline of climate change, but it is not alone. The patterns observed here are emerging in many of the world’s great coastal regions. What happens next depends on how quickly we respond.”



The time for action is now. While saltwater rises quietly, its effects are loud and lasting. Without decisive, collective, and long-term interventions, the fertile deltas that nourish millions may turn into barren landscapes. The Bengal Delta’s story is a warning - but it’s also a guide, if we choose to listen.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1470160X2500473X?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecological Indicators</a>.



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Salinity is rising in coastal areas and hurting farmlands

The slow march of seawater across riverbanks and through underground...

Across the wind-swept tundras of the Arctic and the icy plateaus of Eurasia, a handful of remarkable creatures defied extinction. These animals, from woolly mammoths to arctic foxes, were not born into the cold - they became its masters. 



But how exactly did they gain their thick fur, compact bodies, and resilience against subzero temperatures?



In a recent study, scientists traced the evolutionary paths that led to these remarkable adaptations. Drawing on fossil evidence and ancient DNA, they uncovered how glacial cycles shaped life over the past three million years.



The results offer a detailed picture of how cold-adapted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-meltdown-is-accelerating-global-warming-already-changing-earth-in-unimaginable-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> and plants came to exist - and what that means in a rapidly warming world.



This new understanding could help predict which species might survive today’s climate shifts and which may vanish forever.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-periods-of-cold-evolution">Two periods of cold evolution</h2>



The evolution of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-climate-will-permanently-change-by-2050-scientists-warn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic</a> animals and other cold-adapted species was not a single event but unfolded in two sweeping phases. The first began between three and two million years ago, during the Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene.



This is when early forms of mammals such as mammoths, reindeer, and musk oxen emerged. These species likely began their adaptations as the Earth cooled and ice sheets began forming more consistently at the poles.



The second, more critical phase began with the Middle Pleistocene Transition, roughly 700,000 years ago. During this time, the planet’s glacial periods grew longer and harsher. 



Many of the cold-weather specialists we know today - such as the woolly rhinoceros and true lemmings - appeared during or shortly after this period.



The researchers found that some of these animals, like early mammoths, might have lived in both cold glacial periods and warmer interglacials. Their flexible nature likely gave them a starting point for the more specialized traits that followed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-arctic-animals-gained-cold-traits">When Arctic animals gained cold traits</h2>



Until recently, much of what we knew about these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drastic-warming-will-transform-the-arctic-beyond-recognition/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a> came from bones and teeth. Today, ancient DNA - or aDNA - has added a powerful new tool to the field. This molecular evidence helps determine not only when a species appeared but also when specific cold-adapted traits evolved.



“This is the first concerted effort to compare the evolution of cold-adapted animals and plants since modern methods of palaeogenetics appeared,” Professor Stewart said.



The study showed that woolly mammoths already had many cold-related genes one million years ago, well before their full physical transformation. Later developments, such as changes to their hair, metabolism, and ear size, appeared closer to 700,000 years ago.



Similarly, DNA from ancient lemmings shows a burst of new species as recently as 100,000 years ago. The Norway lemming, for example, is among the youngest known mammalian species. 



These findings illustrate how even in the later stages of the Ice Age, evolutionary change continued to shape species in profound ways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arctic-animals-adapted-in-different-ways">Arctic animals adapted in different ways</h2>



The paper identifies three main theories for how species adapted to frigid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rock-weathering-drives-further-warming-in-the-arctic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environments</a>, each supported by both fossil and genetic data. 



Some animals, like the polar bear and woolly mammoth, may have moved northward from warmer zones and adapted after encountering the cold. This is known as the “out of the temperate zone” theory.



Others, like the reindeer and arctic fox, appear to have evolved directly in the Arctic. According to this “evolving in situ” theory, these species developed traits gradually as the northern climate cooled around them.



A third path, known as “montane preadaptation,” suggests that animals evolved in high-altitude regions like the Tibetan Plateau before migrating north. This might explain the origins of the woolly rhinoceros and the Arctic fox, whose ancestors lived in cold mountainous areas long before reaching polar latitudes.



These varied routes show that cold adaptation did not follow one script. Instead, it depended on local geography, climate patterns, and the traits a species already possessed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arctic-plants-tell-a-subtler-story">Arctic plants tell a subtler story</h2>



While animals like the mammoth evolved visibly, Arctic plants followed a different trajectory. Most living Arctic plant species appeared in the last two million years, with many arriving from southern alpine or boreal zones. A small number evolved in place through hybridisation or chromosome duplication.



Dispersal played a bigger role than mutation. The largest genetic study of Arctic flora found that species more often moved into the Arctic than evolved there. 



Western North America, the Himalayas, and the Asian steppe were major source regions. Yet despite these movements, Arctic plant species today show remarkably little endemism - only around 5 percent are unique to the region.



Researchers also found that while no large-scale extinctions were previously documented, recent DNA from sediments suggests some losses did occur. 



Still, most Arctic plants proved resilient, thanks to their ability to reproduce asexually, survive with few resources, and carry multiple sets of chromosomes that store useful traits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beetles-seem-unchanged-but-are-they">Beetles seem unchanged - but are they?</h2>



Beetles represent another piece of the Arctic puzzle. Their fossils suggest remarkable stability. Many modern species were already present over 2.6 million years ago, leading scientists to believe they barely changed during the Ice Age.



But this may not be the whole story. One study of ancient sedimentary DNA found beetle communities in northern Greenland that have no modern equivalent. This suggests that some beetles did adapt or vanish, but their changes were too subtle to see in fossil form.



Unlike mammals, beetles don’t show obvious structural changes. Their evolutionary shifts might lie in internal traits, such as metabolic processes or reproductive strategies - areas that ancient DNA is only just beginning to reveal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-assembled-the-modern-arctic-ecosystem">What assembled the modern Arctic ecosystem?</h2>



Despite the rich fossil and genetic records, one major question remains: when did today’s Arctic ecosystem truly come together? 



The study suggests that between 2.6 and 1.8 million years ago, the Arctic featured a mix of boreal, temperate, and extinct species, including early arctic animals - nothing like the ecosystems we see now.



It wasn’t until after 700,000 years ago that species like the woolly mammoth, reindeer, and arctic fox began to dominate. This suggests a relatively recent origin for the modern tundra environment.



“The cold-adapted species are amongst the most vulnerable animals and plants to ongoing climate change. Therefore, an understanding of how species evolved in the past is essential to help us understand the risks faced by endangered species today,” explained John Stewart.



By identifying where, when, and how these species evolved, scientists can now better predict which species are most at risk. It also helps conservationists decide how to protect them, whether by preserving habitat, guiding migration, or even using gene banks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arctic-animals-help-us-prepare-for-future">Arctic animals help us prepare for future</h2>



The Ice Age was not just a time of frozen landscapes - it was a crucible of evolution. Today’s cold-weather survivors carry the legacy of countless trials, migrations, and adaptations. 



Their story, now sharpened by genetic science, reveals the astonishing power of evolution to shape life in the harshest places on Earth.



“We can now build on these findings to understand more about how more cold-adapted species evolved and how the Arctic ecologies arose in the past and use this to help conservation efforts in the future,” Professor Stewart concluded.



As the world warms, the past may offer the clearest guidance yet. The secrets buried in ancient genomes could be the key to helping life on Earth survive what comes next.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/trends/ecology-evolution/fulltext/S0169-5347(25)00094-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Trends in Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Arctic animals evolved in different ways to beat the cold

Across the wind-swept tundras of the Arctic and the icy...

Sloths are famous for their laid-back lifestyle. They cling to trees, digest food at a glacial pace, and only use the bathroom once a week. But today’s tree-dwelling sloths are just a tiny branch of what was once a vast and varied family. 



Long ago, the sloth lineup was far more impressive. Some even walked the earth instead of hanging in the treetops - and they came in all shapes and sizes, from modest desert-dwellers to elephant-sized giants.



New research from the <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida Museum of Natural History</a> and other institutions is offering fresh insight into this now-extinct diversity. 



Scientists combined fossil measurements, DNA, and ecological data to uncover why some sloths evolved to become massive, while others remained small and nimble. 



“They looked like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grizzly-bears-help-huckleberries-thrive-in-a-changing-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">grizzly bears</a> but five times larger,” said Rachel Narducci, a co-author of the study and collection manager of vertebrate paleontology at the museum.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-sloths-were-giant">When sloths were giant</h2>



Most extinct sloths didn’t live in trees because they were too big. The Megatherium, one of the largest species, was the size of an Asian elephant and weighed around 8,000 pounds. 



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-in-america-coexisted-with-giant-sloths-and-mastodons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prehistoric sloths</a> roamed the land, feeding on leaves they could reach with long tongues, much like a giraffe.



Others, like the Shasta ground sloth, were much smaller and occupied very different environments. They lived in the deserts of North America and were known for their fondness for cacti. 



These sloths often made their homes in caves, where they also left behind fascinating fossilized clues.



In 1936, researchers discovered a massive pile of fossilized dung, bat guano, and packrat nests in Rampart Cave near Lake Mead. The deposit was over 20 feet thick.



Some sloths didn’t need to find caves - they made their own. Using enormous claws, they carved shelters directly into the earth. You can still find these ancient burrows today, complete with claw marks etched into the stone walls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-sloths-are-smaller-today">Why sloths are smaller today</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sloths-are-struggling-to-survive-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tree-dwelling sloths</a> today are not giant for a reason. Trees can only support so much weight. The average tree sloth weighs about 14 pounds.



Even those that split their time between ground and canopy rarely top 174 pounds. If a branch breaks, there's little a sloth can do to stop a fall. 



Although they’ve been known to survive 100-foot drops, that doesn’t mean falling is safe - especially when trees in the Amazon can reach 300 feet high.



But the puzzle scientists wanted to solve wasn’t why sloths in trees are small - it was why <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/darwins-ground-sloth-was-not-fully-vegetarian/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ground sloths</a> varied so much in size.



Some sloths stayed relatively petite, while others evolved into lumbering beasts. The team behind the new study explored everything from predator avoidance to food access to climate and shelter options. To do this, they needed a lot of data.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-a-family-tree">Building a family tree</h2>



The researchers examined over 400 fossils from 17 different museums. They collected data on sloth anatomy, location, diet, and lifestyle.



At the Florida Museum, Narducci measured 117 limb bones from their vast collection of North American and Caribbean sloths - the largest such collection in the world. 



“We have the largest collection of North American and Caribbean-island sloths in the world,” she said.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/sloths_giant_dna-bones-comparison_ancient-species_mystery_credit-Diego-Barletta_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/sloths_giant_dna-bones-comparison_ancient-species_mystery_credit-Diego-Barletta_1s.webp" alt="Scientists analyzed ancient DNA and compared more than 400 fossils from 17 natural history museums to figure out how and why extinct sloths got so big. Credit: Florida Museum of Natural History, Kristen Grace" class="wp-image-1971080"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Scientists analyzed ancient DNA and compared more than 400 fossils from 17 natural history museums to figure out how and why extinct sloths got so big. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Florida Museum of Natural History, Kristen Grace</figcaption></figure>



With fossil measurements and genetic data in hand, the team created a “sloth tree of life” stretching back more than 35 million years. They then layered in other key information, like whether the animals were climbers or walkers. 



Finally, the researchers used this framework to estimate sloth body weights and analyze how these changed over time. Their conclusion: habitat and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-extinction-risk-is-heavily-influenced-by-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a> were the strongest forces driving sloth size.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-climate-shaped-sloth-evolution">Earth’s climate shaped sloth evolution</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-in-america-coexisted-with-giant-sloths-and-mastodons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Early sloths</a> likely looked more like Great Danes than elephants. The earliest known sloth, called Pseudoglyptodon, lived in Argentina about 37 million years ago. 



For the next 20 million years, sloth size stayed fairly stable, and then there was a dramatic shift.



Volcanic eruptions in the Pacific Northwest released huge amounts of lava and greenhouse gases. These eruptions aligned with a period of global warming known as the Mid-Miocene Climatic Optimum. Forests spread. Temperatures rose. Sloths shrank.



“It makes sense,” Narducci explained. Smaller bodies lose heat more easily and are better suited for warm, wet climates. More trees also meant more food for smaller, tree-loving species.



But the world didn’t stay hot. After about a million years, the Earth began cooling again. Sloths responded by bulking up. 



They expanded into new environments - mountains, grasslands, deserts, and forests stretching all the way to Alaska. Some species even adapted to life in the sea.



“They developed adaptations similar to those of manatees,” Narducci said. “They had dense ribs to help with buoyancy and longer snouts for eating seagrass.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-benefits-and-risks-of-bigger-bodies">Benefits and risks of bigger bodies</h2>



Being big had its perks. It helped conserve water and energy, especially in dry or cold places. 



“This would’ve allowed them to conserve energy and water and travel more efficiently across habitats with limited resources,” Narducci said. “And if you’re in an open grassland, you need protection, and being bigger provides some of that.”



“Some ground sloths also had little pebble-like osteoderms embedded in their skin,” noted Narducci. These bony growths, shared with armadillos, likely offered extra protection.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/sloths_giant_ancient-species_mystery_credit-Diego-Barletta_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/sloths_giant_ancient-species_mystery_credit-Diego-Barletta_1s.webp" alt="Ancient sloths lived in trees, on mountains, in deserts, boreal forests and open savannahs. These differences in habitat are primarily what drove the wide difference in size between sloth species. Credit: Diego Barletta" class="wp-image-1971078"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Ancient sloths lived in trees, on mountains, in deserts, boreal forests and open savannahs. These differences in habitat are primarily what drove the wide difference in size between sloth species. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Diego Barletta</figcaption></figure>



Sloths reached their peak size during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-were-likely-the-leading-cause-of-megafauna-extinctions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pleistocene</a> ice ages. But their giant size also made sloths vulnerable. When humans arrived in North America about 15,000 years ago, they began to vanish.



“About 15,000 years ago is when you really start to see the drop-off,” Narducci said. They were too slow to escape and too large to hide. Even sloths in the Caribbean, who lived in trees, eventually disappeared after humans arrived around the time the Egyptian pyramids were built.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-giant-sloths-to-tree-huggers">From giant sloths to tree huggers</h2>



This study shows how animals adapt - or don’t - when the world around them changes. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-sloth-day-embracing-a-slower-pace-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sloths grew and shrank</a> in response to Earth’s climate shifts, much like many species do today. Their story is a reminder of how closely life on Earth is tied to the environments we live in.



As researchers continue to study extinct sloths, we get a clearer picture of what ancient ecosystems looked like - and how life has always had to find new ways to survive.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adu0704" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Lost world of giant sloths: Why did they shrink and when did it happen?

Sloths are famous for their laid-back lifestyle. They cling to...

A pair of far-flung galaxies has grabbed the spotlight by engaging in a high-speed collision that stretches our understanding of cosmic interactions. One galaxy is blasting the other with intense radiation, and astronomers say this barrage is limiting new star formation in the battered galaxy.



The study was led by Pasquier Noterdaeme from the<a href="https://www.iap.fr/?langue=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> Paris Institute of Astrophysics</a> and the French-Chilean Laboratory for Astronomy in Chile and Sergei Balashev from the Ioffe Institute in St Petersburg, Russia.



The researchers noted that these two galaxies are racing toward each other at about 310 miles per second. Their study describes how this collision plays out when one <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astronomers-watched-an-entire-galaxy-turn-on-the-lights-in-real-time-black-hole-awoke/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> packs a powerful quasar weapon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-collision-and-a-quasar-blast">Galaxy collision and a quasar blast</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-are-much-bigger-than-we-originally-believed-gas-clouds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> lie more than 11 billion years in the past. Our current observations reveal them when the universe was only about 18% of its present age.



“We hence call this system the ‘cosmic joust,'” said Noterdaeme. One galaxy harbors a <a href="https://www.tmt.org/page/supermassive-black-holes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supermassive black hole</a> that unleashes extreme radiation and transforms ordinary gas clouds in its unwary companion. 



A quasar forms when enormous amounts of matter spiral into a supermassive black hole, shining with brightness that can outmatch entire galaxies. Such intensity can wreak havoc on star-forming gas if it blasts through a neighboring galaxy.



“Here we see for the first time the effect of a quasar’s radiation directly on the internal structure of the gas in an otherwise regular galaxy,” explained Balashev. 



Observations reveal that only the smallest, densest pockets of gas remain intact, which appear incapable of supporting much star formation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-galaxies-and-quasars">Evolution of galaxies and quasars</h2>



The intense radiation from the quasar didn’t just scatter the gas - it compressed what was left into tiny, dense clumps. These <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/molecular-clouds" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">molecular clouds</a> are far smaller than typical star-forming regions, some measuring less than 0.02 light-years across.



Astronomers estimate that these compact clouds are at least 100,000 times denser than the surrounding space. But even with their density, they’re too small to kickstart new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxy-found-in-the-early-universe-that-shouldnt-exist/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a>. 



This points to <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/0004-637X/820/1/10" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">negative feedback</a>, a process where energy from black holes actively shuts down star formation in surrounding areas.



Even though this galactic clash happened over 11 billion years ago, it's giving scientists a rare window into how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-geomagnetic-storm-reveals-earths-technological-vulnerabilities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> and quasars evolved in the early universe. Most of what we know about these processes comes from models or indirect observations.



Seeing a real-time <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/459/3/2618/2595170" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">example</a>, frozen in light that just reached us, helps confirm long-standing theories about how radiation from black holes can shut down star formation in nearby galaxies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-telescopes-reveal-two-galaxies">Telescopes reveal two galaxies</h2>



By combining data from the <a href="https://public.nrao.edu/telescopes/alma/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array</a> and the <a href="https://www.eso.org/public/teles-instr/paranal-observatory/vlt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Very Large Telescope</a>, researchers were able to study the quasar’s light as it carved through the second galaxy. They found that what once looked like a single fuzzy object in older images turned out to be two galaxies in a fierce collision.



The team identified disruptions in the attacked galaxy’s gas clouds, linking them to the quasar’s intense radiation. Astronomers also discovered that the chaos supplies fresh gas to the ravenous black hole, prolonging its brutal assault.



The data came from two observatories located in the <a href="https://www.lonelyplanet.com/articles/first-time-in-atacama-desert" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Atacama Desert</a>, one of the driest places on Earth. These high-altitude sites offer some of the clearest views of the night sky, with minimal atmospheric interference.



<a href="https://www.eso.org/public/teles-instr/alma/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ALMA</a>’s ability to detect fine detail in millimeter wavelengths, combined with the VLT’s precise light analysis, made it possible to separate the two galaxies and trace the radiation's path through the victim galaxy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-aftermath-of-galaxy-collisions">The aftermath of galaxy collisions </h2>



“This will certainly allow us to push forward a deeper study of this, and other systems, to better understand the evolution of quasars and their effect on host and nearby <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-telescope-confirms-hubble-constant-our-understanding-of-universe-expansion-very-wrong/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a>,” said Noterdaeme. 



The researchers predict that future instruments like the <a href="https://elt.eso.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Extremely Large Telescope</a> could investigate the aftermath of such collisions in closer detail. 



When galaxies collide, they don’t just create chaos, they also feed the supermassive black holes at their centers. These mergers funnel gas and dust inward, giving black holes the fuel they need to flare up as quasars.



This process explains why quasars were more common in the early universe. Galaxy interactions were far more frequent, and each one offered another chance for a black hole to ignite and reshape its surroundings.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08966-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



Image Credit: ESO / M. Kornmesser.



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Ancient galaxy collision reveals a quasar shutting down star birth

A pair of far-flung galaxies has grabbed the spotlight by...

Caribbean,Sea,Covered,By,Sargasso,Algae.,Seaweed,Top,View

The Atlantic Ocean holds a secret: a patch of calm water ringed by swift currents, sitting about 590 miles east of Florida yet never touching land. Known as the Sargasso Sea, sailors have crossed it for centuries, but few notice the border when they slip into glassy indigo waters. 



Those who linger find the surface scattered with golden-brown seaweed - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-drives-the-great-atlantic-sargassum-belt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sargassum</a> - named for the Portuguese word sargaço, a type of grape-like algae. The plants bob in slow motion, rolling gently like tumbleweeds on a prairie of water.



Within minutes, the stillness feels uncanny. No surf pounds. No gulls scream from cliffs. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sargassum-seaweed-a-growing-problem-could-become-a-sustainable-solution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The seaweed</a>, however, bursts with residents: shrimp the size of rice grains, neon juvenile fish, porcelain-white crabs, and even young loggerhead turtles paddling their first miles of life. 



This floating cover grows so thick that early Spanish crews feared their wooden caravels would halt and “never again feel a breath of wind,” as Christopher Columbus wrote in 1492.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-sargasso-sea-holds-a-drifting-forest">The Sargasso Sea holds a drifting forest</h2>



Strip away the romance, and the Sargasso Sea looks like an 800-mile-wide nursery. Scientists call the drifting mats “habitat islands,” and for good reason. Hatchling turtles hide here until their shells harden.



Porbeagle sharks cruise the shade below, while Bermuda storm-petrels skim the fringe, plucking shrimp in mid-dive.



Researchers have counted more than 100 invertebrate species clinging to the weed—tiny colonists that hitch a ride for years before the mats eventually break apart.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-cycles-in-migration">Life cycles in migration</h2>



European and American eels begin their lives beneath these mats, no bigger than clear threads. They drift west or east on ocean currents, slip into rivers as far inland as Indiana, then, after decades in freshwater, swim back the entire 3,000-mile journey to spawn once and die. 



How they locate the same watery cradle baffles zoologists. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-humpback-whales-are-born-in-places-we-didnt-expect/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humpback whales</a> also cross the sea each spring, and high-speed tuna streak through on their way to spawning grounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-climate-engine-calls-the-shots">Unique climate engine calls the shots</h2>



Longtime observers quickly learn that calm water masks heavy lifting. In summer, the surface warms to about 82–86 °F; in winter, it cools to roughly 64–68 °F. 



Those seasonal swings drive mixing that helps push warm, salty water northward and return cooler water south - a conveyor that steadies weather patterns on both sides of the Atlantic. 



The open water also pulls carbon dioxide from the air, locking it into plankton shells that eventually snow to the seafloor.



Only after two years of sampling did chemical oceanographer Nicholas Bates and colleagues at the <a href="https://bios.asu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bermuda Institute of Ocean Sciences</a> realize just how much heat the sea was absorbing. 



“The ocean is the warmest it’s been for ‘millions and millions of years,’” he told LiveScience, warning that the trend could reshape “where it rains or where it doesn’t.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-problems-threaten-the-sargasso-sea">Human problems threaten the Sargasso Sea</h2>



Jules Verne once called the Sargasso “a perfect lake in the open Atlantic.” Today that lake collects trash from four converging currents: the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/collapse-of-main-atlantic-ocean-circulaton-current-amoc-is-already-happening/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Atlantic Current</a>, Canary Current, North Equatorial Current, and Antilles Current. 



Those loops act like a mile-wide drain, funneling plastic bags, bottle caps, and ghost fishing gear into a slowly rotating slick. 



One survey estimated roughly 200,000 pieces of debris per square kilometer - about 518,000 pieces per square mile - spreading for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-hotspots-currents-identified-cleanup-efforts-great-pacific-garbage-patch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">several hundred miles</a>.



Underwater microphones pick up the growl of cargo vessels cutting straight through mats. Propellers shred the weed; paint chips flake from hulls, releasing copper and zinc. 



Noise can mask the low-frequency calls of sperm whales passing beneath. Meanwhile, floating nets entangle juvenile turtles exactly where they once found refuge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-change-through-decades">Tracking change through decades</h2>



Researchers have monitored these waters near Bermuda since 1954, recording temperature, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/caribbean-salt-affects-global-climate-study-reveals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">salinity</a>, dissolved oxygen, and pH every month. 



Instruments show that winter water is slightly saltier than summer water, thanks to dry winds that whisk moisture off the surface, while rainfall each June and July freshens the mix. 



Since the 1980s, the average temperature has climbed roughly 1 °C - a small number that packs a punch. Warmer layers resist vertical mixing, starving deeper water of oxygen and hoarding nutrients that would normally rise to feed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dust-from-africa-sparked-a-massive-phytoplankton-bloom/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plankton blooms</a>.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/sargasso-sea_map-location_credit-Bates-Johnson_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/sargasso-sea_map-location_credit-Bates-Johnson_1s.webp" alt="Location map of the island of Bermuda and two ocean time-series (Hydrostation S, 1954 to present; and the Bermuda Atlantic Time-series, BATS, 1988 to present) sites. The position of the Ocean Flux Program (OFP, 1978 to present; deep ocean sediment trap program) is also shown. Ruth Curry is thanked for the main panel figure which is modified here. Credit: Bates and Johnson" class="wp-image-1970759"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Location map of the island of Bermuda and two ocean time-series (Hydrostation S, 1954 to present; and the Bermuda Atlantic Time-series, BATS, 1988 to present) sites. The position of the Ocean Flux Program (OFP, 1978 to present; deep ocean sediment trap program) is also shown. Ruth Curry is thanked for the main panel figure which is modified here. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Bates and Johnson</figcaption></figure>



Scientists have developed new metrics, such as “salinity anomaly” maps and basin-scale alkalinity indices, to compare one year to the next. 



Paired with drifting Argo floats and satellite color scans, the 60-year record has become a gold standard for tracking ocean acidification.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-race-against-warmth">Race against warmth</h2>



<a href="https://www.sargassoseacommission.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Sargasso Sea Commission</a>, an intergovernmental body formed in 2014, calls the region a “haven of biodiversity” and urges countries to designate shipping lanes that skirt dense mats. 



Marine protected area status remains complicated; no nation owns the sea, and enforcement on the high seas is costly. 



Yet conservationists note that simple steps - rerouting tankers by 50 miles or banning longline fishing during peak turtle season - could preserve critical habitat without hampering trade.



Policy moves slowly, while climate shifts quickly. 



Between stronger hurricanes and hotter summers, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robot-discovers-surprising-food-source-sargassum-for-deep-ocean-creatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sargassum</a> now grows so prolifically in the Caribbean that beach resorts hire bulldozers to clear it. Excess weed sinks, rots, and releases greenhouse gases, turning a carbon sink into a source. 



Paradoxically, the very organism that lends the sea its name may become a casualty of warming if rising acidity weakens its holdfasts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-protecting-the-sargasso-sea">Importance of protecting the Sargasso Sea</h2>



If we lose the Sargasso Sea, rivers from Newfoundland to the Gulf of Mexico would send eels searching in vain for a birthplace erased by heat. 



Humpbacks might arrive in spring to find the larder bare. Storm tracks over Europe could drift, and the Atlantic might store even more of the planet’s excess heat, accelerating feedback loops we scarcely understand.



Governments are now weighing a treaty to curb plastic discharge at sea and expand no-take zones around key migratory corridors. 



Shipping firms experiment with quieter propeller designs and biodegradable packing bands. None of these fixes alone will restore the Sargasso, but together they could keep the floating forest alive long enough for cooler heads - and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceans-hidden-skin-could-protect-us-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cooler oceans</a> - to prevail.



For something that looks like an empty patch of blue on a map, the Sargasso Sea manages to knit continents together, nourish creatures halfway across the world, and offer humanity a running log of planetary change. 



The still water speaks softly, but its message rings clear: protect the calm, or brace for the storm that follows.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science/articles/10.3389/fmars.2023.1289931/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.



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Earth has one sea that touches no land, because it has no shore

The Atlantic Ocean holds a secret: a patch of calm...

Bacteria,Bifidobacterium,,Gram-positive,Anaerobic,Rod-shaped,Bacteria,Which,Are,Part,Of

Life in orbit has always intrigued scientists, but few expected to find a microbe that had never been seen on Earth. A bacterium named niallia tiangongensis has popped up aboard China’s Tiangong station, sparking curiosity and concern.



The new species was identified by Dr. Junxia Yuan, from the <a href="https://www.cast.cn/3g/english/channel/wid/1823" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Shenzhou Space Biotechnology Group</a> in Beijing, following detailed genetic and biochemical tests. 



Early research suggests that this tiny organism is well suited to the environment hundreds of miles above Earth’s surface and might offer fresh perspectives on how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-have-become-immune-to-radiation-and-live-in-microwaves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbes</a> adapt to low gravity and high radiation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-space-bacteria-was-discovered">How the space bacteria was discovered</h2>



Space stations host people, plants, and countless <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/enough-water-to-fill-trillions-of-earths-oceans-found-circling-black-hole-quasar/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbes</a>. Many come from crew members or cargo, so it can be tough to figure out if a microbe has simply stowed away or developed new traits during the mission.



This odd finding has prompted more investigation into whether the microbe was originally part of Earth’s enormous microbial pool. 



Experts say that the next step is to confirm if it acquired extra survival skills once exposed to orbital conditions.



There’s a lot of interest in how microorganisms behave when contained in a sealed cabin with limited resources. Crew members took swab samples back in May 2023 for the China Space Station Habitation Area Microbiome Program (CHAMP). 



Scientists hope these samples will explain how bacteria adjust to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/space-travel-has-unexpected-effects-on-gut-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microgravity</a> and whether such shifts could pose hazards in the future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strange-traits-help-the-bacteria-survive">Strange traits help the bacteria survive </h2>



The microbe is microscopic and rod-shaped, but that’s not the only special quality it has. The bacteria appears to form spores, which are resilient structures known to help some organisms get through harsh conditions. 



"This aids their survival in the space environment,” wrote the authors of the study.



According to the researchers, the bacteria also breaks down gelatin in a unique way, which might be critical in nutrient-poor environments.



Experts looking at microbial behavior on crewed space stations have examined how certain species can form <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2732559/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biofilms</a>. These structures can make the bacteria more resistant to stress.



One NASA-led <a href="https://microbiomejournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40168-015-0116-3">study</a> on the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/international-space-station/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Space Station</a> showed how microbes sometimes endure high radiation levels in orbit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-space-bacteria-may-affect-astronaut-health">Space bacteria may affect astronaut health</h2>



Space travelers already face risks from radiation, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microgravity-causes-big-problems-with-human-gene-expression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microgravity-induced</a> health problems, and psychological stress. The presence of new microbes with uncertain health implications adds another layer of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astronauts-microbiome-health-is-crucial-to-future-space-exploration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complexity</a>.



Some strains might be harmless, but scientists worry about infections if a species learns to thrive in low-gravity settings. 



Future missions to the Moon or Mars could last for months or even years, so it’s crucial to understand any microbial surprises that might appear along the way.



Investigations into the microbe’s genetic profile suggest it is akin to a known bacterium called <a href="https://microbe-canvas.com/Bacteria/gram-positive-rods/cells-with-spores/facultative-anaerobic-1/lecithinase-negative/bacillus-circulans.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">niallia circulans</a>, which can cause sepsis in immunocompromised individuals. It remains unclear whether the variant on China's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiangong_space_station" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tiangong Space Station</a> carries the same risks.



Researchers plan to compare genetic data, growth patterns, and resilience to radiation in both microbes. The hope is to figure out if the station-based bacterium has gained additional traits that make it more threatening.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-effects-on-spacecraft-systems">Potential effects on spacecraft systems</h2>



Past missions have shown that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-says-the-international-space-station-is-too-clean-add-microbes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria on station surfaces</a> can hinder machinery. Equipment may be exposed to microbial films that could degrade important materials and introduce safety issues.



Maintaining reliable cleaning processes becomes essential in confined habitats. If this new microbe proves challenging to remove, engineers might have to rethink how surfaces and components are protected.



Experts say <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astronauts-will-search-the-exterior-of-the-space-station-for-living-microbes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">consistent surveillance</a> and swift responses are vital. Identifying and isolating unfamiliar species prevents damage and reduces any potential health hazards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-questions-for-upcoming-missions">Questions for upcoming missions</h2>



No one is sure if niallia tiangongensis emerged spontaneously in space or hitchhiked from Earth. The bacteria's robust nature suggests it might survive more than just a few weeks in orbit.



This uncertainty highlights how little we know about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/space-travel-has-unexpected-effects-on-gut-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">huge array of microorganisms</a> around us. Tens of thousands of bacterial species have been cataloged, but billions more remain undiscovered.



Scientists also wonder what happens when humans travel beyond low-Earth orbit. If longer missions encounter microbes that adapt quickly, protocols for disinfection and waste management will need serious upgrades.



The next generation of space explorers might deal with concerns involving multiple resistant bacteria. Studies like this aim to stay ahead of potential surprises.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-research-is-needed">Further research is needed</h2>



Investigations plan to zero in on the bacterium’s stress response and its ability to repair radiation damage. One part of the research covers how certain proteins may help these cells handle oxidative challenges.



Researchers are also analyzing how the bacterium’s unique gelatin-hydrolyzing properties could be harnessed. If this trait has commercial applications, there might be spinoffs for biotechnology here on Earth.



“It is still too early to determine whether the space bacterium poses any danger to taikonauts aboard Tiangong,” stated the original press release. Its full significance will likely become clearer when scientists complete further assessments of its virulence.



Nonetheless, space agencies around the globe will keep watching such developments. The safety of astronauts and station hardware is on the line.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-more-strange-bacteria-in-space">Finding more strange bacteria in space</h2>



Experts predict more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conan-the-bacterium-can-endure-extreme-radiation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unusual microbes</a> turning up as space exploration advances. Closed-loop living quarters and reliance on limited resources create a setting where bacteria can mutate in unexpected ways.



Efforts like CHAMP are part of a broader plan to gather data on microbial diversity during missions. Observing these organisms throughout long flights should clarify how they adapt and evolve.



Better detection tools and advanced gene sequencing help scientists act quickly once a newcomer is spotted. Quick responses might prevent problems if the microbe turns out to be invasive or harmful.



For now, the story of niallia tiangongensis stands as a reminder that space remains full of puzzles. The research is still unfolding, and more surprises may lie ahead.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.microbiologyresearch.org/content/journal/ijsem/10.1099/ijsem.0.006693" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology</a>.



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Bacteria found on Chinese space station has never been seen on Earth or anywhere else

Life in orbit has always intrigued scientists, but few expected...

Archaeopteryx is often referred to as the fossil that proved Darwin right - it links today’s birds to ancient dinosaurs. Even though the first specimen was discovered over 160 years ago, this iconic fossil continues to offer fresh insights into how birds came to fly.



One of the most revealing specimens yet, the “Chicago Archaeopteryx,” was recently studied by researchers from the Field Museum. 



Their findings, published in the journal Nature, were made possible thanks to remarkable preservation and advanced technology.



The fossil was put on public display in 2024 at the Field Museum, giving both scientists and the public a close look at one of the most complete Archaeopteryx fossils found to date.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smallest-archaeopteryx-fossil-ever-found">Smallest Archaeopteryx fossil ever found</h2>



The Chicago Archaeopteryx was discovered in the Solnhofen limestone of Germany, a site well known for yielding all known <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-evolution-timeline-pushed-back-20-million-years-by-baminornis-zhenghensis-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Archaeopteryx specimens</a>.



This particular fossil had been in private hands since before 1990. In 2022, it arrived at the Field Museum through a collective effort from fossil enthusiasts and supporters.



“When we first got our Archaeopteryx, I was like, this is very, very, very cool, and I was beyond excited," enthused Jingmai O’Connor, the Field Museum’s associate curator of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nothosaur-polar-sea-reptile-fossil-oldest-ever-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil reptiles</a> and lead author of the paper. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/Archaeopteryx-fossil_illustration_credit-michael-rothman_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/Archaeopteryx-fossil_illustration_credit-michael-rothman_1s.webp" alt="Illustration showing Archaeopteryx in life, including its tertial feathers that would have helped it fly. Credit: Michael Rothman" class="wp-image-1970311"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Illustration showing Archaeopteryx in life, including its tertial feathers that would have helped it fly. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Michael Rothman</figcaption></figure>



"But at the same time, Archaeopteryx has been known for over 160 years, so I wasn’t sure what new things we would be able to learn. Our specimen is so well-preserved and so well-prepared that we’re actually learning a ton of new information, from the tip of its snout to the tip of its tail.”



This specimen is the smallest known Archaeopteryx, being only about the size of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/not-so-dim-witted-pigeons-have-their-own-version-of-machine-learning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pigeon</a>. Its tiny bones are embedded in extremely hard limestone, making extraction especially tricky.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-the-archaeopteryx-fossil">Preparing the Archaeopteryx fossil</h2>



Because the bones and soft tissues are nearly the same color as the surrounding rock, even identifying where the fossil ended and stone began was a major challenge. Preparing it took over a year. 



The Field Museum’s fossil prep team worked under UV light to avoid damaging delicate soft tissues and used CT scans to guide their work.



“A CT scanner is essentially a machine that takes a series of X-rays, which it uses to build a three-dimensional image, based on differences in density. It lets you see inside things,” explained O’Connor.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gordonia-traquairi-pig-like-creature-discovered-roamed-earth-250-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CT scanning</a> was very important for our preparation process - it let us know things like, the bone is exactly 3.2 millimeters (0.1 inches) below the surface of the rock, which let us know exactly how far we could go before we would hit the bone."



This is the first time a complete Archaeopteryx has been CT scanned and the data made available.



The UV lighting was equally important. “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chinese-fossil-provides-a-new-glimpse-into-early-bird-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Previous studies</a> have shown that there’s something in the chemical composition of Solnhofen fossils that makes the soft tissues fluoresce, or glow under UV light,” said O’Connor.



“So, our amazing prep team utilized UV light periodically through the preparation process to make sure that they weren't accidentally removing any soft tissues that you can’t see with the naked eye.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unprecedented-detail-in-this-archaeopteryx-fossil">Unprecedented detail in this Archaeopteryx fossil</h2>



The result is a specimen that reveals more fine detail than any previous Archaeopteryx fossil.



“We’re lucky in that this specimen happens to be extremely well-preserved, but we can also see features that probably were preserved in other specimens, but which didn’t make it through cruder preparation processes in the past,” said O’Connor. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/archaeopteryx-fossil_field-slab_credit-Delaney-Drummond_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/archaeopteryx-fossil_field-slab_credit-Delaney-Drummond_1s.webp" alt="The Chicago Archaeopteryx. Photo by Delaney Drummond. (c) Field Museum." class="wp-image-1970309"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The Chicago Archaeopteryx. Click image to enlarge. Photo by Delaney Drummond. (c) Field Museum.</figcaption></figure>



“Having the preparation of this specimen done by scientists whose goal was to preserve as much tissue and bone as possible made a huge difference.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



The new fossil has helped answer questions about several parts of Archaeopteryx anatomy - its skull, hands, feet, and wings.



“The bones in the roof of the mouth help us learn about the evolution of something called cranial kinesis - a feature in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-fossils-reveal-hollow-bones-just-like-modern-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modern birds</a> that lets the beak move independently from the braincase," explained O'Connor.



She added that, although this may not sound exciting to the average person, to those who study bird evolution it is an important thing. 



It's been hypothesized that having <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-brains-fossil-reveals-roots-of-avian-intelligence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">specialized skulls</a> for different ecological niches might have helped birds evolve into the more than 11,000 species present today.



Preserved soft tissues in the feet and hands suggest that this animal walked on the ground and possibly even climbed trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-archaeopteryx-took-flight">How Archaeopteryx took flight</h2>



One of the most debated topics in paleontology is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-flight-feathers-may-reveal-which-dinosaurs-could-fly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">how flight evolved</a> in dinosaurs.



Archaeopteryx wasn’t the first feathered dinosaur, nor the first with wing-like structures, but it may have been the earliest to truly take flight. 



“We think it’s the earliest known dinosaur that was able to use its feathers to fly,” said O’Connor, who highlighted this as her favorite finding in the study.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/Archaeopteryx-fossil_UV-light_soft-tissue_credit-Delaney-Drummond_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/Archaeopteryx-fossil_UV-light_soft-tissue_credit-Delaney-Drummond_1s.webp" alt="The Chicago Archaeopteryx under UV light to show soft tissues alongside the skeleton. Credit: Delaney Drummond" class="wp-image-1970313"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The Chicago Archaeopteryx under UV light to show soft tissues alongside the skeleton. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Delaney Drummond</figcaption></figure>



The key to its aerial ability may lie in a set of upper arm feathers known as tertials. Archaeopteryx had an unusually long upper arm bone, which could have created a disruptive gap in the wing's surface - problematic for flight. 



“If air passes through that gap, that disrupts the lift you’re generating, and you can’t fly,” O’Connor explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-differences-in-modern-birds">Differences in modern birds</h2>



Modern birds evolved shorter upper arm bones and specialized tertial feathers to close this gap. 



Remarkably, the Chicago specimen of Archaeopteryx shows it had long tertial feathers too - something unseen in its flightless dinosaur relatives. 



“Our specimen is the first Archaeopteryx that was preserved and prepared in such a way that we can see its long tertial feathers,” she noted.



These feathers, absent in closely related non-avian dinosaurs, suggest those creatures couldn’t fly. 



“That tells us... Archaeopteryx could,” O’Connor added. “This also adds to evidence that suggests dinosaurs evolved flight more than once - which I think is super exciting.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-still-more-to-learn-160-years-later">Still more to learn, 160 years later</h2>



The Chicago Archaeopteryx has already helped scientists answer long-standing questions. But this study is only the start.



“We're learning something exciting and new from just about every part of the body that we have preserved. And this paper is really just the tip of the iceberg,” remarked O’Connor.



After 160 years, it’s clear that Archaeopteryx still has plenty to teach us. Thanks to the care and tools used in preparing this fossil, we’re seeing it in ways that past generations of scientists could only imagine.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08912-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Archaeopteryx fossil found with preserved soft tissue proves Darwin was right all along

Archaeopteryx is often referred to as the fossil that proved...

Waiting is hard. Whether it’s a child eyeing a cookie or a sea creature hovering above a crab, the tug between “now” and “later” shapes daily choices. Across species, holding off for a better payoff often pairs with sharper thinking and long-term success.



Scientists have tracked this link for decades in humans and chimpanzees, yet evidence in animals without fur or feathers has been thin.



A new study puts cuttlefish at center stage with the famous "marshmallow test," and shows that these soft-bodied hunters can summon patience - and brainpower - to rival some of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-chimpanzees-take-risks-like-human-teens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flashiest vertebrates</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-patience-marshmallows-and-cuttlefish">Patience, marshmallows, and cuttlefish</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crows-can-recognize-geometric-patterns-in-shapes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Self-control</a> is the mental brake that lets an individual pass up an immediate bite for a bigger meal down the road. In people, stronger self-control predicts better grades, steadier income, and healthier habits. 



Among animals, apes, parrots, and crows often wait, while <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monkeys-with-greater-social-tolerance-have-more-self-control/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">monkeys</a>, rats, and pigeons seldom do. Biologists think the variation reflects how each species makes a living.



Lifespan, growth rate, and food supply all shape patience. Long-lived creatures can afford to wait, and social animals may hold back until a partner arrives. 



Predators stalking elusive prey, from ravens to reef fish, also do well to bide their time. Untangling which factor matters most is tough because many well-studied vertebrates share several of those traits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-undersea-cuttlefish-marshmallow-test">Undersea cuttlefish marshmallow test</h2>



The famous marshmallow test gave preschoolers one marshmallow right away or two if they waited 15 minutes. 



To translate that setup underwater, the team offered hungry cuttlefish a piece of ordinary shrimp and, behind a clear barrier, a tastier live grass shrimp. 



Sliding doors let each animal see both treats while controlling when each became reachable.



Some cuttlefish snatched the plain snack at once. Others hovered, watched, and resisted for more than two minutes, choosing the better catch when the moment came. 



Individual wait times ranged from 50 to 130 seconds, figures that match those reported for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-brain-study-will-shed-new-light-on-avian-intelligence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parrots and crows</a> despite the cephalopods’ far shorter lifespan.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-did-they-perform">How did they perform?</h2>



The work comes from lead author Alexandra Schnell of the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a>, who collaborated with <a href="https://www.mbl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Biological Laboratory</a> senior scientist Roger Hanlon and colleagues. 



“We used an adapted version of the Stanford marshmallow test, where children were given a choice of taking an immediate reward (1 marshmallow) or waiting to earn a delayed but better reward (2 marshmallows),” Schnell explained.



The cuttlefish that participated in the marshmallow study were able to wait for the better reward, tolerating delays of up to 50–130 seconds. 



This is comparable to what we see in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-intelligence-did-not-evolve-due-to-natural-selection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">large-brained vertebrates</a> such as chimpanzees, crows, and parrots.



Patience alone would be interesting, yet the researchers also asked whether it linked to learning ability. They trained each animal to match a colored mark on the tank wall with food, then reversed the rule so the reward switched colors. 



“The cuttlefish that were quickest at learning both of those associations were better at exerting self-control,” Schnell continued.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-patience-pays-off">Patience pays off</h2>



Reversal learning tests <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-songbirds-are-masters-of-memory-and-adaptation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mental flexibility</a> because an animal must suppress a habit and update its plan when conditions flip. 



In the study, individual cuttlefish that waited the longest in the marshmallow food test also adapted fastest when the color code changed. 



The pairing hints that the brain circuits holding an impulsive tentacle in check may also help rewrite memories on the fly.



The findings appeared in Proceedings of the Royal Society B, marking the first documented link between delayed gratification and intelligence outside the primate lineage. 



For researchers, that pushes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/horses-demonstrate-an-unanticipated-level-of-intelligence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complex cognition</a> deeper into the tree of life and invites fresh questions about how such abilities evolve among invertebrates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-cuttlefish-wait-on-the-marshmallow">Why cuttlefish wait on the marshmallow</h2>



Cuttlefish spend <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cuttlefish-camouflage-is-much-more-complex-and-mind-boggling-than-initially-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">most of their time camouflaging</a>, sitting and waiting, punctuated by brief periods of foraging. 



“They break camouflage when they forage, so they are exposed to every predator in the ocean that wants to eat them," Schnell concluded. 



"We speculate that delayed gratification may have evolved as a by-product of this, so the cuttlefish can optimize foraging by waiting to choose better-quality food.”



That scenario fits their daily routine. A cuttlefish <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cuttlefish-use-camouflage-to-stalk-unsuspecting-crabs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">can blend its skin</a> with pebbles or coral in less than a second, then freeze for hours. 



Every dash into open water risks a chase from cod, dolphins, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dna-fishing-helps-scientists-survey-marine-life-in-the-deep-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bigger cephalopods</a>, so selecting the richest prey while exposed could boost energy intake without extra danger.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-intelligence-everywhere-we-look">Finding intelligence everywhere we look</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sex-chromosome-discovered-in-octopuses-is-480-million-years-old/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Octopuses</a> and squids already headline stories for maze solving and coconut-shell shelter building, yet cuttlefish now join them as evidence that big brains are not the only route to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cuttlefish-form-false-memories-events-similar-human-brains/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sophisticated behavior</a>. 



Similar challenges - avoiding predators while hunting nimble prey - can mold very different nervous systems into comparable solutions through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutionary-deja-vu-the-symbiotic-relationships-of-trees-and-ants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">convergent evolution</a>.



Self-control underpins planning, cooperation, and perhaps the roots of culture in vertebrates. 



Finding the same thread in a creature that last shared an ancestor with humans more than 500 million years ago suggests that patience is more than a moral virtue; it is a versatile strategy etched deep into the fabric of life.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2020.3161" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.



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Cuttlefish easily passed a test designed for kids, startling scientists with their intelligence

Waiting is hard. Whether it’s a child eyeing a cookie...

Your skin protects you from things like dirt, germs, and other harmful things in the environment. But because it’s always exposed, it also gets hit with things like sunlight and UV rays, which can lead to sunburn, long-term skin damage, or even cancer.



We've long believed that stepping out into the sun requires ample sunscreen slathering, shade-seeking, and hat-wearing, especially between the peak hours of 12 noon and 3 p.m.



However, researchers at the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Copenhagen</a> and <a href="https://www.ntu.edu.sg/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nanyang Technological University</a> (NTU Singapore) have made surprising new strides in our understanding of sunburn.



As it turns out, the DNA damage we've always associated with sunburn might not be the complete story.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-rna-and-sunburn-damage">DNA, RNA, and sunburn damage</h2>



When it comes to sunburn, the prevailing wisdom suggests that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-can-now-collect-human-dna-from-water-air-and-basically-everywhere/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DNA</a> damage triggers inflammation and subsequent cell death.



However, this recent research suggests that the real offender might be <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rna-world-unraveling-mysteries-life-origin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">RNA</a>, not DNA. 



"Sunburn damages the DNA, leading to cell death and inflammation. So the textbooks say," stated assistant professor Anna Constance Vind from the Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine at the <a href="https://researchprofiles.ku.dk/en/organisations/institut-for-cellul%C3%A6r-og-molekyl%C3%A6r-medicin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Copenhagen</a>. 



"But in this study we were surprised to learn that this is a result of damage to the RNA, not the DNA that causes the acute effects of sunburn." 



But what's the difference between DNA and RNA? While they share similarities, the two aren't interchangeable. 



DNA is a more consistent molecule, whereas RNA is more transitory. 



A particular type of RNA, messenger RNA (mRNA), carries information from DNA to create proteins - the fundamental building blocks of cells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-rna-the-basics">Understanding RNA -- the basics</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rna-world-unraveling-mysteries-life-origin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">RNA, or ribonucleic acid</a>, is like the cell’s versatile messenger, playing several key roles in keeping our bodies running smoothly. 



Unlike DNA, which holds the long-term genetic blueprint, RNA is more dynamic and can move around the cell to help build proteins.



RNA essentially acts as the bridge between our genetic code and the actual production of the proteins that do all the work in our cells.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-fix-faulty-genes-before-birth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mRNA</a>, or messenger RNA, is a special type of RNA that has gained a lot of attention, especially with the development of mRNA vaccines. 



mRNA carries the instructions from DNA out of the nucleus and into the cytoplasm, where proteins are made. 



Think of mRNA as a temporary copy of a specific gene that tells the cell exactly which protein to produce and when. This makes mRNA incredibly important for everything from growth and repair to responding to infections.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mrna-and-ultraviolet-rays">mRNA and ultraviolet rays</h2>



The importance of mRNA in our body's response to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-does-skin-become-leathery-after-too-much-uv-light-from-sun-exposure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UV radiation</a> can't be understated. 



"DNA damage is serious as the mutations will get passed down to progenies of the cells, RNA damage happens all the time and does not cause permanent mutations," Vind explained. 



"Therefore, we used to believe that the RNA is less important, as long as the DNA is intact. But in fact, damages to the RNA are the first to trigger a response to UV radiation."



Investigating more deeply into the matter was no small task.



The researchers embarked on a study involving both mice and human skin cells to better understand the consequences of UV radiation on the skin. They discovered a consistent response in both species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-zak-alpha-and-sunburn-damage">ZAK-alpha and sunburn damage</h2>



RNA damage activates a response in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-the-cellular-mortality-timer-that-dictates-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ribosomes</a> (protein complexes that interpret the mRNA to assemble proteins).



This process is managed by a protein known as ZAK-alpha, which triggers what is referred to as the "ribotoxic stress response."



Think of it like a vigilant watchman, always on the lookout for RNA damage. When it detects any, it won't hesitate to call for backup.



"We found that the first thing the cells respond to after being exposed to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-sunbathing-help-you-lose-weight-uv-radiation-triggers-fat-burning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UV radiation</a> is damage to the RNA, and that this is what triggers cell death and inflammation of the skin," explained Professor Simon Bekker-Jensen, who was also from the Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine.



In mice exposed to UV radiation we found responses such as inflammation and cell death, but when we removed the ZAK gene, these responses disappeared, which means that ZAK plays a key role in the skin's response to UV-induced damage.



"So you could say that everything depends on this one response, which monitors all protein translations occurring,” Bekker-Jensen elaborated.



“The cells respond to the RNA damage, realizing that something is wrong, and this is what leads to&nbsp;cell death.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-paradigm-shift">Paradigm shift</h2>



The study's findings question our long-held beliefs about sunburn and how our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/skins-secret-strength-shields-against-puncture-damage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">skin</a> safeguards itself. 



It suggests that RNA damage sparks a quicker, more efficient response, which safeguards the skin from additional harm.



"The fact that the DNA does not control the skin's initial response to UV radiation, but that something else does and that it does so more effectively and more quickly, is quite the paradigm shift," reflected Vind.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/sunburn-study_graphical-illustration_credit-Molecular-Cell-Journal_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/sunburn-study_graphical-illustration_credit-Molecular-Cell-Journal_1s.webp" alt="Using ZAK knockout mice, we here show that it is the RSR that is responsible for the early manifestation of UVB-induced skin inflammation and keratinocyte death and subsequent proliferation in vivo. We also show that the RSR controls both p38-mediated pyroptotic and JNK-mediated apoptotic programmed cell death of human keratinocytes in vitro. In sum, our work highlights that skin cells rely on a cytoplasmic and ribosomal stress signal rather than a nuclear and DNA-templated signal for rapid inflammatory responses to UV exposure. Credit: Molecular Cell Journal" class="wp-image-1971003"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Using ZAK knockout mice, we here show that it is the RSR that is responsible for the early manifestation of UVB-induced skin inflammation and keratinocyte death and subsequent proliferation in vivo. We also show that the RSR controls both p38-mediated pyroptotic and JNK-mediated apoptotic programmed cell death of human keratinocytes in vitro. In sum, our work highlights that skin cells rely on a cytoplasmic and ribosomal stress signal rather than a nuclear and DNA-templated signal for rapid inflammatory responses to UV exposure. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Molecular Cell Journal</figcaption></figure>



Knowing how our skin reacts to UV damage at a cellular level could potentially transform prevention and treatment approaches to sunburn and other inflammatory skin conditions.



"Many inflammatory skin diseases are worsened by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/many-parents-are-not-using-sunscreen-properly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sun exposure</a>. Thus, understanding how our skin responds at the cellular level to UV damage opens the door to innovative treatments for certain chronic skin conditions," explained Dr. Franklin Zhong, Nanyang assistant professor at NTU's Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine and a co-author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rewriting-the-textbooks">Rewriting the textbooks</h2>



In closing, it seems now is the time to revise our textbooks and rethink how we perceive the effects of UV radiation on our skin. 



"This new knowledge turns things upside down. I think most people associate sunburn with DNA damage; it is established knowledge," Professor Simon Bekker-Jensen concluded. 



"But now we need to rewrite the textbooks, and it will affect future research on the effects of UV radiation on the skin."



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1097276524008840" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Molecular Cell</a>.



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-----

Main cause of sunburn is finally identified, and it's not what we've been told

Your skin protects you from things like dirt, germs, and...

In the United States, certain forest landscapes help both people and birds at the same time. A team of researchers has identified forests that store carbon, filter water, and shelter at-risk <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-the-2024-eclipse-revealed-about-bird-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird</a> species.



Dr. Rachel Neugarten of the Wildlife Conservation Society, and formerly of the <a href="https://www.birds.cornell.edu/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell Lab of Ornithology</a>, explained the motivation behind this study.&nbsp;



“We all know that nature provides us with many benefits - biodiversity, climate regulation, recreation, and many others - but until now, we haven't been able to demonstrate where those benefits coincide in space,” stated Dr. Neugarten.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-help-both-people-and-birds">Forests help both people and birds</h2>



One significant highlight of the work is the finding that a single region can supply benefits for both wildlife and people. Forested landscapes stood out as a prime example.



"Against a backdrop of environmental degradation, climate change, and declining natural resources, there is growing interest in identifying conservation approaches that achieve co-benefits to simultaneously advance multiple goals," wrote the researchers.



Key data showed that 75% of forest-dwelling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/all-birds-one-tree-complete-evolutionary-map-reveals-hidden-links/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> were found in areas that supply important ecological services, such as water filtration and carbon storage. 



These regions include the Appalachian Mountains, the southeastern U.S., New England, the Ozarks, and the Sierra and Cascade ranges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-forest-birds-are-declining-fast">Many forest birds are declining fast</h2>



Many species have been designated as <a href="https://www.stateofthebirds.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tipping Point</a> birds, meaning they have declined by half or more in the last half-century. Some of these birds thrive in forests that also contribute to timber production and climate regulation.



Among these forest-dwelling Tipping Point species is the <a href="https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Cerulean_Warbler/overview" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cerulean Warbler</a>, with 91% of its U.S. population found in areas supporting the forestry industry while locking away substantial carbon. 



By prioritizing these habitats, <a href="https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/01/27/fact-sheet-president-biden-takes-executive-actions-to-tackle-the-climate-crisis-at-home-and-abroad-create-jobs-and-restore-scientific-integrity-across-federal-government/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">decision-makers</a> can help both local economies and declining bird populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-all-habitats-have-equal-benefits">Not all habitats have equal benefits</h2>



Not every <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wings-without-borders-the-significance-of-world-migratory-bird-day/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird</a> group benefits from the same zones. Aridlands and wetlands frequently fell outside many of these top-priority areas for human-centric ecosystem services. This gap highlights the risk of generalizing conservation plans. 



Although some locations offer a perfect blend of benefits for people and birds, others need tailored strategies to secure habitats that are not automatically covered by human-focused conservation.



Forests that store large amounts of carbon often coincide with hotspots for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-100-bird-species-have-been-lost-for-over-a-decade/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird</a> diversity. This overlap is especially promising for meeting climate targets set by national and international policies.



Some species normally associated with arid regions also gain partial climate benefits when their territory overlaps with carbon-rich zones. But for many desert birds, the match is far weaker than it is for forest dwellers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-conservation-needs-different-plans">Bird conservation needs different plans</h2>



Amanda Rodewald, faculty director of the Center for Avian Population Studies at the Cornell Lab of Ornithology, is a co-author of the research.



“This study is especially timely, given recent <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aaw1313" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reports</a> of continued, if not worsening, population declines in North American birds,” said Rodewald.



“Now more than ever, we must find ways to conserve birds as part of broader efforts to protect the environment, in this case, safeguarding the ecosystem services that support human health and well-being.”



Researchers believe the next challenge is finding ways to extend these co-benefits to other habitats. Adaptable strategies might involve protecting wetlands for flood control and wildlife, or preserving grasslands that support pollination services.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strategic-planning-for-the-future">Strategic planning for the future</h2>



Teams that focus on forested landscapes can leverage positive outcomes for local communities, industries, and bird populations. However, carefully pinpointing resources for arid and coastal birds remains urgent.



Targeted measures that factor in local environmental conditions may help address the gaps. With limited budgets and rising threats from climate disruption, careful planning is more pressing than ever.



Researchers believe that partnerships among local land managers, government agencies, and conservation groups can stretch funds further. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-forest-birds-and-people">Protecting forest birds and people</h2>



By uniting around data-driven goals, different sectors can look beyond short-term agendas and make decisions that serve birds, ecosystems, and human interests.



Scientists see these findings as a stepping-stone for more informed land-use policies in the U.S. They stress the importance of identifying unique needs for each region instead of relying on one-size-fits-all strategies.



Maximizing conservation gains requires blending science, community support, and political will. Responsible steps taken now could secure crucial habitats that shield people and wildlife against ongoing environmental changes.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212041625000373?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecosystem Services</a>.



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Many forests that benefit people also shelter endangered birds

In the United States, certain forest landscapes help both people...

States around the country are forging ahead on reducing carbon emissions, even when national policies seem stuck in a holding pattern. 



Researchers have analyzed state-level actions and discovered that localized strategies can cut nearly half of the nation’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/met-office-2024-co2-levels-will-surpass-the-point-of-no-return/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse</a> gases by the middle of the century, with costs that differ from those of a unified approach by less than one percent.



Jeremiah Johnson is an associate professor of civil, construction and environmental engineering at <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Carolina State University</a>.



“We think there is significant value in assessing what kind of difference state-led efforts could make,” said Johnson. He sees this pattern as vital for regions eager to protect their economies and communities.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-some-states-lead-on-climate">Why some states lead on climate</h2>



Some places feel a direct impact from shifting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-accelerating-beyond-control-as-co2-levels-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weather</a>, so local leaders seek methods that keep their energy grids flexible and their industries secure. 



They often implement firm timelines to reach <a href="https://netzeroclimate.org/what-is-net-zero-2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">net-zero goals</a>, which ensures each part of their economy invests in cleaner fuels and infrastructure.



Others try a mix of regulations and economic steps to spark homegrown innovation. That can mean new policies for industrial heating, more efficient transport, or robust local power systems that lean on wind, solar, and carbon capture rather than coal or oil.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-states-can-cut-emissions-at-low-costs">States can cut emissions at low costs</h2>



The researchers found that states following their own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cutting-methane-emissions-could-quickly-slow-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a> plans could still reach emissions targets at a total cost only 0.7% higher than what a nationwide approach would require.



The study also showed that different policy paths lead to diverse technology solutions, including advanced manufacturing processes or cleaner power sources in certain corners of the country.



Modeling suggests that regional strategies might rely more on industry-specific changes. Meanwhile, a broad effort might tap wind and solar resources across all states, especially areas with steady breezes or plenty of sunshine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emissions-across-state-lines">Emissions across state lines</h2>



Varying approaches can affect surrounding areas. If some states slash emissions through electrification or <a href="https://www.iea.org/energy-system/carbon-capture-utilisation-and-storage/direct-air-capture" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">direct air capture</a>, others might shift their energy mix in unexpected ways that raise or lower their own pollution.



When a region invests in cleaner power, cheap electricity could flow across state lines. On the flip side, places without mandates might ramp up cheaper fossil options and export certain goods or services, which affects overall <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-absorb-31-more-co2-than-previously-estimated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse</a> gas levels nationwide.



When only some states commit to climate action, others may increase their own emissions to meet demand for power or fuel. This <a href="https://clear.ucdavis.edu/news/what-carbon-leakage" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon leakage</a> can cancel out progress made by cleaner regions.



Models show this happening when unconstrained areas export fossil-based electricity or biofuels to states with strict targets. Without safeguards, the emissions just shift around instead of decreasing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-state-action-brings-jobs-and-growth">State action brings jobs and growth</h2>



State-led decarbonization isn't just about cutting pollution - it could unlock long-term economic growth. Regions that take early action might attract new jobs in clean energy, grid modernization, or next-gen manufacturing.



With rising public support for sustainable policies, states that build out local green infrastructure could become magnets for skilled workers and private investment. 



Over time, these decisions could help reshape regional economies from the ground up.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-untapped-clean-energy-in-the-southeast">Untapped clean energy in the Southeast</h2>



The Southeast stands out in models as the region with the most untapped potential. When included in a national climate strategy, it delivers the largest emissions drop of any region - more than California or the Northeast.



It also has ample biomass, solar capacity, and carbon storage options. Without policy nudges, though, these assets remain idle. That makes the Southeast a crucial player in hitting national <a href="https://www.eia.gov/totalenergy/data/monthly" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">targets</a>, even if it’s slow to act on its own.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-delaying-emissions-cuts-may-raise-costs">Delaying emissions cuts may raise costs</h2>



Even though the price gap between state and national action is small, the longer states wait to implement change, the more expensive it becomes to catch up. Delays can lock in high-emission <a href="https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/inventory-us-greenhouse-gas-emissions-and-sinks" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infrastructure</a> that’s harder and costlier to replace later.



Early movers avoid that trap. By upgrading systems now, they reduce long-term costs and position themselves for federal funding or private partnerships down the line.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-states-must-work-together">States must work together</h2>



Some experts say that states with big ambitions should coordinate with neighbors to avoid leakage of emissions. 



Joint investments in renewables, shared energy storage, or new grids could keep everyone moving in the same direction without undercutting progress.



Others highlight the power of well-designed incentives for regions that lack strict goals. If those communities harness options like direct air capture, or turn to large-scale bioenergy, the entire country benefits in ways that no single strategy can achieve on its own.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-59696-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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States taking action on their own can cut half of U.S. emissions

States around the country are forging ahead on reducing carbon...

The growing conversation around microplastics is shining a light on an unsettling possibility: these tiny plastic particles may be accumulating in the human brain. Some researchers suspect that they could be related to certain mental health challenges and cognitive setbacks.



After reviewing evidence from recent publications, experts are urging further investigation into how processed food could introduce plastic fragments into our bodies.



One of those experts, Dr. Nicholas Fabiano from the <a href="https://www.uottawa.ca/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Ottawa</a>, emphasizes the potential health implications of ingesting significant amounts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-in-the-brain-alarming-new-details-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastics</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-microplastics-enter-our-brain">How microplastics enter our brain</h2>



Our environment is full of plastic debris, much of it invisible to the naked eye. High-quality laboratory tests have <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39901044/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">confirmed</a> that humans are exposed through diverse routes, including diet and air inhalation.



Researchers note that once these particles enter the bloodstream, they may find a path into our central nervous system. 



Some believe that the physical presence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dementia-patients-have-higher-levels-of-microplastics-in-their-brains/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastic</a> fragments could disturb neurons and biochemical processes in ways we have yet to understand.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-processed-food-may-increase-plastic-intake">Processed food may increase plastic intake</h2>



Ultra-processed products often involve industrial techniques that can introduce more synthetic elements during manufacturing. Experts believe that this could be a major source of plastic exposure.



Efforts to measure <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-are-infiltrating-the-human-body-even-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastic</a> concentrations in popular snack items have drawn attention to how easily particles might be consumed on a routine basis. 



Many researchers hope that a comprehensive index will make it easier to figure out who is at greatest risk based on eating habits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microplastics-persist-in-the-body">Microplastics persist in the body </h2>



Examining blood and tissue samples suggests these tiny plastic bits can reside in the body for unknown lengths of time. Some laboratory models hint that chronic exposure might trigger localized inflammation or oxidative stress in sensitive areas, such as the brain.



In one exploratory effort, <a href="https://genomicpress.kglmeridian.com/view/journals/brainmed/aop/article-10.61373-bm025c.0020/article-10.61373-bm025c.0020.xml" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">specialists</a> tested whether certain blood-filtering methods might remove plastic fragments from circulation. Although the results are tentative, this approach could pave the way for more targeted removal strategies if future trials confirm effectiveness.



“We’re seeing converging evidence that should concern us all,” said Dr. Fabiano. Some professionals believe that the combination of shifting dietary habits and rising plastic contamination calls for better public health guidelines.



“What emerges from this work is not a warning. It is a reckoning,” wrote <a href="https://www.upstate.edu/psych/faculty.php?empID=wongma" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Ma-Li Wong</a>. Her viewpoint underscores the urgency of addressing these invisible contaminants.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rising-plastic-contamination-risks">Rising plastic contamination risks</h2>



Many experts recommend practical steps for reducing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-linked-to-health-issues-including-cancer-and-infertility/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exposure</a>. Replacing plastic water bottles with glass or stainless steel, avoiding plastic-wrapped microwave meals, and focusing on fresher meal choices may lower the daily load of plastic shards.



Cutting back on products that involve excessive packaging could also prove beneficial. While these adjustments may seem minor, they represent deliberate actions to limit what goes into our bodies over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microplastics-and-brain-health">Microplastics and brain health</h2>



Some nutrition researchers are concerned that chronic intake of plastic contaminants might heighten the risk of emotional difficulties. <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2809727" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Studies</a> that link highly processed foods to depressive symptoms have raised questions about the role synthetic compounds may play.



Though the mental health impact of these contaminants is not yet fully established, the topic has captured the attention of psychiatrists and neurologists. They hope to see long-term population studies that evaluate dietary patterns, measured plastic exposures, and overall brain function.



Calls for more transparent food labeling are growing louder. If scientific research confirms a direct link between microplastics and cognitive health, consumers may demand stricter rules on packaging materials and clearer disclosure of what is in their snacks.



Scientists across multiple disciplines plan to collaborate on large-scale projects that track exposure levels. This combined effort could help clarify how microplastic buildup is distributed in different body systems and how those particles may intersect with individual vulnerabilities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-minimizing-the-health-risks-of-microplastics">Minimizing the health risks of microplastics </h2>



Some food companies have started experimenting with compostable packaging, hoping to curb plastic intrusion at the source. Others are working on new processing technologies that reduce reliance on conventional polymers.



Health advocates argue that incremental progress is better than no progress at all. They note that a shift in manufacturing practices could lighten the burden placed on our bodies and our planet.



Individuals can play a part by staying up to date on recommendations from trusted health organizations. Policy developments, consumer choices, and scientific findings will likely continue to shape how we address microplastic contamination.



Researchers suggest that listening to new data and making modest lifestyle tweaks are constructive steps. 



Whether it’s switching to a reusable water bottle or urging local shops to offer plastic-free alternatives, each act adds momentum to a broader movement toward minimizing plastic infiltration.



The study is published in <a href="https://genomicpress.kglmeridian.com/view/journals/brainmed/aop/article-10.61373-bm025g.0062/article-10.61373-bm025g.0062.xml" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brain Medicine</a>.



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Microplastics in human brains may affect mental health

The growing conversation around microplastics is shining a light on...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



-----



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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