Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Archaea - an often-overlooked group of microbes - are quietly living in our guts, and scientists are finally starting to understand just how important they might be.



While most research on the human microbiome has focused on bacteria, a new species of methane-producing gut microbe is shifting that attention.



In a recent study, microbiologists from the <a href="https://www.medunigraz.at/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Medical University of Graz</a>, the DSMZ-German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures in Germany, and the University of Illinois, discovered a previously unknown methane-producing archaea species in the human gut. They named it Methanobrevibacter intestini sp. nov., strain WWM1085.



The team also isolated a new variant of Methanobrevibacter smithii, called GRAZ-2. These findings offer fresh insight into how our gut and its microbial inhabitants interact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-archaea-so-unique">What makes archaea so unique?</h2>



Archaea are one of the three recognized domains of living organisms, along with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/common-gut-bacteria-behave-like-vampires-to-target-human-blood/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a> and eukaryotes (which include animals, plants, and fungi). 



Under a microscope, archaea might look a bit like bacteria - but they are fundamentally different. Their cell structure, metabolism, and genetic code all set them apart.



Most people associate archaea with extreme environments like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hot-springs-may-have-played-a-key-role-in-the-emergence-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hot springs</a> and salt flats. But they also live in more familiar places, including in the human digestive tract.



One group of archaea, known as methanogens, produces methane by breaking down hydrogen and carbon dioxide. These microbes are vital to metabolic processes in animals - including humans.



Still, studying them isn’t easy. Archaea cannot tolerate oxygen, and they’re difficult to grow in the lab. That’s why research into their role in the human gut is only just beginning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-microbes-may-play-a-big-role">Small microbes may play a big role</h2>



“Our discovery is a further piece in the puzzle towards understanding how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-microbiome-trillions-of-bacteria-unique-like-fingerprints/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human microbiome</a> functions,” said Christine Moissl-Eichinger, professor of interactive microbiome research at Med Uni Graz.



While most microbiome studies center on bacteria, archaea have received little attention - despite the big role they might play in our health.



“Archaea have long been overlooked,” Moissl-Eichinger said. “They may play a significant role in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-microbes-have-an-unexpected-link-to-anxiety/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gut</a> function, microbial gas metabolism, and possibly even the development or progression of certain diseases.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gut-microbes-that-produce-methane">Gut microbes that produce methane</h2>



To identify the methane-producing gut microbes, the team used advanced techniques, including specialized anaerobic cultivation (growing organisms without oxygen), high-resolution electron microscopy, and DNA sequencing. 



The experts found that Methanobrevibacter intestini WWM1085 stands apart from all known archaea species. It survives only in oxygen-free environments and produces <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-methane-emissions-threaten-earths-habitability/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">methane</a>.



More surprisingly, it also generates large amounts of succinic acid - a substance linked to inflammation in the body. This suggests a possible connection between archaea and certain health conditions.



The second discovery, GRAZ-2, is a strain of Methanobrevibacter smithii. It produces formic acid, which could disrupt how other gut microbes function. This suggests that even slight genetic variations in archaea might lead to very different roles within the gut.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-archaeome-might-reveal">What the “archaeome” might reveal</h2>



These findings support the idea that gut archaea are more diverse - and potentially more important - than previously believed.



Scientists are beginning to use the term “archaeome” to describe the full range of archaea living within us. This emerging field holds promise for revealing how these organisms influence human health. The ability to grow archaea in the lab is crucial for learning what they do. 



“We can only conduct specific mechanistic investigations with cultivated strains,” said Viktoria Weinberger, the study’s first author. “This is essential in order to better understand the role of individual microorganisms in health and disease - and in the long term to develop therapeutic approaches as well.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-new-gut-microbes">Understanding the new gut microbes</h2>



Understanding Methanobrevibacter intestini and GRAZ-2 could be just the beginning. These archaea may one day help shape more personalized approaches to gut health - ones that include not just the bacteria, but also the other overlooked players living quietly in our digestive systems.



The discovery of new archaea species in the human gut raises more questions than it answers. What other microbes are we missing? And how might they influence everything from digestion to disease?



As research expands, the once-overlooked archaea may become key players in shaping the future of microbiome science.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://www.microbiologyresearch.org/content/journal/ijsem/10.1099/ijsem.0.006751" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology</a>.



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New methane-producing microbe discovered in the human gut

Archaea - an often-overlooked group of microbes - are quietly...

Most parents agree that puberty is an important topic to cover with their kids. But when is the right time to start? And what’s the best way to approach it? These are questions many parents still struggle with.



A recent national poll by researchers at the <a href="https://www.mottchildren.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan Health C.S. Mott Children’s Hospital</a> sheds light on how families are handling this crucial stage of childhood. 



The poll highlights some common uncertainties, such as the best age to start the conversation and whether to include topics like sex and reproduction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-to-begin-the-puberty-talk">When to begin the puberty talk</h2>



The results show that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parents-often-feel-lonely-burnt-out-parenting-demands/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parents</a> are split on when to begin the puberty talk. About one-third say it’s best to start before age 10. Others prefer to wait until their kids are 10 or older. This uncertainty can make it tough to know when to speak up.



“It’s easy to assume a child is too young for conversations about puberty, but many parents are surprised to find their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tweens-used-media-more-during-the-pandemic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tween</a> already showing signs of puberty or asking unexpected questions about body changes,” said Mott Poll Co-Director Sarah Clark.



“Starting the conversation early gives parents a chance to shape the message in an age-appropriate way and help kids know what to expect, so they’re not confused or anxious. If parents don’t open the door to these talks, kids may get their information elsewhere, like from classmates, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/goldilocks-amount-of-social-media-time-may-protect-teens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social media</a>, or what they see on TV.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-talking-about-puberty-can-be-hard">Talking about puberty can be hard</h2>



Parents take different approaches to discussing puberty. Around half say they’re proactive. Two in five wait for their child to ask questions. A small group - about 5% - avoid the topic entirely.



There are also emotional hurdles. One in five parents say they worry about feeling embarrassed. Others fear saying the wrong thing. 



Some parents of 10- to 12-year-olds say their child avoids the subject. Meanwhile, nearly a third of parents with 7- to 9-year-olds think their child is too young to understand. Clark suggests some of that hesitation might come from parents' own childhoods.



While nearly half have shared their personal puberty experiences with their kids, fewer than one in three say they learned about puberty from their own parents. Over a third note that it wasn’t discussed at all in their home growing up.



“Whether they realize it or not parents may bring their own experiences into their parenting approach,” Clark said. “Many parents said they had little or no discussion of puberty when they were young. If puberty was treated as an awkward or embarrassing subject growing up, that can make it harder to know how to begin.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-question-of-sex">The question of sex</h2>



One of the biggest challenges for parents is knowing how and when to talk about sex and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lunar-cycles-have-a-secret-influence-on-human-reproduction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reproduction</a>. For some, this part of the conversation can feel even more overwhelming.



“Early conversations should focus on making kids aware that they will experience physical and emotional changes, and reassuring them that those changes are normal. Discussions about sex can occur over time,” Clark said.



She also points out that parents don’t have to do it all alone. Resources like parenting books, educational videos, and school health programs can help start the conversation or reinforce the message. Annual doctor visits may also provide a comfortable setting to bring up puberty-related topics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spotting-the-signs">Spotting the signs</h2>



About half of parents say they feel very confident in recognizing signs of puberty. Among parents of kids aged 10 to 12, that number jumps to 60 percent. 



For younger kids, only 17% of parents say they’ve noticed changes. And fewer than one in three say they know what signs to look for.



Many parents also report that their children have brought up questions about their own bodies, their parents' bodies, or puberty in general. These moments, Clark says, are great chances to open up the discussion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-keep-the-conversation-going">Keep the conversation going</h2>



Puberty isn’t just a physical transition. It can also bring emotional changes that make open conversations harder. But that makes the need for communication even more important.



“Puberty isn’t just about physical changes - it’s also a time of emotional disruption, which can make open communication challenging,” Clark said. “Many tweens feel embarrassed or uncomfortable talking with their parents about these changes.”



“To help ease the discomfort, some parents may give their child an age-appropriate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-children-learn-gender-stereotypes-from-storybooks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">book</a> or video about puberty and allow the child to explore the topic privately. Often, that leads to additional discussion with parents.”



In the end, the key is to make room for these conversations early - and to keep them going. By doing so, parents can support their kids through one of the most confusing and important transitions of their lives.



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Talking to kids about puberty: Why sooner may be better than later

Most parents agree that puberty is an important topic to...

Bonobos are known for gentle interactions, yet recent work suggests they might be less tolerant when rewards are split unequally. Researchers set out to see if these apes would walk away from deals that favored a partner and shortchanged them.



This insight emerges from the work of first author Kia Radovanović from <a href="https://www.uu.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Utrecht University</a>. A team at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology collaborated on these trials to gauge bonobos’ <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-bonobo-day-a-celebration-of-love-peace-and-conservation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reactions</a> to unequal treats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobos-recognize-unfair-rewards-and-protest">Bonobos recognize unfair rewards and protest</h2>



Some experts use the phrase <a href="https://www.behavioraleconomics.com/resources/mini-encyclopedia-of-be/inequity-aversion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">inequity aversion</a> for patterns in animals that refuse to cooperate when they get a raw deal. Human <a href="https://academic.oup.com/qje/article-abstract/114/3/817/1848113?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> have noted how people often protest if someone else is given better benefits for the same effort.



Bonobos share close ties with people on the <a href="https://evolution-outreach.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1007/s12052-008-0035-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary tree</a>. Their social lives revolve around interactions where resources and tasks are commonly exchanged. 



When tested in a token-exchange setting, they faced a scenario where one <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobo-communication-shares-many-structural-similarities-with-human-language/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">participant</a> got a higher-value treat, while the other settled for a lesser option.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-turn-down-free-snacks">Why turn down free snacks?</h2>



“We found that bonobos more often refused to participate when faced with inequitable rewards,” said Radovanović. This outcome goes against the idea that they simply expect the same tasty morsel and quit if disappointed.



There were instances where an automated contraption handed out the treats. Bonobos avoided interacting if the gadget gave them a lower reward, yet spared a friend something tastier. 



This trend did not appear to stem from dissatisfaction with the human caretaker but instead from the unequal handouts themselves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-much-unfairness-can-bonobos-tolerate">How much unfairness can bonobos tolerate?</h2>



Cooperative behavior in this species is often viewed as a key characteristic. Some pairs seemed more tolerant of small imbalances, especially if they had strong social <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-are-more-endangered-than-previously-known/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bonds</a>.



The closer pairs of bonobos sometimes accepted the mismatch without walking away. These differences in how each ape responds hint that personal relationships might play a role in how big a difference in goodies they are willing to allow.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobos-chimps-and-unfair-rewards">Bonobos, chimps, and unfair rewards</h2>



Unlike bonobos, chimpanzees in similar tests often show refusal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orphaned-bonobos-can-regain-social-skills-and-empathy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a> that seem tied more to the person handing out the food than to fairness itself. 



When chimpanzees received lesser rewards, they reacted more strongly if the distributor was a human instead of a machine. That suggests they may be expressing frustration with the person, not necessarily protesting the unfairness of the trade.



Bonobos didn’t follow that same pattern. Their refusals were strongest when a machine was involved and their partner still got something better. 



This detail sets them apart and raises the possibility that bonobos might have developed a clearer internal barometer for fairness, while chimpanzees may lean more toward social expectations or experimenter-based cues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-tests-to-explore-fairness-in-apes">More tests to explore fairness in apes</h2>



Fair-minded behavior might develop from social structures that value harmony.



"This study provides new insights into how fairness may have evolved, but further research is needed,” said Daniel Haun, Director at the <a href="https://www.mpg.de/de" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</a>.



Researchers continue to plan follow-up tasks that offer group-based <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-are-thriving-in-salonga-national-park/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activities</a> and broader test groups. They hope to see whether living conditions or group composition shape each individual’s perception of what is or is not an acceptable share.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobos-value-rewards-and-fairness">Bonobos value rewards and fairness</h2>



People once believed that only humans show strong objections when rewards are lopsided. Bonobo evidence suggests some apes may notice these imbalances too. 



This pattern could reinforce cooperation over time, because no one wants to keep playing with a partner who always gets the bigger prize.



These observations add a new perspective on how a sense of fair play might have taken shape in diverse primate lineages. Focusing on bonobos’ responses could clarify the complexities of social ties and resource division in living groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-can-bonobos-fix-unfairness-themselves">Can bonobos fix unfairness themselves?</h2>



Researchers propose testing different tasks where bonobos can actively equalize outcomes. Deeper analysis may also reveal if other apes respond similarly in varied settings. 



Questions remain about how environment and familiarity influence the readiness to leave an unfair arrangement.



If bonobos keep showing that they can detect and reject unequal rewards, the idea of fairness in non-human species grows stronger. That could shift how we talk about morality and ethical conduct in the broader animal kingdom.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.2873" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</a>.



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Bonobos say no to unfair trades, even if it costs rewards

Bonobos are known for gentle interactions, yet recent work suggests...

Robots have long struggled with flexibility. Until now, even the most advanced robotic systems have required massive amounts of data and painstaking instruction to complete basic tasks. 



If a robot dropped a tool or failed to follow a script precisely, it would typically shut down or fail completely. However, a new breakthrough from <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell University</a> might change that dynamic entirely. 



A team of computer scientists has recently developed a new AI-powered framework called RHyME (Retrieval for Hybrid Imitation under Mismatched Execution). 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-robots-learning-from-humans">Robots learning from humans</h2>



The new technology allows robots to learn complex, multi-step tasks by watching just a single human demonstration, even if the way humans perform a task differs significantly from how robots do.



“One of the annoying things about working with robots is collecting so much data on the robot doing different tasks. That’s not how humans do tasks. We look at other people as inspiration," explained Kushal Kedia, a doctoral student in computer science at Cornell and the lead author of the study. 



Kedia is set to present the team’s findings at the <a href="https://2025.ieee-icra.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation</a> in Atlanta, highlighting a system that could fundamentally alter how robots are trained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-perfect-scripts-to-practical-adaptation"><a></a>From perfect scripts to practical adaptation</h2>



For decades, robotic learning has depended heavily on imitation. In a method known as “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cultural-learning-begins-in-infancy-during-parent-child-imitation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">imitation learning</a>,” robots watch human demonstrations to acquire new skills. 



But this training has required extremely controlled demonstrations - human movements had to be smooth, precise, and consistent, or the robot wouldn’t be able to replicate the actions. Any deviation would result in failure.



“Our work is like translating French to English - we’re translating any given task from human to robot,” said senior author Sanjiban Choudhury, an assistant professor of computer science at Cornell’s Ann S. Bowers College of Computing and Information Science.



However, there’s a significant hurdle: humans are too fluid. Our movements are complex and unpredictable, often performed in ways that robots can’t easily mimic. 



Training robots on video also traditionally required an enormous amount of footage to be even marginally successful. The mismatch between how humans behave and how robots are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robots-can-now-learn-like-humans-using-self-awareness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">built to act</a> has long been a stumbling block.



“If a human moves in a way that’s any different from how a robot moves, the method immediately falls apart,” Choudhury noted. “Our thinking was, ‘Can we find a principled way to deal with this mismatch between how humans and robots do tasks?’”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-smarter-memory-for-smarter-machines"><a></a>A smarter memory for smarter machines</h2>



RHyME is designed to overcome this long-standing challenge. Rather than trying to replicate human actions step by step, it equips robots with a sort of “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/household-robots-now-with-added-common-sense-and-ability-to-self-correct/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">common sense</a>” memory system. 



When a robot encounters a task it’s seen performed by a human - like putting a mug in the sink - it can recall and adapt related movements from its video archive, such as grasping a different object or performing a similar arm motion.



This process allows the robot to “connect the dots” even when human demonstrations don’t perfectly align with the robot’s own mechanics. RHyME essentially enables robots to synthesize new behaviors by creatively combining past examples.



In laboratory trials, robots trained with RHyME achieved over a 50% improvement in task success rates compared to traditional training techniques. 



Even more impressive, RHyME accomplished this using just 30 minutes of robot-specific data, dramatically reducing the training overhead that has long been a barrier in robotics.



“This work is a departure from how robots are programmed today,” Choudhury said. “The status quo of programming robots is thousands of hours of tele-operation to teach the robot how to do tasks. That’s just impossible. With RHyME, we’re moving away from that and learning to train robots in a more scalable way.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-robots-a-step-toward-home-helpers">Robots: A step toward home helpers</h2>



Though consumer-grade home assistant robots are still a distant dream, RHyME represents a significant step in that direction. 



The ability for robots to learn quickly and flexibly by observing people - even from a single video - could one day make robotic helpers more practical, affordable, and accessible.



As automation becomes increasingly integrated into everyday life, systems like RHyME are poised to streamline robotic training across industries. From <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-glimpse-of-the-future-robots-in-nursing-homes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elder care</a> to warehouse logistics, these smarter robots could adapt to the dynamic nature of real-world environments with much less human oversight.



For now, the researchers are continuing to refine RHyME and explore how it might scale to even more complex tasks. 



But the core insight remains: instead of forcing robots to copy us precisely, we can teach them to draw inspiration from us - just like we do from one another.



Read the paper, “<a href="https://portal-cornell.github.io/rhyme/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">One-Shot Imitation under Mismatched Execution</a>."



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Robots can now learn from humans by watching 'how-to' videos

Robots have long struggled with flexibility. Until now, even the...

Our inner emotions don’t always match what we show on the outside. People often say they’re fine while feeling overwhelmed inside - a common habit that can lead to mental health struggles like anxiety or panic attacks. 



Spotting these hidden emotions isn’t always easy, especially for health care providers who are trying to help.



In a breakthrough study, researchers have created a stretchable, rechargeable sticker that senses the body’s emotional signals, including changes in heart rate and skin temperature.



Developed by scientists at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a>, the device offers a way to see beyond facial expressions and get a more accurate read on how someone is really feeling.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-emotions-beneath-the-surface">Tracking emotions beneath the surface</h2>



“This is a new and improved way to understand our emotions by looking at multiple body signals at once,” said Huanyu “Larry” Cheng, a professor of engineering science and mechanics at Penn State.



“Relying only on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/facial-expressions-arent-enough-to-understand-human-emotions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">facial expressions</a> to understand emotions can be misleading. People often don't visibly show how they truly feel, so that’s why we’re combining facial expression analysis with other important physiological signals, which will ultimately lead to better mental health monitoring and support.”



The sticker tracks several indicators that are tied to emotional states. These include skin temperature, heart rate, humidity, and blood oxygen levels. 



The emotion sensors are carefully designed to work independently, which means each variable reading stays accurate and does not interfere with the measurement of the others.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sensor-identifies-emotional-reactions">Sensor identifies emotional reactions</h2>



The patch also uses facial expression data and compares it with body signals to tell the difference between a real emotional reaction and a faked one.



The data is then sent wirelessly to mobile devices or the Cloud, where it could help doctors assess patients remotely. Importantly, the device doesn’t collect personal data - just the signals - to protect user privacy.



“This technology has the potential to help people who are struggling with their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/using-apps-to-practice-mindfulness-improves-mental-health-of-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mental health</a>, but maybe aren’t being fully honest with others or even themselves about how much they are struggling,” explained Yangbo Yuan, who is a co-author on the paper, and a doctoral student studying engineering science and mechanics at Penn State.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-device-understands-context">The device understands context</h2>



Some people may seem calm when they’re actually overwhelmed. Others might appear visibly distressed more easily. 



According to Cheng, these differences - often shaped by culture or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/personality-traits-are-not-strongly-inherited-from-parents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">personalit</a>y - could be better understood using this tool.



“By keeping track of these signals, it could be possible to detect problems like anxiety or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alcohol-and-depression-study-challenges-self-medication-theory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">depression</a> earlier in its progression,” said Cheng.



The patch is about the size of a Band-Aid and can bend and stretch without breaking. The team used thin layers of flexible metals like platinum and gold, cut into wavy patterns to maintain flexibility. 



Materials that react to temperature changes were added, along with carbon nanotube tubes to detect humidity.



Each sensor was placed with care to ensure one didn’t disrupt another. For example, the temperature and humidity sensors were protected by a stiff backing to prevent stretching, while waterproof layers shielded them from outside moisture.



“We've engineered this device to measure these different signals independently, without them interfering with each other, providing a much clearer and more accurate picture of what's happening beneath the surface,” said study co-author Libo Gao, an associate professor at Xiamen University.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fake-feelings-versus-real-emotions">Fake feelings versus real emotions</h2>



The team also trained artificial intelligence to discriminate between real <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/words-shape-how-our-brains-process-feelings-and-guide-decisions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">feelings</a> and fake ones. They asked eight participants to make six common facial expressions - joy, surprise, fear, sadness, anger, and disgust - one hundred times each. 



The device recorded their movements, and the data was used to teach the AI to spot emotional cues. Then, three new participants joined to test the system. The AI identified the posed emotions with over 96% accuracy.



To test for genuine emotion, the same participants watched videos meant to stir feelings. The device picked up on the emotional shifts with nearly 89% accuracy. 



The sensors confirmed that things like rising heart rate and skin temperature matched expected reactions, such as during anger or surprise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-sensor-to-monitor-human-emotions">A sensor to monitor human emotions</h2>



The emotion sensor could become a valuable tool in virtual healthcare. Since it sends data wirelessly, doctors could one day use it to check in on patients from afar.



“This sensor can serve a vital function in bridging gaps in access to care,” Cheng said. “Given the rising stress levels in modern society, the ability to monitor emotions can provide early indicators of debilitating conditions and allow for proactive support.”



There may be other uses, too. The team believes the same technology could help understand emotional responses in non-verbal patients, identify early signs of dementia, and even track athletic performance or wound healing. 



Ultimately, the emotion sensors may be able to assist in detecting overdoses or following the course of neurodegenerative diseases.



“While still in the research and development phase, this device is a significant step forward in our ability to monitor and understand human emotions, potentially paving the way for more proactive and personalized approaches to mental health care,” concluded Cheng.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.nanolett.4c06392" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nano Letters</a>.



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New sensor reveals your true emotions, even when you're faking it

Our inner emotions don’t always match what we show on...

Conservation scientists often reassure themselves with a simple rule of thumb: species that live over huge swaths of territory and boast large populations are usually safer from extinction than creatures confined to small patches of habitat. 



However, a new global analysis of roughly 1,500 bird species has revealed that there's no comfortable rule when it comes to climate change.



The study, led by the <a href="https://www.utexas.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Texas at Austin</a>, shows that a wide geographic footprint can hide an unexpectedly narrow dependence on climate. In a warming world, that hidden fragility could make certain familiar birds surprisingly vulnerable.



“Because that region is so big, species that occupy it tend to have large populations and large geographic range sizes - two characteristics that are often associated with lower <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-extinctions-shatter-the-harmonious-balance-of-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extinction</a> risks,” explained Carlos Botero, an associate professor of integrative biology and senior author of the study.



“The problem here is that because many of those species are adapted to a very narrow range of climates, those seemingly large populations can be quite <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-bird-species-face-extinction-risks-in-the-neotropics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">susceptible</a> to collapse when climate patterns begin to change.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-paradox-from-the-arctic"><a></a>A paradox from the Arctic</h2>



One of the clearest examples comes from the Arctic, where a single broad climatic regime stretches across thousands of miles. The Bohemian waxwing is emblematic: its breeding distribution spans an immense arc from Scandinavia to Alaska.



Yet the Arctic’s uniform environment means that the waxwing’s entire life cycle is tied to cold temperatures and consistent snow cover. Even minor warming or shifts in precipitation could push the species outside its comfort zone - no matter how far it can fly within that chilly belt.



In their analysis, Botero’s team contrasted the waxwing with the chestnut-crowned laughingthrush. The laughingthrush is restricted to a sliver of montane forest in Nepal, Bhutan, and neighboring parts of Asia - an area a fraction of the waxwing’s extent.



But the Himalayan foothills expose that small-ranged bird to a wider palette of temperatures and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-rainfall-increases-as-a-direct-result-of-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainfall</a> patterns throughout the year. The laughingthrush therefore occupies a broader “climate niche,” potentially giving it more room to maneuver as conditions shift.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-brains-and-climate-specialization">Bird brains and climate specialization</h2>



The surprises did not stop with range maps. Analyses also revealed an unexpected relationship between brain size and climate flexibility. 



Larger-brained birds, long celebrated for their resourcefulness, tended to be the very species most tightly wedded to specific climate regimes. “Larger brain sizes correlate with more flexible behavior, so `big-brained birds are usually expected to be more adaptable,” Botero said. 



“However, it turns out that many big-brained birds are climate specialists - meaning that they have evolved to thrive in very particular climate types and may therefore also be more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-birds-are-more-at-risk-from-climate-change-than-others/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vulnerable</a> to climate change than we expected.”



Why would an animal capable of problem-solving and tool use paint itself into a narrow climatic corner? Botero and coauthor João Fabrício Mota Rodrigues (now at <a href="https://unicamp.br/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brazil’s University of Campinas</a>) suspect that cognitive prowess helps species exploit highly specific environments with great efficiency. 



Over evolutionary time, that specialization can lead to tight physiological tolerances - exactly the trait that becomes risky when the planet’s thermostat creeps upward.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-a-two-dimensional-climate-map"><a></a>Building a two-dimensional climate map</h2>



To quantify each species’ niche, the team merged two huge datasets. First came detailed range maps created from hundreds of thousands of sightings submitted by volunteer birders to the <a href="https://ebird.org/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eBird</a> platform. 



Second, the researchers developed a simplified, yet powerful, climate classification that captures two axes of environmental hardship. The first axis - “temperature harshness” - rises as places become colder, more variable, and less predictable. 



The second - “xeric harshness” - ratchets upward with drier, more erratic rainfall. Plotting Earth’s land areas across those twin axes produced a two-dimensional climate space. 



Points near the center represent benign zones: warm, moist, and seasonally steady. Farther out lie the extremes: parched deserts, storm-prone tropics, or frigid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-will-changing-tundra-landscapes-affect-earths-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tundra</a>. 



By overlaying each bird’s distribution onto that grid, the researchers measured how much of the climate space the species actually uses. A small ellipse located at one edge of the diagram signals trouble. 



Birds confined to that limited set of conditions may find it hard to track shifting isotherms or precipitation belts. Conversely, a large swath cutting across multiple quadrants suggests climatic breadth and, potentially, resilience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-interactions-hidden-risks"><a></a>Hidden interactions, hidden risks</h2>



The latest study adds to a growing chorus urging conservation planners to reconsider single-factor threat lists. 



“We need to stop looking at individual risk factors in isolation, but evaluate how these complex factors combine,” Botero emphasized. “Sometimes, it is the unexpected interactions that matter most.”



Indeed, a species can check all the traditional “safe” boxes - huge range, big population, high intelligence - yet still sit on a climatic knife-edge. Arctic breeders are just one illustration. 



Tropical forest birds with large brains and tight humidity requirements could face similar hazards if droughts intensify. Even desert specialists might falter if rainfall becomes too unpredictable for reliable breeding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-citizen-science-and-big-picture-insights">Citizen science and big-picture insights</h2>



According to Rodrigues, the analysis was made possible by citizen scientists. Data derived from eBird gave the experts an unprecedented global snapshot.



Without hundreds of thousands of observers recording where they saw even the most common species, they couldn’t have mapped climate niches with this precision. Such an approach is quickly becoming a backbone of ecological forecasting. 



By harnessing real-time, geo-tagged records from amateurs, researchers can update models as species ranges expand, contract, or fragment - often faster than traditional field surveys could manage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smarter-species-conservation">Smarter species conservation</h2>



Recognizing climate specialization where none was suspected may reshape conservation priorities. Agencies often triage limited funds toward charismatic, range-restricted species. 



But Botero’s work suggests that some cosmopolitan birds deserve equal attention, precisely because their “bigness” masks a slender climatic lifeline. Future investigations will probe whether similar patterns hold for mammals, reptiles, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amphibians-are-being-pushed-beyond-their-heat-limits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amphibians</a>. 



For now, the message is clear: size - of range, of population, of brain - does not guarantee safety. In a rapidly changing climate, ecological nuance matters. 



Understanding that nuance could spell the difference between proactive protection and costly rescue missions when numbers suddenly plummet. As policymakers craft strategies for the coming decades, studies like this remind us that vulnerability isn’t always where we expect it. 



Sometimes it hides beneath vast northern skies, in flocks that seem abundant - until the weather shifts just a little too far, and the invisible boundaries of their climate niches close in.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-58815-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Big brains and wide ranges can't save birds from climate change

Conservation scientists often reassure themselves with a simple rule of...

For decades, astronomers have searched for the universe’s missing matter - the normal matter that should exist according to the Big Bang theory, but can’t be fully seen.



This isn’t about dark matter, which constitutes most of the universe’s mass. It’s about ordinary, visible matter like stars, gas, and galaxies. Even after accounting for everything that can be observed through telescopes, more than half of this matter seemed to be missing.



But new research might have solved the mystery. Scientists believe they’ve found the missing matter in a form that’s been hiding in plain sight - very diffuse, invisible hydrogen gas floating far beyond what we once thought was the edge of galaxies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-faint-gas-solves-the-mystery">Faint gas solves the mystery</h2>



The discovery comes from a team of researchers at the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Berkeley</a>, in collaboration with the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. 



The experts believe the missing matter is in a faint, expanded halo of ionized <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hydrothermal-vents-earths-first-living-beings-hydrogen-gas-energy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hydrogen</a> that surrounds galaxies and stretches much farther than previously assumed - about five times farther, in fact.



This gas doesn’t glow or shine. It's nearly impossible to detect with traditional tools. But its presence helps fix a major inconsistency between what we see in the sky and what our models of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/if-the-big-bang-theory-is-correct-what-exactly-happened/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Big Bang</a> predict.



"We think that, once we go farther away from the galaxy, we recover all of the missing gas," said Boryana Hadzhiyska, a Miller Postdoctoral Fellow at UC Berkeley and lead author of the study.



"To be more accurate, we have to do a careful analysis with simulations, which we haven't done. We want to do a careful job."



"The measurements are certainly consistent with finding all of the gas," noted Simone Ferraro, a senior scientist at Berkeley Lab and UC Berkeley.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cosmic-microwave-background">The cosmic microwave background </h2>



To find this gas, the team used a technique that involved "stacking" images of roughly 7 million <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-are-much-bigger-than-we-originally-believed-gas-clouds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a>. All of these galaxies lie within 8 billion light-years from Earth. 



By studying how these galaxies slightly dim or brighten the cosmic microwave background - the oldest light in the universe - they were able to detect the scattering effect from free electrons in the ionized gas. This phenomenon is called the kinematic Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect.



"The cosmic microwave background is in the back of everything we see in the universe. It's the edge of the observable universe," Ferraro explained. "So you can use that as a backlight to see where the gas is."



The galaxy images used in the study were taken using the Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument (DESI) on the Mayall Telescope in Arizona. DESI, built by a Berkeley Lab-led collaboration, is working on a massive 3D <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-ever-3d-map-of-the-universe-lets-us-travel-back-11-billion-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">map of the universe</a>. 



For background light, the team relied on data from the Atacama Cosmology Telescope in Chile, which produced the most accurate measurements of the cosmic microwave background before its retirement in 2022.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gas-expelled-from-black-holes">Gas expelled from black holes</h2>



The discovery has bigger implications than just solving the missing matter problem. It also sheds light on what’s happening at the center of galaxies - specifically, around the enormous black holes that lie at their cores.



Traditionally, scientists believed these black holes only shot out jets of gas and radiation early in their life, when they were feeding on surrounding material. But this new research suggests that the black holes might not be so quiet during their middle years after all.



"One problem we don't understand is about AGNs, and one of the hypotheses is that they turn on and off occasionally in what is called a duty cycle," said Hadzhiyska.



This process - called feedback - involves gas being expelled far from the galaxy and then falling back into the galactic disk. It plays a key role in regulating how new stars are formed. Earlier work in 2020 by Ferraro and his colleagues had already hinted at this extended feedback mechanism.



Graduate student Bernardita Ried Guachalla from Stanford University later confirmed the findings using a more nearby galaxy sample. Her work also revealed that the gas isn't evenly spread around galaxies but rather follows the "cosmic filaments"- long strands of matter that connect galaxies across the universe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-our-universe-models">Rethinking our universe models</h2>



The findings suggest that galaxy evolution models need a serious upgrade. Simulations of how galaxies form and change over time often don’t account for this much gas being pushed so far out by central <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-holes-shaped-the-universe-before-galaxies-existed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black holes</a>.



Some researchers are already adapting their models to better match this new evidence. The results also help clarify other long-standing puzzles in cosmology.



"Knowing where the gas is has become one of the most serious limiting factors in trying to get cosmology out of current and future surveys," Ferraro said. "We've kind of hit this wall, and this is the right time to address these questions." 



"Once you know where the gas is, you can ask, 'What's the consequence for cosmological problems?'"



For instance, some assumptions suggest that gas follows dark matter. But if large amounts of gas are being blown out of galaxies, that idea needs to be re-evaluated. If not corrected, this can lead to inaccuracies in cosmological calculations. Now, this research might help resolve those issues.



"There are a huge number of people interested in using our measurements to do a very thorough analysis that includes this gas," said Hadzhiyska. "People in astronomy care a lot about it for understanding galaxy formation and evolution."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-missing-matter-to-cosmic-insights">From missing matter to cosmic insights</h2>



Beyond helping explain current galaxies, this approach may open a new window into the early universe. 



By using the same kinematic Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect, scientists might be able to study large-scale structures that formed just after the Big Bang. It could even help test major theories about gravity and general relativity.



While there’s still work to be done, this research offers a promising step forward in answering some of cosmology’s biggest questions - starting with where half the universe’s matter has been hiding all along.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2407.07152" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arXiv</a>.



Image Credit: NASA/CXC/M.Weiss; NASA/CXC/Ohio State/A Gupta et al



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'Ghost gas' may solve the mystery of the universe’s missing matter

For decades, astronomers have searched for the universe’s missing matter...

Water on the Moon has long fascinated scientists, not just because it's crucial for future lunar missions, but also because it raises a big question: where did it come from? Since the 1960s, researchers have proposed that water might be forming thanks to the sun.



The idea is simple yet powerful: when charged particles from the Sun hit the Moon’s surface, they might spark a chemical reaction that produces water. That theory now has strong experimental support.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-the-sun-creating-the-moon-s-water">Is the Sun creating the Moon's water?</h2>



Researchers at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center and their collaborators have confirmed this process in the lab. They used one of the most realistic simulations of solar wind hitting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astronauts-will-melt-lunar-dust-to-build-roads-on-the-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lunar dust</a> to date.



The findings could have a big impact on how NASA plans future missions, especially to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-spacecraft-set-out-to-drill-for-water-on-the-moons-south-pole/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Moon's South Pole</a> - where frozen water may lie in shadowed craters, a potential goldmine for exploration.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
“The exciting thing here is that with only lunar soil and a basic ingredient from the Sun, which is always spitting out hydrogen, there’s a possibility of creating water. That’s incredible to think about," said Li Hsia Yeo, a research scientist at <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland</a> who led the study.
</blockquote>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solar-wind-and-water-formation">Solar wind and water formation</h2>



The Sun constantly blasts the solar system with a stream of particles called the solar wind. These particles travel at over one million miles per hour and are mostly made of hydrogen protons.



Earth has a magnetic field and an atmosphere that protect it from this bombardment, but the Moon doesn't. With no protection, its dusty surface - made of a gritty, rocky material called regolith - is fully exposed.



When solar wind protons hit this regolith, they can pick up electrons, becoming hydrogen atoms. These atoms then move through the lunar surface and bond with oxygen in minerals like silica. 



The result? Molecules of hydroxyl (OH) and, sometimes, actual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moons-entire-surface-is-covered-with-water-and-hydroxyl-not-just-the-poles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water</a> (H₂O). Evidence of both hydroxyl and water has been found in the Moon’s uppermost surface - just a few millimeters deep.



Scientists detect these molecules through their chemical "fingerprint" using light analysis. But distinguishing between hydroxyl and water is tricky, so researchers often use “water” as a catch-all term.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-moon-s-dynamic-water-signature">The Moon’s dynamic water signature </h2>



Previous spacecraft observations hinted that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/silent-storms-experts-identify-the-mysterious-source-of-solar-wind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar wind</a> might be actively generating this water. One major clue is that the Moon’s water signature changes over the course of a day.



In some places, the signal is stronger in the cooler morning and weakens in the heat of the afternoon. Then it returns at night. This suggests the water isn't static - it’s dynamic, possibly being made and lost on a daily basis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bringing-the-moon-to-the-lab">Bringing the Moon to the lab</h2>



To test the solar wind theory, Yeo and her colleague, Jason McLain, built a unique lab setup. It was the first of its kind to keep lunar samples sealed in a vacuum during testing - eliminating the risk of contamination from Earth’s moisture.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
“It took a long time and many iterations to design the apparatus components and get them all to fit inside,” said McLain. “But it was worth it, because once we eliminated all possible sources of contamination, we learned that this decades-old idea about the solar wind turns out to be true.”
</blockquote>



The team used lunar dust from Apollo 17 - collected back in 1972 - and baked it to remove any trace water it might have picked up since. Then they bombarded the samples with high doses of mock solar wind using a tiny particle accelerator. This simulated about 80,000 years of lunar exposure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detecting-a-molecular-signal">Detecting a molecular signal</h2>



To track changes, the researchers used a spectrometer - a tool that measures how light reflects off materials. They spotted a very specific dip in the light signal, right near the infrared wavelength where water usually absorbs energy. 



This dip is the telltale sign that something like water had formed. Although they can't say for sure whether it was hydroxyl or full water molecules, the signal strongly suggests both were produced. 



The results support the idea that the Sun plays a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-are-searching-for-viable-sources-of-water-on-the-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">major role</a> in forming water on the Moon through solar wind.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-creation-by-the-sun">Water creation by the Sun</h2>



Understanding where and how water forms on the moon isn’t just a scientific curiosity. It could shape how future astronauts explore the lunar surface. 



If solar wind really is making water, even in tiny amounts, then lunar soil itself could become a resource - potentially useful for drinking water, breathable oxygen, or even rocket fuel.



And now, thanks to one carefully sealed chamber and a bit of lunar dust from the past, that possibility looks a lot more real.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024JE008334" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets</a>.



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How the Sun might be making water on the Moon

Water on the Moon has long fascinated scientists, not just...

In a world shaped by virtual interactions, avatars are now the new face of communication. In games, work, shopping, or therapy, they act like real people - showing expressions and emotions, and even changing how we feel about taking risks.



But what happens when our brains start treating these digital stand-ins differently than real humans?



A study by Toshiko Tanaka and Masahiko Haruno of the National Institute of Information and Communications Technology (<a href="https://www.nict.go.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NICT</a>) in Japan has brought this question into sharp focus.



The research explores how avatars influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rethinking-vision-the-brain-sees-what-it-wants-to-see/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human behavior</a>, particularly when it comes to taking risks, and it offers a deeper look at the neural mechanics behind this shift.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-risks-with-avatar-feedback">More risks with avatar feedback</h2>



Tanaka and Haruno designed a study that places human decision-making under the microscope in virtual environments. 



Participants engaged in a gambling task, where they had to choose between a guaranteed small reward and a risky option with a larger potential payout. Their choices were followed by dynamic facial feedback from either a real human face or an avatar presenting the same expressions.



What the researchers found was striking: people made more risky <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-brain-literally-changes-based-on-daily-activities-and-lifestyle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">choices</a> when they expected to receive feedback from an avatar rather than a real face. 



The difference was not subtle. It persisted across both behavioral and neuroimaging experiments, revealing that avatar interactions fundamentally altered the way people assessed the value of risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-brain-s-reaction-to-avatars">The brain’s reaction to avatars</h2>



The answer lies in how our brain interprets uncertainty, especially in social situations. The researchers discovered that avatars shift our emotional processing of risk. 



Participants perceived facial feedback from avatars - be it admiring or contemptuous - as less emotionally charged than the same expressions from real humans. This led to a more favorable valuation of feedback uncertainty.



That means when participants weren’t quite sure what kind of response they’d receive, the ambiguity felt less threatening if it came from an avatar. This change in emotional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-the-human-brain-create-retrieve-memories-engram-cells-connections/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">processing</a> allowed them to focus more on potential gains, encouraging riskier choices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quieting-the-brain-s-emotional-alarm">Quieting the brain’s emotional alarm</h2>



To understand the brain’s role in this behavior, the researchers used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scans. 



The experts found that a key emotional processing center in the brain - the amygdala - was deeply involved. Specifically, activity in the central amygdala (CM) decreased when feedback uncertainty was delivered through avatars.



This reduction in amygdala response reflected a lower emotional cost attached to avatar feedback. In essence, avatars made the stakes feel lower, even when the actual risk remained the same. 



This neural response was not random. It tracked closely with how individuals evaluated feedback uncertainty and how often they chose the risky option.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-empathetic-people-are-more-affected">Empathetic people are more affected</h2>



Not everyone responded the same way to avatar feedback. The researchers included psychological assessments that measured traits like empathy and anxiety. 



They found that people who scored high on empathetic concern - those more emotionally attuned to others - were especially likely to show reduced amygdala responses and increased risk-taking in the avatar condition.



The central amygdala response to feedback uncertainty also correlated specifically with these empathy scores. It wasn’t general anxiety or social avoidance that shaped the brain’s behavior - it was the emotional consideration of others’ internal states.



According to the study, this pattern was not observed in participants with higher scores for social anxiety. That distinction suggests that avatars reduce emotional burden without diminishing the social component of the interaction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-brain-areas-that-responded">Other brain areas that responded</h2>



Though the amygdala played the primary role, other brain regions also responded. The ventral striatum (vSTR) and ventral anterior cingulate cortex (vACC) showed activity linked to feedback uncertainty, though their involvement was less direct. 



These areas processed reward-related and emotional information, but they didn’t show the same predictive power as the amygdala when it came to actual behavior changes.



Participants who took more risks with avatars had amygdala activity patterns that clearly differed from those who remained cautious. The vSTR and vACC supported these shifts but did not appear to drive them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-avatar-influence-was-measured">How avatar influence was measured </h2>



The strength of these conclusions rests in a meticulous experimental design. Participants interacted with a same-gender observer whom they believed was monitoring and evaluating their gambling behavior.



Unbeknownst to them, feedback expressions were pre-recorded, and observer appearances alternated between avatar and real-face conditions.



Each trial in the experiment involved choosing between a safe and risky option, followed by feedback in the form of facial expressions. The researchers recorded behavioral data and brain activity, allowing them to model the valuation process mathematically and neurologically.



Computational modeling confirmed that feedback uncertainty carried more weight in decision-making under avatar conditions. The best-fitting models showed that only this parameter needed to vary between avatar and human feedback to explain participants' risk behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tests-confirm-risk-taking-boost">Tests confirm risk-taking boost</h2>



To ensure their findings were not due to a simple lack of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/digital-misinformation-rumors-spread-like-nuclear-reactions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">engagement</a>, the team ran pilot tests. These included a no-observer condition, in which participants received no feedback at all. 



Risk-taking rates in this condition were significantly lower than those seen with avatar feedback. This helped eliminate the possibility that participants were simply ignoring avatar responses.



Even when compared to human feedback, avatars elicited more risk-taking. This demonstrated that it wasn’t just the presence of feedback but the form of the feedback that mattered.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-real-world-implications">Real-world implications</h2>



“We found that people tend to take more risks when their partner responds through an avatar rather than showing their real face. This seems to be driven by a change in how they process uncertainty - and interestingly, that change is reflected in the amygdala," said Haruno.



“Using the same confederate and having them pass as just another participant every time wasn’t easy - it took a lot of effort to keep things feeling real for each new person,” added Tanaka.



These findings extend far beyond the lab. In virtual workspaces, therapy sessions, and customer service interactions, avatars may unintentionally nudge users toward riskier behavior. This could be a double-edged sword - boosting confidence in some cases while increasing impulsivity in others.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-in-avatar-research">Next steps in avatar research</h2>



Future investigations will likely explore how avatar characteristics - age, gender, realism - affect user responses.



Researchers are also interested in whether these findings apply to other kinds of decision-making, such as moral choices or long-term planning.



The study suggests that more human-like avatars could deepen emotional engagement, potentially altering the balance between empathy and risk even further. As avatar technology becomes more lifelike and widespread, these questions will become increasingly important.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-era-of-virtual-world-risk">New era of virtual world risk</h2>



Tanaka and Haruno’s study offers a timely look at how digital interactions shape human behavior. By revealing that avatars influence our emotional evaluation of uncertainty, they uncover a hidden driver of risk in the virtual world.



The amygdala, a structure tied to emotional memory and fear, emerges as a key player in how we navigate the unfamiliar terrain of avatar communication. 



As we spend more time in these environments, we must learn how these subtle shifts in perception can shape the choices we make - online and off.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3003122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Biology</a>.



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How avatars are making people take more risks

In a world shaped by virtual interactions, avatars are now...

Ask any parent of a teenager, and they will confirm that young people rarely go to bed early. Smartphones glow into the night, homework drags past midnight, and weekend sleep-ins feel like catch-up sessions rather than luxury.&nbsp;



Yet a large international study led by researchers at the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a> and <a href="https://www.fudan.edu.cn/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fudan University</a> suggests that even small shifts toward longer, earlier sleep may deliver measurable benefits for adolescents’ brains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleep-patterns-and-adolescent-brains">Sleep patterns and adolescent brains </h2>



The investigation is one of the most comprehensive attempts to link real-world <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-quality-could-be-the-key-to-better-metabolic-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep patterns</a> with brain imaging and cognitive testing in early adolescence. 



Drawing on data from the <a href="https://abcdstudy.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study</a> in the United States, the research tracked nightly rest in more than 3,200 children aged 11–12 by using Fitbit wearables rather than relying on self-reported bedtimes. The scientists then compared those objective sleep metrics with MRI scans, heart-rate data, and a battery of tasks that measure attention, vocabulary, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-rewires-the-brain-to-strengthen-memories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory</a>, and reasoning.



“Regularly getting a good night’s sleep is important in helping us function properly, but while we know a lot about sleep in adulthood and later life, we know surprisingly little about sleep in adolescence, even though this is a crucial time in our development,” said Professor Barbara Sahakian of Cambridge’s Department of Psychiatry, one of the senior authors.&nbsp;



“How long do young people sleep for, for example, and what impact does this have on their brain function and cognitive performance?”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-three-distinct-sleep-profiles">Three distinct sleep profiles</h2>



When the team clustered the teenagers’ nightly patterns, three broad groups emerged.&nbsp;



The first group, labeled "late-to-bed, early-to-rise sleepers," made up about 39 percent of the sample. These adolescents started their slumber the latest and woke the earliest, averaging just seven hours and ten minutes of sleep - the least rest of all.&nbsp;



The second group, comprising just under a quarter of the participants, were considered "average sleepers." They managed roughly seven hours and twenty-one minutes, with bedtimes, wake times, and sleep efficiency all falling in the mid-range.&nbsp;



The final group, the "early-to-bed sleepers," accounted for the remaining 37 percent. These teens consistently shut down earlier in the evening and clocked in at about seven hours and twenty-five minutes of sleep. Notably, they exhibited the lowest overnight <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleeping-more-on-weekends-can-reduce-heart-disease-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heart</a> rates - a well-known marker of deeper, more restorative sleep.



At first glance, the difference between the most-rested and least-rested teens seems negligible: barely fifteen minutes. Yet those extra minutes translated into meaningful neurological and cognitive distinctions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adolescent-brains-built-on-sleep">Adolescent brains built on sleep</h2>



MRI scans revealed that Group Three, the earliest and longest sleepers, possessed the greatest overall brain volume and showed healthier patterns of functional connectivity - the way distinct neural hubs communicate. Group One, in contrast, had the smallest volumes and weakest functional links.



Cognitive testing echoed the brain-imaging results. In tasks involving reading comprehension, vocabulary recognition, sustained <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-brain-stops-paying-attention-to-repeated-distractions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">attention</a>, and problem-solving speed, Group Three consistently outperformed Group Two, which in turn outperformed Group One.&nbsp;



No significant gaps appeared in standard school grades, perhaps because grades involve numerous external factors such as teacher support or parental involvement. Nevertheless, the neuro-cognitive edge associated with slightly better sleep was unmistakable.



“Even though the differences in the amount of sleep that each group got was relatively small, at just over a quarter-of-an-hour between the best and worst sleepers, we could still see differences in brain structure and activity and in how well they did at tasks,” Sahakian noted. “This drives home to us just how important it is to have a good night’s sleep at this important time in life.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reinforcing-the-link-over-time">Reinforcing the link over time</h2>



Because the ABCD project is longitudinal, following participants for a decade or more, the team could examine sleep and brain metrics two years earlier and two years later for overlapping subsets of youths.&nbsp;



The researchers discovered that sleep habits and associated cognitive advantages or disadvantages tended to persist. Children who were short sleepers at nine and ten were likely still short sleepers at thirteen and fourteen. Likewise, the adolescents' relative brain volumes and task scores stayed aligned with sleep duration.



First author Qing Ma of Fudan University emphasized that the study cannot prove unequivocally that longer sleep causes enhanced cognition, but it dovetails with a broad literature.



“Although our study can’t answer conclusively whether young people have better brain function and perform better at tests because they sleep better, there are a number of studies that would support this idea,” Ma said.&nbsp;



“For example, research has shown the benefits of sleep on memory, especially on memory consolidation, which is important for learning.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aren-t-teens-sleeping-enough">Why aren’t teens sleeping enough?</h2>



Despite the brighter outlook for early-to-bed sleepers, none of the groups met the <a href="https://aasm.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Academy of Sleep Medicine</a>’s recommendation that adolescents log eight to ten hours nightly. On average the entire sample fell short by at least forty-five minutes, highlighting a systemic sleep deficit.



Senior author Wei Cheng of Fudan University believes the next challenge is diagnosing the reasons. 



“Given the importance of sleep, we now need to look at why some children go to bed later and sleep less than others. Is it because of playing videogames or smartphones, for example, or is [it] just that their body clocks do not tell them it’s time to sleep until later?”



Biological shifts during puberty cause a natural delay in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/colors-of-sunset-and-sunrise-reset-our-circadian-rhythms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">circadian rhythm</a> - essentially rewiring teens to feel sleepy later - but social factors exacerbate the problem. Homework loads, extracurricular activities, social media, and screen glare all encroach on bedtime.&nbsp;



Some school districts have responded by pushing start times later, aligning schedules more closely with adolescent biology. Evidence from this large-scale study lends weight to such policy interventions and to household rules that prioritize sleep hygiene.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-changes-lasting-gains">Small changes, lasting gains</h2>



While eight to ten hours may remain a lofty goal, the study indicates that trimming bedtimes even by fifteen or twenty minutes could yield tangible brain benefits.&nbsp;



Modest shifts toward earlier lights-out routines, consistent wake-up times, and device curfews might help teens move from the most deprived category to the middle or top tier.



Ma, Sahakian, Cheng, and colleagues plan further analyses as the ABCD Study matures, including investigations into emotional regulation, mental-health trajectories, and risk-taking behavior.&nbsp;



For now, their findings deliver a clear message to parents, educators, and policymakers alike: sleep matters - not just by the hour but by the minute - and adolescence is no time to skimp on it.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell-reports/fulltext/S2211-1247(25)00336-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell Reports</a>.



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Sleeping smarter: Just 15 extra minutes can boost adolescent brains

Ask any parent of a teenager, and they will confirm...

The bounty of apple varieties - from Honeycrisp to Granny Smith - obscures a deeper truth: nearly all of them share a lineage that stretches back tens of millions of years. Until recently, however, scientists had only a sketchy understanding of how those ancestral species diversified, swapped genes, or survived ice ages and shifting continents.



A sweeping new study changes that, unveiling a detailed genetic atlas for 30 species in the genus Malus - and providing breeders with a treasure map for tastier, tougher fruit.



“There are roughly 35 species in the genus Malus, but despite the importance of apple as a fruit crop, there hasn’t been extensive study of how this group’s genomes have evolved,” said Hong Ma, an expert in plant development and evolution at the <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pennsylvania State University</a> and one of the paper’s senior authors.



“In this study, we were able to do a deep dive into the genomes of Malus, establish an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/apple-orchards-face-compounding-threats-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">apple</a> family tree, document events like whole-genome duplications and hybridizations between species, and find regions of the genome associated with specific traits, like resistance to apple scab disease.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-evolution-of-apples">Complex evolution of apples</h2>



To reconstruct the family tree, Ma and an international consortium of researchers sequenced and assembled high-quality genomes from 30 Malus species, including the iconic "Golden Delicious." 



Twenty of those species are diploid - possessing two copies of every chromosome, as humans do - while the remaining ten are polyploid, carrying three or four copies thanks to relatively recent hybridization events.



By comparing nearly 1,000 genes shared across the roster, the team traced the genus’s roots to Asia approximately 56 million years ago. From that ancestral stock, lineages radiated outward, sometimes merging back together in hybrid bursts that left behind telltale patterns of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-use-dna-duplication-to-increase-their-resilience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">duplicated DNA</a>. 



Those duplications, known as whole-genome duplication events, complicate efforts to align chromosomes species by species - much like comparing two scrapbooks whose photographs have been rearranged multiple times.



“The evolutionary history of the genus is quite complex, with numerous examples of hybridization between species and a shared whole-genome duplication event that make comparisons difficult,” Ma explained. 



“Having high-quality genomes for such a large number of the species in the genus and understanding the relationships among them allowed us to dig deeper into how the genus has evolved.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-the-genes-of-apples">Exploring the genes of apples</h2>



Standard genome comparisons can miss critical differences when researchers look at only a few individuals. To widen the lens, the team built what geneticists call a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meet-the-pangenome-the-clearest-snapshot-ever-taken-of-human-genomic-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pan-genome</a> - a composite reference that catalogs which genes are shared across all 30 species and which appear in only a subset. 



They also logged transposons, the so-called “jumping genes” that can copy or paste themselves into new chromosomal locations, reshuffling genetic instructions along the way.



“The use of the pan-genome of 30 species was powerful for detecting structural variation, as well as gene duplications and rearrangements, among the species that might be missed by comparisons of only a few genomes,” Ma said. 



“In this case, one of the uncovered structural variants allowed us to pinpoint the genome segment associated with resistance to apple scab, a fungal disease that impacts apples worldwide.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-selective-genes-in-wild-apples">Selective genes in wild apples</h2>



Beyond structural quirks, the researchers were keen to identify regions of DNA that have raced through populations because they confer a survival edge - so-called selective sweeps. To do that, they built a computational tool tailored to pan-genomes. 



One of their discoveries: a sweep encompassing genes tied to cold tolerance and pathogen resistance that is widespread in hardy wild apples but usually missing from juicier commercial cultivars. 



“It’s possible that in the efforts to produce the best tasting fruit, there was an inadvertent reduction of the hardiness of domesticated apples,” Ma noted. 



The sweep appears to carry genetic baggage that affects fruit chemistry - and, by extension, flavor. That raises a tantalizing breeding challenge: can scientists break the genetic link so future cultivars keep robust disease resistance without compromising sweetness or aroma?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-bigger-apple-family-tree-matters">A bigger apple family tree matters</h2>



Modern apple breeding is a decades-long endeavor. Finding candidate parents with the right blend of sweetness, crunch, shelf life, and disease resistance normally involves screening thousands of seedlings in orchards before a single promising cross emerges. 



A detailed genetic map could change that paradigm, enabling breeders to predict desirable traits inside a lab years before trees bear fruit. Knowing the full evolutionary backdrop also helps safeguard the wild relatives that could rescue the crop from tomorrow’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-extremes-could-lead-to-critical-blood-supply-shortages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate extremes</a>. 



Traits such as drought tolerance, pest resistance, or cold hardiness often linger in remote species not yet tapped by commercial breeding - but if habitat loss or disease erases those wild gene banks, rescuing the domesticated apple becomes harder.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-apple-genes-next-generation-orchards">Apple genes: Next-generation orchards</h2>



For now, Ma and colleagues plan to refine their pan-genome, adding the handful of Malus species not yet sequenced and teasing apart how each duplication or rearrangement has influenced everything from tree architecture to sugar content. 



They also hope to share their analytic pipeline so other crop researchers - from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-bread-wheat-gave-rise-to-civilization/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wheat</a> to citrus - can identify hidden genetic assets in their own plant families.



“Understanding the structural variations in the Malus genomes, the relationships among the species and their history of hybridization using pan-genome analysis could help guide future breeding efforts so that the beneficial traits for good taste and disease resistance can both be retained in apples,” Ma said.



The humble apple has traveled a winding genetic road over 56 million years. With this new map in hand, breeders - and perhaps consumers - stand to reap a richer, more resilient harvest from that ancient journey.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41588-025-02166-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Genetics</a>.



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Clues from apple genes could sweeten the future of fruit

The bounty of apple varieties - from Honeycrisp to Granny...

In many households today, dogs hold a place of deep affection. Some are treated like children, others like confidants or even life partners. This emotional closeness reflects a massive shift from their original role as workers and guards. 



In Western societies, dogs now often serve as companions - sometimes even as stand-ins for human children. But how accurate is this comparison? Can our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-and-dogs-were-bonding-much-earlier-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">relationships</a> with dogs really be equated to the ties we have with our family or friends?



To explore this, researchers from <a href="https://www.elte.hu/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ELTE Eötvös Loránd University</a> conducted a deep study. They compared human-dog relationships to human relationships using a robust, multi-scale psychological tool. Their findings offer a complex picture of how dogs fit into our social fabric.



These bonds are not only real and profound - they may, in some ways, be even more satisfying than the ones we form with other people.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-our-immense-love-for-dogs">Our immense love for dogs</h2>



Instead of relying on vague labels like “pet” or “family member,” the study used 13 distinct relationship traits. These included measures of companionship, nurturance, intimacy, affection, support, satisfaction, and conflict. 



Over 700 participants assessed their relationships with their favorite dog and four key human figures: a child, romantic partner, best friend, and closest relative.



The results showed that owners often rated their relationships with dogs as more satisfying than those with human partners. Dogs came close to children in nurturance and support and outscored all other human categories in companionship and low conflict.



They were seen as highly affectionate, deeply trusted, and emotionally reliable. One important factor, though, was the power dynamic - humans hold total control in the dog-owner relationship.



“Unlike in human relationships, dog owners maintain full control over their dogs, as they make most of the decisions,” said Enikő Kubinyi, senior author of the study and head of the Department of Ethology at ELTE.



“The results highlight that dogs occupy a unique place in our social world - offering the emotional closeness of a child, the ease of a best friend, and the predictability of a relationship shaped by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-dogs-replacing-children-how-modern-society-is-changing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human control</a> - revealing why our bonds with them are often so deeply fulfilling.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-we-love-dogs-like-kids">We love dogs like kids</h2>



The study’s comparison was both qualitative and quantitative. On the emotional side, dogs combined the comfort of a child-like bond with the harmony of a best friendship. 



Unlike humans, dogs didn’t trigger intense conflicts or bring emotional drama into the mix. Owners felt more admired, supported, and secure in these relationships.



In a measure of overall similarity, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lost-in-translation-how-we-misread-our-dogs-emotions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">relationships</a> with dogs were most like those with children. The researchers calculated a distance index using all 13 traits.



They found that while the dog-child connection was closest, it still had distinct differences. Romantic partners and best friends followed, with closest kin relationships being least similar in emotional pattern to relationships with dogs.



This adds nuance to our understanding of the roles that dogs play. They aren't mere substitutes for humans, nor are they emotional fillers. Dogs inhabit a social role of their own, crafted through daily life, dependence, and the unique structure of human-animal communication.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-dynamics-of-dog-ownership">The dynamics of dog ownership</h2>



The satisfaction owners feel in their dog <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-dogs-say-goodbye-before-they-die-these-signs-will-tell-you-if-your-friend-is-leaving-soon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">relationships</a> may partly arise from predictability. 



Dogs cannot question us, leave us, or demand equality. The power imbalance is significant. Owners make the decisions, choose when and how interactions happen, and set the limits of affection and discipline.



This aspect contributes to the lower levels of conflict reported in the study. Dogs were seen as less antagonistic than children, romantic partners, or kin. Only best friends came close to matching dogs in the domain of peaceful coexistence.



Still, the researchers emphasized that this is not about domination. It is about emotional simplicity. Dogs provide support without the complicated layers that often arise in human relationships. They meet social needs with remarkable consistency.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-age-influences-relationships">How age influences relationships</h2>



The study also examined how life circumstances influence dog relationships. Owners without children reported stronger bonds with their dogs. They scored higher in affection, intimacy, and companionship. For these individuals, dogs may serve as emotional stand-ins or trusted confidants.



Puppies evoked more child-like feelings. Owners reported more care-taking behavior, stronger affection, and greater emotional dependence. 



Adult dogs, on the other hand, were rated more like friends - reliable, emotionally steady, and low in conflict. Still, these differences were modest. The essential shape of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-can-understand-words-even-in-monotone-speech/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dog-human relationship</a> remained stable across ages.



Age of the owner also played a role. Younger people tended to form more intimate and expressive relationships with their dogs. Yet again, this did not shift the overall pattern too much. The dog-human bond was remarkably resilient.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-needs-and-the-myth-of-substitution">Social needs and the myth of substitution</h2>



One of the most powerful findings was that dog relationships do not compensate for failed human bonds. Instead, they complement them. 



Strong relationships with dogs were positively correlated with strong human ties. This goes against the stereotype that people with few friends turn to animals for solace.



“We expected that people with weak human relationships would rely more on their dogs for support, but our results contradict this,” said co-author Dorottya Ujfalussy.



What this means is that dogs are woven into a larger social network. They aren’t a fallback plan - they’re a chosen addition. They provide a kind of support that blends loyalty, affection, and daily routine, all on terms largely defined by the owner.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-dogs-defy-categorization">Why dogs defy categorization</h2>



The research highlights the limitations of how we traditionally classify our pets. 



Calling a dog a “family member” or “child” may reflect emotional closeness, but it oversimplifies a far more layered bond. These labels are shaped by culture, social media, and shifting norms - not by any precise understanding of what dogs mean to us.



Instead, the researchers proposed viewing dogs as sources of “social provisions.” This model maps the relationship using established psychological traits. It helps clarify how dogs provide companionship, relieve stress, support autonomy, and offer comfort during hard times.



“Dogs offer different kinds of emotional and social support depending on the needs of their owners,” explained Borbála Turcsán, first author of the study. 



“Some people seek companionship and fun, others need trust and stability, and some simply enjoy having someone to care for.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-create-emotionally-stable-relationships">Dogs create emotionally stable relationships</h2>



The human-dog relationship is one of the most stable and rewarding social ties that people experience. It has elements of parenting, friendship, mentorship, and guardianship. It thrives on shared routines, mutual affection, and emotional simplicity.



Despite cultural shifts, changing family structures, and technological distractions, dogs remain close to our hearts. They don’t just fit into our lives - they reshape our emotional landscape. This study reveals why.



By rethinking dogs not just as pets, but as emotionally intelligent partners in our social world, we gain a better grasp of why our love for them runs so deep. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-95515-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Why our relationships with dogs matter so much

In many households today, dogs hold a place of deep...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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