Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Alzheimer’s disease and related dementia conditions do not simply rob individuals of memory; they also exact an extraordinary cost on families and on the nation as a whole.



A newly released estimate from researchers at the <a href="https://usc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southern California</a> (USC) concludes that the total monetary burden of dementia in the United States will reach roughly&nbsp;$781 billion in 2024.



That figure surpasses the annual revenues of many Fortune 500 companies and amounts to more than three percent of the nation’s gross domestic product.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-who-pays-and-how-much">Who pays, and how much?</h2>



Although various organizations have attempted to calculate dementia costs in past years, the USC‐led project aims to be the most comprehensive to date. 



The effort, supported by a multi‐year cooperative agreement with the <a href="https://www.nia.nih.gov/">National Institute on Aging</a>, combines detailed medical claims with large, nationally representative surveys and then applies a sophisticated simulation technique known as dynamic microsimulation.



The result is not only a single headline statistic but also a granular picture of who shoulders which costs, how those burdens change as patients age, and how new treatments or policies might shift the outlook over time.



Julie Zissimopoulos co-directs the <a href="https://schaeffer.usc.edu/programs/center-for-health-policy-and-economics/aging-and-cognition/">Aging and Cognition program</a> at the USC Schaeffer Center for Health Policy &amp; Economics and serves as principal investigator of the U.S. Cost of Dementia project. She noted that the goal is to give decision makers the kind of data they need to design smarter interventions.



“Having a better understanding of who bears these costs and how they change over time can inform evidence-based policies that may ultimately reduce the financial impact of dementia,” explained Zissimopoulos.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-the-dementia-model">Building the dementia model</h2>



The research rests on several interlocking data sets. One is the <a href="https://hrs.isr.umich.edu/about">Health and Retirement Study</a>, a biennial survey of more than 20,000 Americans over age fifty that collects information on income, wealth, health status, and family structure.



Another is de-identified administrative data from the <a href="https://www.cms.gov/">Centers for Medicare &amp; Medicaid Services</a>, which capture hospitalizations, physician visits, prescription drug use, and long-term‐care claims.



By merging these resources and running them through dynamic microsimulation, the team can project how a representative cohort of older Americans will move through different health states, how their care needs will evolve, and how each phase translates into dollars.



The headline number of $781 billion covers several major domains of expense. Direct medical and long-term‐care cost for dementia patients - hospital stays, outpatient visits, skilled nursing facilities, home health aides, and other services - adds up to approximately $232 billion in 2024.



Out-of-pocket payments by patients and their families account for 22% of that sum, or about $52 billion. 



Medicare remains the single largest payer at $106 billion, while Medicaid, which picks up many nursing-home charges for low-income or exhausted‐asset households, spends about $58 billion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dementia-cost-beyond-medical-bills">Dementia cost beyond medical bills</h2>



Yet medical bills, staggering as they are, represent only the visible part of the iceberg. The USC model attaches a monetary value to <a href="https://www.cms.gov/">quality-of-life</a> losses for both patients and caregivers. 



Economists do this by using survey data on health-related quality of life and applying standard “willingness‐to‐pay” techniques to convert utility losses into dollar terms.



By that yardstick, patients with dementia together lose an estimated $302 billion worth of well-being this year, while family caregivers forfeit an additional $6 billion.



Caregivers also surrender work hours. The model finds that friends and relatives will provide roughly 6.8 billion hours of unpaid care in 2024 - time that could otherwise be spent in the labor force or on personal pursuits. Using average wages to monetize that devotion yields an additional $233 billion. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enormous-economic-toll">Enormous economic toll </h2>



On top of those unpaid hours are lost wages from people who reduce their schedules or quit altogether to look after loved ones; those forfeited earnings amount to $8.2 billion.



Dana Goldman, founding director of the <a href="https://schaeffer.usc.edu/">USC Schaeffer Institute for Public Policy &amp; Government Service</a> and co-principal investigator on the study, emphasized the stakes. 



“This research demonstrates the enormous toll dementia places on patients, their families, and care partners," she said. "But it also points to the potential value of developing ways to prevent and treat <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-may-not-be-a-brain-disease/">Alzheimer’s</a> and related diseases that cause dementia.” 



Goldman noted that even modest delays in disease progression could yield huge economic dividends, not to mention immeasurable relief for families.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dynamic-dementia-dashboard">Dynamic dementia dashboard</h2>



The study arrives at a moment of rapid change in dementia care. <a href="https://www.fda.gov/">The Food and Drug Administration</a> has recently approved anti-amyloid drugs that, for the first time, appear to slow cognitive decline in certain patients with early-stage Alzheimer’s. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-blood-test-can-track-the-progression-of-alzheimers/">Blood-based biomarkers</a> promise cheaper and earlier detection, potentially moving diagnosis up by years.



Policymakers, insurers, and pharmaceutical companies are grappling with how to pay for these innovations and how to ensure equitable access. By updating the cost model annually, the experts hope to provide a real-time dashboard that will let stakeholders see how emerging therapies or policy reforms shift both costs and benefits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planning-for-dementia-costs">Planning for dementia costs </h2>



Future reports will incorporate additional cost categories - legal fees, home modifications, transportation expenses, and mental-health impacts - aiming for the most exhaustive ledger yet of dementia’s drain on society. 



For now, the $781 billion estimate stands as a stark reminder that the disease is not just a clinical challenge but an economic tsunami, already cresting and bound to grow as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-25-years-of-research-revealed-about-brain-aging/">aging</a> population swells. 



Evidence-based planning, the researchers argue, is the only way to blunt the tide.



More information about the costs of dementia in the U.S. can be found <a href="https://schaeffer.usc.edu/research/the-cost-of-dementia-in-2025/">here</a>.



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Dementia is a growing global health crisis with a staggering cost

Alzheimer’s disease and related dementia conditions do not simply rob...

The Sun’s newest portrait is not the fiery disc we remember from textbooks. Instead, it sprawls across a mosaic so detailed that you could stack a dozen Earths end to end inside a single pixel and still have room to spare. 



The yellow filaments and bright arcs in this view are bubbles of million-degree plasma caught in magnetic loops that stretch thousands of miles above the surface.



That view comes from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Solar_Orbiter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Solar Orbiter</a> spacecraft, now five years into a planned seven-year tour of duty. 



On March 9, 2025, it aimed its Extreme Ultraviolet Imager at the Sun from about 48 million miles away, gathering 200 separate frames over four and a half hours. 



Technicians stitched those frames into the widest high-resolution ultraviolet image of our star to date - 12,544 pixels on a side.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solar-orbiter-captures-the-sun">Solar Orbiter captures the Sun</h2>



Solar Orbiter left Earth on February 10, 2020, riding an Atlas V rocket. Built by the European Space Agency (<a href="https://www.esa.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>) with key help from NASA, the craft carries ten instruments designed to work as a team, pairing full-disk pictures with on-the-spot particle counts and magnetic-field readings. 



In late 2021, it began routine science operations and has since looped ever closer to the Sun, stealing bits of speed from Venus to tip its orbit for future polar flybys.



The <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images/2020/01/Solar_Orbiter_s_instruments" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Extreme Ultraviolet Imager</a> does its job while the spacecraft bakes in sunlight almost 15 times stronger than what we feel on Earth. 



For the March 9 shoot, mission controllers pointed Solar Orbiter 25 different ways in a 5-by-5 grid. 



At each stop, the camera captured six tight shots and two wider ones at a wavelength of 17.4 nanometers, light invisible to our eyes but perfect for tracing plasma at 1.8 million °F.



The craft sat 11.4 degrees below the solar equator, far enough off-center to reveal the corona’s towering loops yet close enough that every pixel represented roughly 185 miles. 



The finished file measures 12,544 × 12,544 pixels - about 7,505 pixels across the Sun’s 870,000-mile diameter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-zooming-in-on-the-sun-s-surface">Zooming in on the Sun's surface</h2>



During each close approach, Solar Orbiter swoops to within 0.28 astronomical units, roughly 26 million miles from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/team-creates-video-showing-the-sun-in-gamma-rays-over-a-14-year-period/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sun’s surface</a>. 



From that vantage point, the probe can watch bright magnetic knots bubble up, twist, and snap, then match those events to bursts of charged particles that its own detectors sample minutes later. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.esa.int/var/esa/storage/images/esa_multimedia/images/2025/04/solar_orbiter_s_widest_high-res_view_of_the_sun/26672644-4-eng-GB/Solar_Orbiter_s_widest_high-res_view_of_the_Sun.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Sun_Solar-Orbiter_widest-view-yet_ESA_1s.webp" alt="The image you see here combines a whopping 200 individual images into the widest high-resolution view of the Sun yet. Click image to enlarge. Credit: ESA" class="wp-image-1967019"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The image you see here combines a whopping 200 individual images into the widest high-resolution view of the Sun yet. Click image to enlarge. Credit: ESA</figcaption></figure>



These coordinated observations help explain how solar storms gain the punch that sometimes knocks out satellites or triggers blackouts on Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solar-orbiter-and-the-poles">Solar Orbiter and the poles</h2>



Each gravity assist at Venus tilts the craft’s path a little higher above the ecliptic. By the end of the decade, the orbit should stand 33 degrees above the solar equator, offering humanity’s first sustained look at the poles.



Early images have already shown magnetic arches plunging back under the surface like the roots of a huge tree - clues to how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-sun-has-officially-reached-its-solar-maximum-period-in-this-solar-cycle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">11-year sunspot cycle</a> resets itself and why the corona flares so intensely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Solar weather is no abstract threat. When a blast of energetic particles sweeps past our planet, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astronauts-can-survive-mars-space-journey-but-their-kidneys-will-be-permanently-damaged/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">astronauts retreat to shielded modules</a>, airlines reroute polar flights, and grid operators brace for geomagnetically induced currents.



By tracing a jet from the Sun’s face to the space around the craft, scientists can now link surface disturbances to the gusts that slam our magnetosphere about two days later. 



Those links sharpen the lead time on solar-storm warnings, buying engineers precious hours to protect hardware.



The March 9 mosaic also hints at smaller, faster events. In March 2023, the mission spotted brief plasma jets - each no wider than Texas - shooting out of tiny sunspots. 



Mapping those jets back to magnetic tangles in the photosphere suggests that even modest disturbances can pump significant heat into the corona, a step toward solving the long-standing mystery of why the outer atmosphere blazes far hotter than the visible surface below.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solar-orbiter-and-the-road-ahead">Solar Orbiter and the road ahead</h2>



Solar Orbiter and NASA’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/parker-solar-probe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Parker Solar Probe</a> already leapfrog one another, one providing panoramic snapshots, the other flying through the very plasma on display. 



As Solar Orbiter climbs toward higher latitudes, those tandem passes will paint the most complete picture yet of our star’s weather engine. 



The next close flyby comes later this year, and every pass brings the craft a little closer - both in miles and in insight - to the forces that light our skies and occasionally rattle our technology.



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Widest high-resolution photo of the Sun ever captured

The Sun’s newest portrait is not the fiery disc we...

Over the past few years, more people across the United States have been experimenting with psilocybin, a hallucinogen found in “magic mushrooms.” 



This increase in psilocybin use has drawn attention from health experts, who note that many users face challenges such as mental illness or chronic pain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharp-rise-in-psilocybin-use">Sharp rise in psilocybin use </h2>



Some U.S. states have started softening their policies around the use of psilocybin, which appears to match the timing of its recent surge in popularity. This increase also coincides with a jump in poison center calls, suggesting that not everyone understands the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/magic-mushrooms-are-the-most-popular-psychedelic-drug/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">substance</a> or its risks.



“We found that, since 2019, the number of people using psilocybin has gone up sharply,” said Dr. Karilynn Rockhill, a researcher at the <a href="https://coloradosph.cuanschutz.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Colorado School of Public Health</a>. 



Dr. Rockhill led a project that tracked psilocybin use patterns across several age groups and geographic areas.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psilocybin-use-across-all-ages">Psilocybin use across all ages</h2>



Young adults show the largest expansion in psilocybin experimentation. Older adults are not too far behind. 



Looser restrictions and rising social acceptance might encourage some to view psilocybin as a quick fix for depression or anxiety. 



Experts note that certain individuals appear to be self-treating serious conditions. They worry that casual use without medical guidance can create <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-psilocybin-mushrooms-got-their-magic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complications</a>. 



These worries become more pressing when poison center data reveal an uptick in calls from across the age spectrum.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mental-health-and-psilocybin-use">Mental health and psilocybin use</h2>



Psilocybin has drawn attention for potential <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27909165/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">benefits</a> in addressing PTSD, substance use disorders, and other challenges. Medical providers, however, warn that its use in these circumstances remains investigational.



People experiencing depression or anxiety sometimes turn to magic mushrooms if they lack immediate professional support.



“Public views on psilocybin are shifting. However, that means we also need to make sure people understand the risks, know how to use it safely if they choose to, and that health care systems are prepared,” said Dr. Joshua Black, a senior scientist at Rocky Mountain Poison and Drug Safety, which is a division of Denver Health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-people-are-calling-poison-centers">More people are calling poison centers</h2>



The steep increase in poison center calls, signals that many users do not fully grasp the substance’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/confirmed-magic-mushrooms-can-effectively-treat-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">effects</a>. Some calls involve disorientation or panic, which can be risky in certain settings.



Others reflect confusion about dosage or harmful interactions with existing prescriptions. Researchers suggest that hospitals and emergency departments might be under-reporting these cases. 



A gap in hospital coding means psilocybin-related visits can slip by unnoticed. That hampers public health agencies that are trying to gauge what’s really happening.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-poor-tracking-hides-health-impacts">Poor tracking hides health impacts</h2>



Officials have discovered that current systems for recording hallucinogen-related issues are not keeping up with the changing landscape. Inaccurate data collection may keep local clinics in the dark about how often patients arrive in crisis. 



Health systems need reliable metrics for policy decisions. Some <a href="https://psychedelicalpha.com/data/psychedelic-laws" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">states</a> have already drafted policies allowing controlled use of psilocybin for medical study.



Others weigh more permissive models. Researchers stress that consistent tracking and standard coding practices can help officials measure any shifts in harm or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-magic-mushrooms-evolve-to-contain-psilocybin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">misuse</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-education-for-better-outcomes">Education for better outcomes</h2>



Experts call for straightforward educational materials about psilocybin. Too many new users jump in without guidance, and that raises the risk of harmful experiences. 



Medical offices, online platforms, and community centers could play a role in distributing simple facts. A deeper conversation among doctors, public health leaders, and policymakers might also help. 



If people choose to explore psilocybin, they should know its possible <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mushroom-magic-new-species-discovered-in-africa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">effects</a>. Broad awareness can reduce unintentional injuries and keep poison centers from bearing the brunt of emergencies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-responsible-research">Importance of responsible research</h2>



Scientific studies on psilocybin are expanding, driven by interest in its potential therapeutic use. A handful of <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27909164/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">clinical trials</a> suggest it can relieve specific mental health symptoms under controlled conditions.



Still, experts advise caution until results are replicated and reviewed. Researchers hope to see more large-scale trials in the near future.



Trials help to confirm safety profiles, determine effective doses, and better understand who could benefit most. Once there is enough valid evidence, health authorities can make informed decisions about approving psilocybin-related therapies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-hope-and-risks">Balancing hope and risks</h2>



Fans of magic mushrooms highlight experiences of spiritual or introspective growth. Others cite anecdotal relief from depression or chronic pain. 



Medical professionals respond that each user brings a unique history, including mental health factors, that might heighten risks. Some also worry that blanket decriminalization could send the wrong message.



Substance misuse can surface if people jump into using potent compounds without a plan or supervision. Encouraging responsible decisions goes hand in hand with exploring psilocybin’s possible upsides.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-psilocybin-safety">The future of psilocybin safety</h2>



A lack of comprehensive tracking tools prevents health facilities from planning for potential surges in psilocybin-related visits. Researchers urge policy revisions that integrate consistent psilocybin coding. Clear codes would allow doctors to pinpoint frequent complications and stock resources accordingly.



Hospitals operating in regions where psilocybin use is on the rise might train staff to handle its distinct side effects. This includes mental health professionals equipped with therapy insights, and emergency teams ready for psychedelic crises.



Supporters of psilocybin believe momentum will continue as studies gain traction and more states debate legalization. Experts will watch these policy shifts in real time.



Community programs or peer education campaigns may help encourage careful exploration of psilocybin rather than spur-of-the-moment decisions.



The study was published in the <a href="https://www.acpjournals.org/doi/10.7326/ANNALS-24-03145" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Annals of Internal Medicine</a>.



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Increased use of psilocybin in U.S. raises health concerns

Over the past few years, more people across the United...

Picture Mars - not as the cold, dry and dusty world we see today - but as a temperate place with cloudy skies, rainfall, and rivers that carved valleys into the land. 



This may have been the case billions of years ago, according to a recent study by scientists at the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colorado Boulder</a>. The research suggests that Mars was once a planet shaped by weather cycles. 



"Our study addresses a longstanding mystery about the climate of ancient Mars. Observations of large valley networks suggest formation by flowing water. However, most climate models cannot sustain temperatures above freezing," noted the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-did-rainfall-feed-rivers-on-mars">Did rainfall feed rivers on Mars?</h2>



The experts suggest that the familiar networks of valleys and channels etched across Mars were likely formed not just by melting ice, but by rainfall or snowfall that fed rivers over long periods.



The findings bring new credibility to the idea that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hot-water-on-ancient-mars-may-have-been-habitable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient Mars</a> may have been warm and wet, offering a possible explanation for the geological features we still observe from space.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
“You could pull up Google Earth images of places like Utah, zoom out, and you’d see the similarities to Mars,” said Amanda Steckel, who led the study and now works at the California Institute of Technology.
</blockquote>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mystery-of-water-on-mars">Mystery of water on Mars</h2>



Today, most researchers agree that water once existed on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clues-beneath-mars-surface-reveal-possible-habitats-for-ancient-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian surface</a> - especially during the Noachian epoch, which spanned from about 4.1 to 3.7 billion years ago. But there's been disagreement about how that water got there.



Some believe Mars was always a cold and dry planet, where sunlight barely melted the ice that covered its highlands. Others argue the planet experienced a warmer and wetter climate that allowed for ongoing rainfall or snowmelt.



To test these ideas, the team ran a series of computer simulations to see which conditions could best explain Mars’s ancient valley networks. The simulations were built using landscape modeling software originally designed for Earth studies, and adapted for Mars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simulations-of-martian-rivers">Simulations of Martian rivers</h2>



The researchers created a digital Mars, mimicking the terrain near the equator where many valley systems are found. They modeled two scenarios: one where the landscape was fed by melting ice caps, and another where water came from falling precipitation.



Over simulated periods ranging from tens of thousands to hundreds of thousands of years, water flowed across the terrain. Each scenario left a distinct mark. 



"We found that the main difference between these scenarios was the location of the origin of the valleys that formed," noted the researchers.



In the melting ice simulation, valleys formed mostly around the edges of where ice would have sat at high elevations. In the precipitation scenario, valley heads emerged across a wide range of elevations - from low basins to areas over 11,000 feet (3,300 meters) high.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rainfall-could-have-helped-valleys-form">Rainfall could have helped valleys form</h2>



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
“It’s very hard to make any kind of conclusive statement,” said Steckel. “But we see these valleys beginning at a large range of elevations. It’s hard to explain that with just ice.”
</blockquote>



The results suggest that the precipitation-fed valleys more closely matched the real Martian surface as seen in satellite images captured by NASA’s Mars Global Surveyor and Odyssey missions.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wave-ripples-discovered-mars-surface-indicate-liquid-water-present-4-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Water</a> from these ice caps starts to form valleys only around a narrow band of elevations,” Steckel said. “Whereas if you have distributed precipitation, you can have valley heads forming everywhere.”
</blockquote>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reading-mars-like-a-history-book">Reading Mars like a history book</h2>



Mars still holds clues to its watery past. Around the equator, images show vast channel networks spreading out from highlands into basins that may once have held lakes - or even oceans.



NASA’s Perseverance rover, which landed in 2021, is now exploring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lake-sediments-found-in-jezero-crater-hint-at-past-life-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jezero Crater</a>, a site that scientists believe once contained a lake that was fed by a powerful river.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
“You’d need meters deep of flowing water to deposit those kinds of boulders,” said Brian Hynek, senior author of the study and a scientist at CU Boulder’s Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics.
</blockquote>



To reconstruct this Martian past, Steckel and Hynek used their simulations to trace where these ancient rivers might have started. The results suggest widespread precipitation was more likely responsible for shaping the valleys than occasional ice melt alone.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-our-understanding-of-mars-is-evolving">Our understanding of Mars is evolving</h2>



While the study doesn’t fully explain how Mars stayed warm enough to support snow or rainfall, it does add a new piece to the puzzle. The research gives scientists a more detailed view of the planet’s early climate - and may even help us better understand Earth’s own geological past.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
“Once the erosion from flowing water stopped, Mars almost got frozen in time and probably still looks a lot like Earth did 3.5 billion years ago,” Hynek said.
</blockquote>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-captured-in-true-color-like-youve-never-seen-the-red-planet-before/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Red Planet</a> may be dry and desolate now, but its surface still tells stories of a time when water shaped its landscapes. And those stories might bring us closer to understanding both Mars and our own place in the solar system.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024JE008637" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Geophysical Research Planets</a>.



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Mars’ hidden past: Rainfall may have shaped the ancient landscape

Picture Mars - not as the cold, dry and dusty...

Men and women can both be head-over-heels in love at different stages, yet a new investigation suggests that males might plunge into love’s emotional deep end just a little sooner than females do. Researchers say that while both sexes share the intense emotional highs of romance, each group has its own habits and quirks.



The study was led by Adam Bode, a Ph.D. student at the <a href="https://www.anu.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian National University</a>. He and his colleagues gathered data on early-stage relationships to clarify how biological sex might influence the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-are-falling-in-love-with-ai-companions-and-it-could-be-dangerous/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pattern</a> of falling in love.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-men-fall-in-love-faster">Men fall in love faster</h2>



Some scholars <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2006.1938" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">argue</a> that humans have long relied on strong mutual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-does-love-live-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">attachments</a> to strengthen relationships and raise families effectively. Love can spark vital changes in behavior, prompting people to prioritize a partner or invest resources in a shared future.



Men’s inclination to leap in quickly may come from a desire to signal commitment and availability. They sense that early displays of fondness can create trust and lower doubts about their intentions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-women-love-deeply-once-they-commit">Women love deeply once they commit</h2>



Females often report deeper <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-our-relationships-with-dogs-matter-so-much/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emotional</a> facets when they commit to loving someone. They also seem to think about their beloved more frequently.



“It is the first convincing evidence that women and men differ in some aspects of romantic love,” said Bode. He credits evolutionary processes for shaping these differences, although social and cultural factors may play a role, too.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gender-equality-may-reduce-emotional-intensity">Gender equality may reduce emotional intensity</h2>



“Our study suggests that people from more gender-equal countries experience a lower intensity of romantic love, obsessive thinking, and maybe even commitment,” said Bode. 



That might happen because both men and women in those places face fewer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parent-children-relationships-are-key-to-lifelong-well-being/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social</a> pressures that drive them to sink into love’s emotional whirlwind.



Worldwide variations in education, family structures, or relationship norms may mold how each sex behaves. Many <a href="https://repub.eur.nl/pub/16743/Langeslag%202007%20Biological%20Psychology.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">specialists</a> believe that the interplay between biology and environment offers the most complete picture of why love unfolds the way it does.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-love-s-timing-and-emotional-triggers">Love’s timing and emotional triggers</h2>



Relationship <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.00287.x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">researchers</a> point out that recognizing slight differences in men’s and women’s early love experiences doesn’t imply any one method of bonding is superior. Instead, these insights underscore the significance of understanding individual romantic triggers.



Scientists continue to explore how hormones, family upbringing, and cultural standards guide the way people fall in love. Researchers predict that future findings will address both interpersonal differences and how outside factors, such as gender equality, can reshape relationship outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expectations-of-men-and-women">Expectations of men and women</h2>



Friends, family, and therapists often encourage couples to be open and clear about their expectations. This approach might be especially relevant to those who feel like they are fast-tracking an emotional bond.



Some experts have noted that while men might act quickly, that swiftness doesn’t guarantee less intensity down the road. 



Others maintain that once women embrace strong affection, they can become even more focused, devoting time and mental space to cherish their partner.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-empathy-makes-it-work">Empathy makes it work</h2>



Healthy relationships may result from understanding these small but fascinating differences. While romantic attachment is unique to each individual, common trends offer suggestions for better communication and empathy.



Love is still influenced by social factors, such as shifting marriage norms or changing personal goals. What remains consistent is the powerful urge to find meaningful closeness, regardless of whether it emerges in a burst of spontaneity or arrives after careful reflection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-speeds-help-love-grow">Different speeds help love grow</h2>



Men’s faster declarations of love might be an attempt to show seriousness and lower the possibility of rejection. Women’s strong fixation on their partner could reflect a deeper mental focus that arises once trust and reassurance appear.



Both tendencies hint at love’s core function: to help two people commit enough energy and emotion to build something lasting. This motivation, shaped by biology and steered by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-bonds-drive-learning-in-monkeys-and-humans-alike/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social factors</a>, may let relationships thrive in different cultures and eras.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-love-doesn-t-follow-a-fixed-timeline">Love doesn't follow a fixed timeline </h2>



While simple stereotypes about men rushing forward and women hesitating might not capture everyone’s experience, these findings show that each sex can have distinct concerns and benefits. 



Couples can support each other by acknowledging that love doesn’t always follow a fixed timeline.



Staying aware of fast emotional bonds can help partners decide if they’re ready for a milestone, like moving in together or meeting each other’s families. Those who prefer a gentler pace might want to voice that need to avoid feeling overwhelmed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-every-relationship-has-its-own-pace">Every relationship has its own pace</h2>



Communities and health professionals often look for ways to help couples handle potential misalignments in how they experience early-stage romance. Suggesting open dialogue and shared decision-making can avoid misunderstandings about pace and depth.



People who feel they’ve fallen for someone almost overnight may benefit from self-reflection before acting on that emotion. That short gap can avoid conflicts and ensure a steadier foundation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-communication-prevents-mismatched-love">Communication prevents mismatched love</h2>



Men’s rush to say “I love you” might be a spontaneous statement of genuine devotion. At the same time, women’s lingering approach could reflect a thorough emotional check-in.



Ultimately, this study’s results highlight the idea that no two hearts beat exactly alike. Practical advice involves respectful communication, realistic expectations, and empathy for differing emotional speeds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slow-or-fast-love-needs-trust">Slow or fast, love needs trust</h2>



The quest to understand romance blends biology, anthropology, and psychology. Each discipline adds fresh ideas about how men and women bond and commit their attention.



Couples who celebrate each other’s natural pace or intensity may see improved trust. Small gestures like simple check-ins, thoughtful messages, or shared decisions can support stronger connections.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-love-comes-from-culture">Love comes from culture</h2>



This growing body of research has real-world implications for relationship counseling and personal growth. Keeping an open mind about alternate approaches to expressing passion can reduce friction and build more rewarding bonds.



The observations contribute to an ongoing effort by social scientists and mental health practitioners to identify healthy relationship practices.



Knowing that men and women may vary in how they spark or maintain romance can remove confusion and encourage consideration of each partner’s perspective.



The study is published in <a href="https://bsd.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13293-025-00698-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology of Sex Differences</a>.



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Men might say 'I love you' first to show they care

Men and women can both be head-over-heels in love at...

A team of researchers has recently revealed new findings about Earth’s ancient crust. They studied 1.6-billion-year-old rocks in northeast Queensland and noticed that water had a far greater role in forming this early substratum than people once realized.



Geological teams examined the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0009254107003580" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Georgetown Inlier</a> in Queensland. This location is one of the few places on Earth where ancient rocks from Earth’s deep crust remain in very good condition, showing all stages of continental crust formation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-water-reshaped-earth-s-crust">How water reshaped Earth’s crust</h2>



Lead researcher Dr. Silvia Volante completed the work while at Curtin’s School of Earth and Planetary Sciences, and is now based at <a href="https://ethz.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ETH Zurich</a>. She explained the surprising chemistry behind these ancient rocks.



“In the early days of our planet, volcanic rocks erupted on the ocean floor and were then altered by hot water as they cooled down and solidified. Over time, these water-rich rocks were buried deep within the Earth’s crust, where the introduction of additional water caused them to partially melt at temperatures ranging from 1,292°F to 1,382°F (700°C to 750°C),” said Dr. Volante.&nbsp;



By examining the oxygen levels in the rocks, the research team identified a distinct contrast between the original volcanic rocks and the granitic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-inner-core-proven-to-be-rapidly-changing-and-now-rotating-backwards/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rocks</a> they later became, which indicated the action of an extra source of water originating from deep within the Earth's mantle.



After analyzing tiny differences in oxygen levels, the scientists saw two surprising signs of water in the ancient crust.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-in-old-minerals">Clues in old minerals</h2>



To track down where the water came from, researchers used <a href="https://www.ga.gov.au/education/minerals-energy/australian-mineral-facts/zircon" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">zircon</a> and <a href="https://commonminerals.esci.umn.edu/minerals-g-m/garnet" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">garnet</a>, two minerals that hold onto oxygen signals even after millions of years. These minerals act like time capsules, keeping the chemical fingerprint of the fluids they interacted with when they first formed.



By comparing the oxygen ratios in different types of rock, the team saw clear evidence that something unusual was going on. The isotope values in the granitic rocks were much closer to what you’d expect from fluids rising out of the <a href="https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/mantle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s mantle</a> - not just from seawater or local sources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-triggered-melting-of-earth-s-crust">Water triggered melting of Earth’s crust</h2>



“The two sources of water which formed the continental crust <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mantle-heat-shaped-earths-crust-3-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rocks</a> - one from the volcanic rocks themselves and, more surprisingly, also from deep within the Earth - fueled a chain reaction of melting which lasted millions of years and helped form the building blocks of the continents we live on today,” said Dr. Volante.



Water from both the upper sections of basaltic crust and deeper mantle zones sparked a long-lasting reaction.&nbsp;



These findings support the idea that water migrates in ways once overlooked. That movement had a bigger role in building up granitic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-crust-is-dripping-under-turkey/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">layers</a> beneath us than previously assumed by geologists worldwide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-closer-look-at-earth-s-crust">A closer look at Earth's crust</h2>



Scientists have long <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012825221002452" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">argued</a> over what drives the slow transformation of basaltic rock into lighter, buoyant crust. Some claimed that friction and pressure alone produced enough heat to melt rock, but this new work adds water as a potential major factor.



Study co-author Professor Zheng Xiang Li elaborated on how these rare samples help reveal the process of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-first-crust-already-had-chemical-traits-of-modern-continents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crust</a> formation.



“We had an incredible opportunity to work in unique locations such as the Georgetown Inlier, which is one of the only places in the world where we can see all stages of <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17051208/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">continental crust</a> formation locked in billion-year-old rock,” said Professor Li. 



"Our next step is to investigate whether similar water-based melting processes occurred in even older crust fragments."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mantle-water-helped-move-land-and-sea">Mantle water helped move land and sea</h2>



Earth’s crust holds answers to how mountains form and why continents ended up where they are today. A better understanding of water’s influence helps geologists rethink the mineral composition of ancient landmasses.



Many experts suggest that pockets of hydrous minerals deep underground acted like chemical triggers. This hot, wet environment may have boosted partial melting and set the stage for shifts in Earth’s surface that shaped where oceans and continents stand today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practical-impact-and-future-studies">Practical impact and future studies</h2>



These new results open doors for more targeted projects in other parts of the world. Different ancient terrains might have hidden clues that echo or contrast the Georgetown Inlier’s story.



Teams will now look for similar isotopic signals to see if water from the mantle or other sources was involved. If more of these sites show the same signs, it would mean that water has guided the growth of Earth’s crust far more than scientists once assumed.



With more research, geologists could revise how early life sprang up on land. Water in the crust might have created chemical pathways that were needed by emerging ecosystems.



It also reminds us that what lies beneath the surface is not fixed or dry. Under certain conditions, water can slip through minerals, spark melting, and initiate reactions that help shape the landscape we see every day.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-025-02250-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



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How water reshaped Earth’s crust 1.6 billion years ago

A team of researchers has recently revealed new findings about...

Landscape,Of,The,North,Pole,Where,Climate,Change,Has,Caused

When we picture tectonic plates drifting apart and colliding, we usually imagine a time-lapse spanning millions of years. However, a new study reveals melting ice can affect continental drift and volcanic activity. 



Research from the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colorado Boulder</a> indicates that Earth’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-first-crust-already-had-chemical-traits-of-modern-continents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crust</a> can feel a substantial jolt on a far shorter timetable - thousands of years - whenever colossal ice sheets melt away. Geophysicists Tao Yuan and Shijie Zhong traced events that began roughly 26,000 years ago, near the peak of the last <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-ice-age-cycles-are-predictable-but-humans-may-change-that/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ice Age</a>. 



Back then, the Laurentide Ice Sheet blanketed much of North America in layers of ice several kilometers thick, stretching south to what is now Pennsylvania. As global temperatures warmed, that icy behemoth dwindled. 



Meltwater poured into the oceans, lifting sea levels by roughly a centimeter per year. Yet the scientists found that the consequences went well beyond rising coastlines: they extended deep into the mechanics of plate tectonics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-melting-ice-and-continental-drift">Melting ice and continental drift </h2>



“As ice volume was greatly reduced, it caused a huge motion in Earth’s crust,” said Yuan, a doctoral candidate in CU Boulder’s Department of Physics and lead author of the study. “Scientists knew that the ice melting caused the plates to uplift. But we show that they also moved a lot horizontally due to the ice melting.”



Yuan and Zhong’s models indicate that between about 12,000 and 6,000 years ago, the North American plate may have increased its overall drift speed by roughly 25 percent. 



Even more striking was the behavior of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. This ridge is a submarine mountain chain where magma wells up to form new crust and push the North American and Eurasian plates apart. There, seafloor spreading may have surged by as much as 40 percent during the post-glacial interval.



Zhong, a professor of physics at CU Boulder and senior author on the study, elaborated on the significance of the findings. 



“That story that we’ve been telling for a long, long time - that processes like seafloor spreading and continental drift operate at timescales of millions of years driven by Earth’s internal engine, thermal convection. That’s still true, but we show that glacial forcing can also cause <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/glacier-melting-threatens-global-water-supplies-and-coastal-communities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">significant motion</a> on relatively short timescales of 10,000 years," said Zhong.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-melting-ice-messes-with-the-mantle">Melting ice messes with the mantle</h2>



To understand this surprising connection, picture Earth’s lithosphere - the rigid outer shell comprising crust and upper mantle - as a giant memory-foam mattress. When you lie on memory foam, the surface depresses; when you get up, it slowly rebounds. 



Similarly, when an ice sheet thousands of meters thick presses down on a continent, the underlying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-giants-the-mysterious-structures-deep-inside-earths-mantle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mantle</a> deforms. Once that ice melts and its weight shifts to the oceans, the mantle rebounds upward. Geologists call this response “glacial isostatic adjustment.”



Vertical rebound is well documented: regions near Hudson Bay, once the epicenter of glacial weight, still rise by about a centimeter per year. What Yuan and Zhong uncovered is a lesser-known horizontal component. 



As the mantle flowed to readjust, it exerted lateral stresses that nudged tectonic plates, effectively giving them a temporary shove. Their models show that this nudge affected both continental interiors and mid-ocean ridges. 



The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is a critical test case because geologists have long treated its two-centimeter-per-year spreading rate as a textbook constant. The CU Boulder simulations suggest that rate has actually fluctuated markedly, speeding up in tandem with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astonishing-glacier-retreat-in-the-arctic-signals-climate-disaster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glacial retreat</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-volcanic-echo-in-iceland"><a></a>A volcanic echo in Iceland</h2>



One real-world clue supporting the model’s conclusions lies in Iceland, which straddles the Mid-Atlantic Ridge just south of Greenland. Geological evidence indicates a spike in volcanic and geothermal activity on the island as the last Ice Age waned. 



Zhong believes faster spreading beneath the ridge made it easier for magma to reach the surface, fueling Iceland’s fiery outbursts. “This pattern of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-orbit-may-trigger-massive-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanism</a> may have been partly due to the glacial melting that we studied,” Zhong noted.



Although Greenland’s ice is melting rapidly today, its present rate is not yet large enough to jolt continents around. However, many climate models predict accelerated ice melting which could once again modulate magma supply at nearby ridges and, indirectly, volcanic activity in places such as Iceland within the next several centuries. 



“Ice sheets in Greenland and West Antarctica are still melting,” Yuan said. “We think the ice melting could enhance seafloor spreading and volcanism at nearby mid-ocean ridges in the future.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-will-melting-ice-accelerate-continental-drift">Will melting ice accelerate continental drift?</h2>



The implications of the study reach beyond Iceland or any single ridge. If glacial cycles can tweak plate speeds, geologists may need to revisit other intervals in Earth’s history when ice ages ended abruptly.



Could bursts of continental acceleration have left signatures in mountain-building episodes or sediment records? Might similar dynamics occur under today’s rapidly melting Antarctic ice shelves, subtly influencing tectonics in the Southern Ocean?



Zhong and Yuan’s results remind scientists that tectonics and climate are not wholly separate realms. The deep interior drives plate motion, but surface processes - especially the waxing and waning of planetary ice - can modulate that motion on geologically brief timescales. 



The Earth, in other words, is a tightly coupled system: what disappears atop a continent can ripple beneath an ocean ridge thousands of kilometers away. “That’s a fairly well-known, textbook number,” Zhong said of the ridge’s 2 cm/year spreading pace. He noted that the textbook may need an update.



Funded by the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. National Science Foundation</a>, this research highlights a key point for both geologists and climate scientists: the planet’s frozen water doesn’t just sculpt landscapes; it can also tweak the gears of Earth’s tectonic machinery. And as the modern cryosphere continues to shrink, understanding such connections becomes ever more vital.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08846-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Melting ice can speed up continental drift and fuel volcanic eruptions

When we picture tectonic plates drifting apart and colliding, we...

If you’ve ever wondered whether your post-workout protein shake needs to come from chicken or chickpeas, you’re not alone. There’s a lot of talk about which type of protein is best for building muscle - plant-based or animal-based.



And does it help to space out your protein intake throughout the day? Or get a bigger serving at dinner? A new study has tackled these questions head-on and the answers may surprise you.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-assumptions-about-muscle-protein-synthesis">Assumptions about muscle protein synthesis </h2>



Researchers at the <a href="https://illinois.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign</a> designed a nine-day clinical trial to test three common assumptions about muscle protein synthesis. 



The experts wanted to know: Does the protein source - plant versus animal - impact muscle building? Does timing throughout the day affect how your body uses protein? And is there any real benefit to moderately high protein intake for muscle growth?



According to the study, the answer to all three questions is no.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-what-builds-muscle">Rethinking what builds muscle</h2>



“The longstanding belief or the current dogma was that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/do-humans-need-to-eat-animal-protein-to-build-muscle-science-has-the-answer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal-based protein</a> sources were better, particularly for the muscle-building response,” said Nicholas Burd, one of the lead researchers. 



This belief was based on previous studies showing that animal protein led to a stronger muscle-building response after a single meal. “And so, our general hypothesis, based on these previous studies, was that the animal-based eating pattern would be more effective at supporting the muscle-building response," said Burd.



But there's a catch. Many of those older studies were based on a single meal, not what happens over the course of a whole diet. The new study aimed to better reflect how people actually eat - whether they follow a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-based-foods-promote-weight-loss-regardless-of-processing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant-based</a> or omnivorous diet over time.



Burd pointed out that a previous 10-week trial found similar muscle synthesis in vegans and omnivores, but those participants consumed high levels of protein (1.6 to 1.8 grams per kilogram of body weight per day), which goes beyond what most people need to gain muscle. That earlier study also relied heavily on plant protein supplements, which doesn’t mirror how real <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vegan-diet-improves-heart-health-in-a-matter-of-weeks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vegans</a> eat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protein-choices-put-to-the-test">Protein choices put to the test</h2>



To explore this further, the team recruited 40 healthy adults between age 20 and 40. For seven days, everyone ate a standardized diet to normalize their nutrition. Then they were randomly assigned to either a vegan or an omnivorous diet for the trial. All meals were provided by the researchers, with most eaten at home and some in the lab.



For the omnivorous group, about 70% of the protein came from animal sources like beef, chicken, pork, eggs, and dairy. The vegan diet used whole plant-based foods, carefully combined to provide complete proteins with all the essential amino acids.



Each dietary group was split again. Some participants had their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-too-much-protein-greatly-increases-heart-disease-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">protein intake</a> spread evenly across three meals. Others ate five meals per day with the majority of their protein at the end of the day. Everyone did muscle-strengthening workouts every three days and wore accelerometers to track physical activity outside the lab.



To measure muscle protein synthesis, participants drank deuterium-labeled “heavy water.” This allowed researchers to trace the incorporation of amino acids into muscle tissue over time. Muscle biopsies were taken before and after the trial.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-post-workout-protein-is-key">Post-workout protein is key</h2>



The results showed no difference in muscle protein synthesis between the vegan and omnivorous diets. Timing of protein intake didn’t matter either.



“It was thought that it was better to get a steady-state delivery of nutrients throughout the day,” Burd said. “I also thought that if you’re getting a lower-quality protein - in terms of its digestibility and amino acid content - that perhaps distribution would make a difference. And surprisingly, we showed it doesn’t matter.”



The findings build on earlier work from Burd’s lab that suggested consuming more than 1.1 grams of protein per kilogram per day doesn’t lead to greater muscle gains. That’s in line with what many Americans eat naturally.



Now, Burd has a simple answer when people ask him what to eat to build <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-molecule-that-helps-grow-stronger-and-bigger-muscles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">muscle</a>: “It’s the kind you put in your mouth after exercise. As long as you’re getting sufficient high-quality protein from your food, then it really doesn’t make a difference.”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.lww.com/acsm-msse/abstract/9900/impact_of_vegan_diets_on_resistance.771.aspx" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Medicine &amp; Science in Sports &amp; Exercise</a>.



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What’s the best protein for muscle gain? it might not matter

If you’ve ever wondered whether your post-workout protein shake needs...

Sea slugs are famous for their unusual shapes and colors, but their habit of shining during daylight is still surprising to many. They refuse to hide and instead display bright spots, stripes, or swirling hues that some predators quickly learn to avoid.



Dr. Cedric van den Berg from the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Queensland</a> and his team examined 45 species of <a href="https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/collage-nudibranch-colors" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nudibranch slugs</a> to see how color patterns might work as predator deterrents. 



The researchers looked at how certain slugs appear to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-slugs-use-sunlight-to-survive-just-like-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> with trichromatic vision, finding that being active under bright conditions helps highlight toxic or stinging defenses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sea-slugs-flash-bright-colors">Sea slugs flash bright colors</h2>



“Sea <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mystery-mollusk-glowing-sea-slug-found-in-the-deep-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">slugs</a> use bright, contrasting color patterns to send messages to potential predators like ‘Don’t eat me, I’m poisonous,’” noted Dr. van den Berg.



Sea slugs often rely on <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/aposematism" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aposematic signals</a>, which are bright or bold patterns that suggest they’re not worth a predator’s time.&nbsp;



Animals with chemical defenses, such as irritating toxins or stinging cells, appear to flaunt thick stripes or glowing spots. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/sea-slug_Risbecia-apolegma_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/sea-slug_Risbecia-apolegma_1s.webp" alt="Colorful sea slug, species name Risbecia apolegma" class="wp-image-1966961"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Colorful sea slug, species name Risbecia apolegma. Click image to enlarge.</figcaption></figure>



Those colors can look intense to fish that rely on sight, so it’s a clear communication strategy in well-lit environments.



Nocturnal slugs, by comparison, usually stick to calmer patterns. Their prey time is after sunset, so they’re less likely to advertise threats that won’t be easily seen in the dark.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-avoid-slugs-that-shine-in-sunlight">Fish avoid slugs that shine in sunlight</h2>



The researchers used specialized imaging to simulate how these patterns register with a fish’s eyes. A quick flash of white or dark stripes against a colorful background can make a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/inspired-by-sea-slugs-microneedles-could-transform-health-monitoring/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> think twice about an easy meal.



“We can even use the fingerprint to successfully classify the daytime activity of almost 90% of all the species we looked at,” said Dr. van den Berg. This suggests a strong link between how slugs look and when they move around each day.



Some slugs have more than just bright colors at their disposal. They also pack potent chemicals that might taste awful or damage a predator’s tissues on contact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sunlight-strengthens-sea-slug-colors">Sunlight strengthens sea slug colors </h2>



Light is crucial for these color patterns to send the right message. Bold outlines or high-contrast spots fade in dim conditions, but under direct sun, the same hues scream for attention.



A fish that tries nibbling a slug with toxins might get a nasty mouthful. That experience can teach predators to avoid the next brightly spotted slug they see.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/sea-slug_nudibranch_Favorinus-mirabilis_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/sea-slug_nudibranch_Favorinus-mirabilis_1s.webp" alt="Color nudibranch sea slug, species name Favorinus mirabilis" class="wp-image-1966959"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Color nudibranch sea slug, species name Favorinus mirabilis. Click image to enlarge.</figcaption></figure>



Scientists call these patterns and body outlines essential parts of the slug’s warning display. It’s like wearing a vibrant outfit that signals danger to those who might otherwise bite first and ask questions later.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-toxic-chemicals-and-warning-colors">Toxic chemicals and warning colors</h2>



These creatures store or produce toxic compounds, depending on their diet and species-specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-predator-prey-feast-ever-seen-in-the-ocean-enormous-quickly-altered-food-chain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traits</a>. A few absorb nasty elements from what they eat, then load them into stinging cells on their backs.



Not all sea slugs rely on chemical deterrents, though. Some have mild or no toxins and instead hide or blend with the environment at night.



Other slugs team multiple strategies. One group even uses <a href="http://www.seaslugforum.net/showall/biolumin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bioluminescent flashes</a>, but that tends to happen if they get harassed after dark.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-colors-as-survival-strategies">Colors as survival strategies</h2>



Colorful warnings are common in reef environments filled with fish that spot <a href="https://www.whoi.edu/know-your-ocean/did-you-know/why-are-corals-so-colorful/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bright objects</a> from many angles. Sea slugs are only one example of creatures that play this card.



These slugs aren’t alone in teaching predators to step back. Some marine animals sport bright polka dots or bold stripes, but the principle is the same: let attackers know a nasty surprise awaits them.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/sea-slugs_Costasiella-Kuroshimae-nudibranch_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/sea-slugs_Costasiella-Kuroshimae-nudibranch_1s.webp" alt="Colorful sea slug nudibrance, species name Costasiella Kuroshimae" class="wp-image-1966963"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Colorful sea slug nudibrance, species name Costasiella Kuroshimae. Click image to enlarge.</figcaption></figure>



Biologists are keen to see how these patterns might shift as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seamounts-are-gathering-hubs-for-ocean-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean</a> conditions change. If waters get murkier or fish populations decline, it could alter what signals remain effective.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bold-colors-help-sea-slugs-survive">Bold colors help sea slugs survive</h2>



Future research may reveal more about how brightness levels in shallow waters affect slug survival. Since some species rely on colorful hints to broadcast their poison, changes in light could tilt the scales in favor of camouflage instead.



Learning more about daytime patterns might also explain how certain toxins develop. If a slug’s flashy outfit reliably stops attacks, chemical defenses might grow stronger over time.



It’s a balancing act. Slugs can’t be so bold that hungry predators want to test them, yet they have to be bold enough for the signal to stand out in daylight.



Studying sea slugs provides a glimpse of how clever visual signals shape daily routines. Their reliance on sunshine to amplify threats is a neat twist on survival.



Most species in this research project seem to embrace the idea of risking daylight for the payoff of a loud warning. The few that prefer darkness skip the bright stripes and trust stealth to keep them off the menu.



The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2656.70036" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Animal Ecology</a>.



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Sea slugs are very tiny, but they might also be the most beautiful creatures in the seas

Sea slugs are famous for their unusual shapes and colors,...

Archaea - an often-overlooked group of microbes - are quietly living in our guts, and scientists are finally starting to understand just how important they might be.



While most research on the human microbiome has focused on bacteria, a new species of methane-producing gut microbe is shifting that attention.



In a recent study, microbiologists from the <a href="https://www.medunigraz.at/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Medical University of Graz</a>, the DSMZ-German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures in Germany, and the University of Illinois, discovered a previously unknown methane-producing archaea species in the human gut. They named it Methanobrevibacter intestini sp. nov., strain WWM1085.



The team also isolated a new variant of Methanobrevibacter smithii, called GRAZ-2. These findings offer fresh insight into how our gut and its microbial inhabitants interact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-archaea-so-unique">What makes archaea so unique?</h2>



Archaea are one of the three recognized domains of living organisms, along with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/common-gut-bacteria-behave-like-vampires-to-target-human-blood/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a> and eukaryotes (which include animals, plants, and fungi). 



Under a microscope, archaea might look a bit like bacteria - but they are fundamentally different. Their cell structure, metabolism, and genetic code all set them apart.



Most people associate archaea with extreme environments like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hot-springs-may-have-played-a-key-role-in-the-emergence-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hot springs</a> and salt flats. But they also live in more familiar places, including in the human digestive tract.



One group of archaea, known as methanogens, produces methane by breaking down hydrogen and carbon dioxide. These microbes are vital to metabolic processes in animals - including humans.



Still, studying them isn’t easy. Archaea cannot tolerate oxygen, and they’re difficult to grow in the lab. That’s why research into their role in the human gut is only just beginning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-microbes-may-play-a-big-role">Small microbes may play a big role</h2>



“Our discovery is a further piece in the puzzle towards understanding how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-microbiome-trillions-of-bacteria-unique-like-fingerprints/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human microbiome</a> functions,” said Christine Moissl-Eichinger, professor of interactive microbiome research at Med Uni Graz.



While most microbiome studies center on bacteria, archaea have received little attention - despite the big role they might play in our health.



“Archaea have long been overlooked,” Moissl-Eichinger said. “They may play a significant role in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-microbes-have-an-unexpected-link-to-anxiety/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gut</a> function, microbial gas metabolism, and possibly even the development or progression of certain diseases.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gut-microbes-that-produce-methane">Gut microbes that produce methane</h2>



To identify the methane-producing gut microbes, the team used advanced techniques, including specialized anaerobic cultivation (growing organisms without oxygen), high-resolution electron microscopy, and DNA sequencing. 



The experts found that Methanobrevibacter intestini WWM1085 stands apart from all known archaea species. It survives only in oxygen-free environments and produces <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-methane-emissions-threaten-earths-habitability/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">methane</a>.



More surprisingly, it also generates large amounts of succinic acid - a substance linked to inflammation in the body. This suggests a possible connection between archaea and certain health conditions.



The second discovery, GRAZ-2, is a strain of Methanobrevibacter smithii. It produces formic acid, which could disrupt how other gut microbes function. This suggests that even slight genetic variations in archaea might lead to very different roles within the gut.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-archaeome-might-reveal">What the “archaeome” might reveal</h2>



These findings support the idea that gut archaea are more diverse - and potentially more important - than previously believed.



Scientists are beginning to use the term “archaeome” to describe the full range of archaea living within us. This emerging field holds promise for revealing how these organisms influence human health. The ability to grow archaea in the lab is crucial for learning what they do. 



“We can only conduct specific mechanistic investigations with cultivated strains,” said Viktoria Weinberger, the study’s first author. “This is essential in order to better understand the role of individual microorganisms in health and disease - and in the long term to develop therapeutic approaches as well.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-new-gut-microbes">Understanding the new gut microbes</h2>



Understanding Methanobrevibacter intestini and GRAZ-2 could be just the beginning. These archaea may one day help shape more personalized approaches to gut health - ones that include not just the bacteria, but also the other overlooked players living quietly in our digestive systems.



The discovery of new archaea species in the human gut raises more questions than it answers. What other microbes are we missing? And how might they influence everything from digestion to disease?



As research expands, the once-overlooked archaea may become key players in shaping the future of microbiome science.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://www.microbiologyresearch.org/content/journal/ijsem/10.1099/ijsem.0.006751" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology</a>.



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New methane-producing microbe discovered in the human gut

Archaea - an often-overlooked group of microbes - are quietly...

Most parents agree that puberty is an important topic to cover with their kids. But when is the right time to start? And what’s the best way to approach it? These are questions many parents still struggle with.



A recent national poll by researchers at the <a href="https://www.mottchildren.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan Health C.S. Mott Children’s Hospital</a> sheds light on how families are handling this crucial stage of childhood. 



The poll highlights some common uncertainties, such as the best age to start the conversation and whether to include topics like sex and reproduction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-to-begin-the-puberty-talk">When to begin the puberty talk</h2>



The results show that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parents-often-feel-lonely-burnt-out-parenting-demands/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parents</a> are split on when to begin the puberty talk. About one-third say it’s best to start before age 10. Others prefer to wait until their kids are 10 or older. This uncertainty can make it tough to know when to speak up.



“It’s easy to assume a child is too young for conversations about puberty, but many parents are surprised to find their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tweens-used-media-more-during-the-pandemic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tween</a> already showing signs of puberty or asking unexpected questions about body changes,” said Mott Poll Co-Director Sarah Clark.



“Starting the conversation early gives parents a chance to shape the message in an age-appropriate way and help kids know what to expect, so they’re not confused or anxious. If parents don’t open the door to these talks, kids may get their information elsewhere, like from classmates, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/goldilocks-amount-of-social-media-time-may-protect-teens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social media</a>, or what they see on TV.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-talking-about-puberty-can-be-hard">Talking about puberty can be hard</h2>



Parents take different approaches to discussing puberty. Around half say they’re proactive. Two in five wait for their child to ask questions. A small group - about 5% - avoid the topic entirely.



There are also emotional hurdles. One in five parents say they worry about feeling embarrassed. Others fear saying the wrong thing. 



Some parents of 10- to 12-year-olds say their child avoids the subject. Meanwhile, nearly a third of parents with 7- to 9-year-olds think their child is too young to understand. Clark suggests some of that hesitation might come from parents' own childhoods.



While nearly half have shared their personal puberty experiences with their kids, fewer than one in three say they learned about puberty from their own parents. Over a third note that it wasn’t discussed at all in their home growing up.



“Whether they realize it or not parents may bring their own experiences into their parenting approach,” Clark said. “Many parents said they had little or no discussion of puberty when they were young. If puberty was treated as an awkward or embarrassing subject growing up, that can make it harder to know how to begin.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-question-of-sex">The question of sex</h2>



One of the biggest challenges for parents is knowing how and when to talk about sex and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lunar-cycles-have-a-secret-influence-on-human-reproduction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reproduction</a>. For some, this part of the conversation can feel even more overwhelming.



“Early conversations should focus on making kids aware that they will experience physical and emotional changes, and reassuring them that those changes are normal. Discussions about sex can occur over time,” Clark said.



She also points out that parents don’t have to do it all alone. Resources like parenting books, educational videos, and school health programs can help start the conversation or reinforce the message. Annual doctor visits may also provide a comfortable setting to bring up puberty-related topics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spotting-the-signs">Spotting the signs</h2>



About half of parents say they feel very confident in recognizing signs of puberty. Among parents of kids aged 10 to 12, that number jumps to 60 percent. 



For younger kids, only 17% of parents say they’ve noticed changes. And fewer than one in three say they know what signs to look for.



Many parents also report that their children have brought up questions about their own bodies, their parents' bodies, or puberty in general. These moments, Clark says, are great chances to open up the discussion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-keep-the-conversation-going">Keep the conversation going</h2>



Puberty isn’t just a physical transition. It can also bring emotional changes that make open conversations harder. But that makes the need for communication even more important.



“Puberty isn’t just about physical changes - it’s also a time of emotional disruption, which can make open communication challenging,” Clark said. “Many tweens feel embarrassed or uncomfortable talking with their parents about these changes.”



“To help ease the discomfort, some parents may give their child an age-appropriate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-children-learn-gender-stereotypes-from-storybooks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">book</a> or video about puberty and allow the child to explore the topic privately. Often, that leads to additional discussion with parents.”



In the end, the key is to make room for these conversations early - and to keep them going. By doing so, parents can support their kids through one of the most confusing and important transitions of their lives.



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Talking to kids about puberty: Why sooner may be better than later

Most parents agree that puberty is an important topic to...

Bonobos are known for gentle interactions, yet recent work suggests they might be less tolerant when rewards are split unequally. Researchers set out to see if these apes would walk away from deals that favored a partner and shortchanged them.



This insight emerges from the work of first author Kia Radovanović from <a href="https://www.uu.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Utrecht University</a>. A team at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology collaborated on these trials to gauge bonobos’ <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-bonobo-day-a-celebration-of-love-peace-and-conservation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reactions</a> to unequal treats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobos-recognize-unfair-rewards-and-protest">Bonobos recognize unfair rewards and protest</h2>



Some experts use the phrase <a href="https://www.behavioraleconomics.com/resources/mini-encyclopedia-of-be/inequity-aversion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">inequity aversion</a> for patterns in animals that refuse to cooperate when they get a raw deal. Human <a href="https://academic.oup.com/qje/article-abstract/114/3/817/1848113?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> have noted how people often protest if someone else is given better benefits for the same effort.



Bonobos share close ties with people on the <a href="https://evolution-outreach.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1007/s12052-008-0035-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary tree</a>. Their social lives revolve around interactions where resources and tasks are commonly exchanged. 



When tested in a token-exchange setting, they faced a scenario where one <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobo-communication-shares-many-structural-similarities-with-human-language/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">participant</a> got a higher-value treat, while the other settled for a lesser option.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-turn-down-free-snacks">Why turn down free snacks?</h2>



“We found that bonobos more often refused to participate when faced with inequitable rewards,” said Radovanović. This outcome goes against the idea that they simply expect the same tasty morsel and quit if disappointed.



There were instances where an automated contraption handed out the treats. Bonobos avoided interacting if the gadget gave them a lower reward, yet spared a friend something tastier. 



This trend did not appear to stem from dissatisfaction with the human caretaker but instead from the unequal handouts themselves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-much-unfairness-can-bonobos-tolerate">How much unfairness can bonobos tolerate?</h2>



Cooperative behavior in this species is often viewed as a key characteristic. Some pairs seemed more tolerant of small imbalances, especially if they had strong social <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-are-more-endangered-than-previously-known/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bonds</a>.



The closer pairs of bonobos sometimes accepted the mismatch without walking away. These differences in how each ape responds hint that personal relationships might play a role in how big a difference in goodies they are willing to allow.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobos-chimps-and-unfair-rewards">Bonobos, chimps, and unfair rewards</h2>



Unlike bonobos, chimpanzees in similar tests often show refusal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orphaned-bonobos-can-regain-social-skills-and-empathy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a> that seem tied more to the person handing out the food than to fairness itself. 



When chimpanzees received lesser rewards, they reacted more strongly if the distributor was a human instead of a machine. That suggests they may be expressing frustration with the person, not necessarily protesting the unfairness of the trade.



Bonobos didn’t follow that same pattern. Their refusals were strongest when a machine was involved and their partner still got something better. 



This detail sets them apart and raises the possibility that bonobos might have developed a clearer internal barometer for fairness, while chimpanzees may lean more toward social expectations or experimenter-based cues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-tests-to-explore-fairness-in-apes">More tests to explore fairness in apes</h2>



Fair-minded behavior might develop from social structures that value harmony.



"This study provides new insights into how fairness may have evolved, but further research is needed,” said Daniel Haun, Director at the <a href="https://www.mpg.de/de" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</a>.



Researchers continue to plan follow-up tasks that offer group-based <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-are-thriving-in-salonga-national-park/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activities</a> and broader test groups. They hope to see whether living conditions or group composition shape each individual’s perception of what is or is not an acceptable share.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobos-value-rewards-and-fairness">Bonobos value rewards and fairness</h2>



People once believed that only humans show strong objections when rewards are lopsided. Bonobo evidence suggests some apes may notice these imbalances too. 



This pattern could reinforce cooperation over time, because no one wants to keep playing with a partner who always gets the bigger prize.



These observations add a new perspective on how a sense of fair play might have taken shape in diverse primate lineages. Focusing on bonobos’ responses could clarify the complexities of social ties and resource division in living groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-can-bonobos-fix-unfairness-themselves">Can bonobos fix unfairness themselves?</h2>



Researchers propose testing different tasks where bonobos can actively equalize outcomes. Deeper analysis may also reveal if other apes respond similarly in varied settings. 



Questions remain about how environment and familiarity influence the readiness to leave an unfair arrangement.



If bonobos keep showing that they can detect and reject unequal rewards, the idea of fairness in non-human species grows stronger. That could shift how we talk about morality and ethical conduct in the broader animal kingdom.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.2873" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</a>.



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Bonobos say no to unfair trades, even if it costs rewards

Bonobos are known for gentle interactions, yet recent work suggests...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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