Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Gold might not just be for jewelry anymore - it could also hold the key to restoring vision. Researchers are exploring a surprising new approach to treating blindness caused by retinal disorders. 



Their focus? Gold nanoparticles - microscopic particles thousands of times thinner than a human hair.



In a recent study from <a href="https://www.brown.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brown University</a>, researchers discovered that gold nanoparticles, when injected into the retina and paired with infrared light, could restore visual function in mice.



The work, supported by the National Institutes of Health, points to a future where people with diseases like macular degeneration might regain some level of sight through a non-invasive treatment that doesn’t require surgery or gene editing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-high-tech-vision-fix">A high-tech vision fix</h2>



Millions of people worldwide suffer from retinal diseases like macular degeneration and retinitis pigmentosa. These conditions damage photoreceptors - the rods and cones responsible for turning light into electrical signals in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/search-results/?search=eye%20health" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eye</a>.



When these cells stop working, the rest of the visual chain is disrupted. However, not all parts of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-retinal-cells-explain-complex-color-perception/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">retina</a> are affected. Cells called bipolar and ganglion cells, which sit further along the visual processing pathway, often remain intact.



That’s where the nanoparticles come in. This new approach bypasses the damaged photoreceptors. Instead, it uses a special solution of gold nanoparticles injected directly into the retina. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-gold-to-restore-vision">Using gold to restore vision</h2>



When these particles are hit with infrared light, they heat up ever so slightly - just enough to activate the bipolar and ganglion cells. This stimulation mimics how the retina normally responds to light, offering a potential way to restore vision.



“This is a new type of retinal prosthesis that has the potential to restore vision lost to retinal degeneration without requiring any kind of complicated surgery or genetic modification,” said Jiarui Nie, who led the study during her Ph.D. work at Brown University.



“We believe this technique could potentially transform treatment paradigms for retinal degenerative conditions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-the-technique">Testing the technique</h2>



The researchers first tested their approach using mouse retinas in a lab dish. Later, they moved on to live mice with retinal damage. After injecting the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healing-chronic-wounds-with-gold-and-red-wine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gold</a> nanoparticles, the team used a patterned infrared laser to project shapes onto the retina.



Using a calcium signal to track cell activity, the experts saw that the nanoparticles activated the correct cells - and in patterns that matched the projected laser shapes.



The researchers also checked for safety. They looked at metabolic markers to detect inflammation or toxicity and found no signs of major side effects.



Using special probes, they confirmed that the laser light triggered brain activity in the visual cortex of the mice. That’s an important clue - it shows that the visual information was making its way to the brain, suggesting that vision was being restored at least in part.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gold-nanoparticles-meet-lasers">Gold nanoparticles meet lasers</h2>



Looking ahead, the team imagines a wearable system combining the nanoparticles with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/laser-technology-could-improve-radiation-treatments-for-cancer-patients/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">laser technology</a>. 



A pair of high-tech glasses or goggles would house a small infrared laser and a camera. The camera would gather real-world images, which would be turned into laser pulses aimed at the retina. Those pulses would activate the nanoparticles, helping the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-human-brain-processes-visual-information/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain perceive visual information</a>.



There’s already a somewhat similar system on the market - an FDA-approved device that uses a surgically implanted electrode array. But the nanoparticle technique has some clear advantages.



For one, it’s far easier to administer. “An intravitreal injection is one of the simplest procedures in ophthalmology,” explained Nie. That’s much less complicated than implanting an electronic device inside the eye.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-vision-with-gold">Improving vision with gold</h2>



Beyond the simpler delivery, the new method could offer better visual coverage. The earlier electrode-based systems only had around 60 pixels of resolution - hardly enough for detailed vision.



But the nanoparticle solution spreads across the entire retina. That means it could potentially help someone see across their full field of view. And because it uses near-infrared light rather than visible light, it might not interfere with whatever natural vision a person still has.



“We showed that the nanoparticles can stay in the retina for months with no major toxicity,” Nie said. “And we showed that they can successfully stimulate the visual system. That’s very encouraging for future applications.”



While more testing is needed before this can be used in human patients, the research shows real promise. If future studies continue to show positive results, this simple and non-invasive approach could become an important tool for restoring sight to people who’ve lost it.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsnano.4c14061" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Nano</a>.



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How tiny gold particles may help restore vision

Gold might not just be for jewelry anymore - it...

Our brain's ability to absorb fresh information - whether that means mastering a new task at work, memorizing the refrain of a song, or navigating unfamiliar streets - depends on a remarkable talent for neural self‑reinvention. 



Every time we practice something novel, millions of tiny contacts between nerve cells subtly adjust their strength and neurons use multiple mechanisms to store knowledge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mystery-of-how-the-brain-learns">Mystery of how the brain learns</h2>



Some connections, called <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electrical-synapses-are-key-to-decision-making-in-animal-brains/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">synapses</a>, amplify their signals to stamp in crucial details; others turn down the volume to clear away noise. Collectively these shifts are known as synaptic plasticity and for decades neuroscientists have cataloged dozens of molecular pathways that can nudge a synapse up or down.



What has remained mysterious is how the brain decides which synapses to retune and which to leave alone. Each synapse has access only to its own local activity, yet the organism as a whole must reinforce precisely those connections that improve future behavior.



This computational puzzle - nicknamed the “credit assignment problem” - is roughly analogous to an ant colony whose workers know only their immediate chores, yet somehow build an efficient nest. 



A new study from the <a href="https://www.ucsd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California San Diego</a> now offers an unexpected solution and challenges long‑held assumptions about how neurons <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neurons-can-predict-human-speech-before-we-say-a-word/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">learn</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unprecedented-look-at-learning">Unprecedented look at learning</h2>



To tackle the problem, postdoctoral researcher William Wright and colleagues Nathan Hedrick and Takaki Komiyama turned to state‑of‑the‑art brain‑imaging technology. 



Leveraging two‑photon microscopy - a technique that can record activity deep inside living tissue with single‑synapse resolution - the team observed the brains of mice while the animals acquired a new motor skill.



Over multiple training sessions the microscope tracked both the incoming “input” spines on each neuron’s dendrites and the outgoing “output” firing patterns of the same cell. Achieving such granular detail required several years of technical refinement, funded primarily through <a href="https://www.nih.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Institutes of Health</a> research and training grants. 



The investigators combined genetically encoded fluorescent sensors, robotics to stabilize the mouse’s head, and custom analysis software capable of aligning thousands of microscopic images collected over days and weeks. The payoff was an unprecedented movie of learning unfolding in real time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-brain-changes-as-we-learn">The brain changes as we learn</h2>



Conventional wisdom has treated a neuron as if it obeys a single plasticity rule throughout its structure. If a particular pattern of electrical spikes strengthens one synapse on a cell, the same pattern should have a similar effect elsewhere on that neuron.



Yet the scientists discovered a very different scenario. They found that separate compartments of the same neuron - such as dendritic branches pointing toward different input sources - could follow distinct learning rules simultaneously. 



One group of synapses might strengthen when the cell fired, another group might weaken under identical circumstances, and a third set might remain unchanged. “When people talk about synaptic plasticity, it’s typically regarded as uniform within the brain,” Wright explained. 



“Our research provides a clearer understanding of how synapses are being modified during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/variable-learning-the-key-to-more-effective-study-habits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">learning</a>, with potentially important health implications since many diseases in the brain involve some form of synaptic dysfunction.”



The patterns were robust across multiple mice and persisted after the animals had mastered the task, suggesting the brain intentionally segregates information streams and applies custom rule sets depending on location. In computational terms, a single neuron acts more like a multi‑core processor executing parallel algorithms than a simple on‑off relay.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neurons-are-multi-tasking">Neurons are multi-tasking </h2>



Because each neurite compartment appears to evaluate its performance locally, the broader credit assignment mystery takes on a new complexion. Instead of requiring a global scoreboard that distributes reinforcement back to every contributing synapse, the neuron itself can run several internal scoreboards at once - one per compartment.



“This discovery fundamentally changes the way we understand how the brain solves the credit assignment problem, with the concept that individual neurons perform distinct computations in parallel in different subcellular compartments,” said senior author Takaki Komiyama, a neurobiologist at UC San Diego.



In other words, the ant colony analogy breaks down at the level of a single worker. Each ant, or each compartment, carries its own tiny map of colony objectives, drastically simplifying how useful modifications are selected during learning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-artificial-intelligence"><a></a>Implications for artificial intelligence</h2>



Most modern artificial neural networks rely on a single learning rule - back propagation - applied uniformly across all units. The new biological data suggest a richer palette could yield more efficient or flexible machines.



Future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-ai-systems-learn-like-the-human-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI</a> architectures might assign different plasticity schemes to distinct dendrite‑like structures within a single node, enabling networks to solve complex problems without cumbersome global error signals.



Engineers already explore approaches such as local learning rules and neuromorphic dendrites, but the UC San Diego results provide empirical evidence that nature has long exploited such diversity. 



Designing hardware or software that mimics compartment‑specific learning could improve energy efficiency, accelerate adaptation, or boost robustness in changing environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-look-at-neurological-disorders">A new look at neurological disorders </h2>



On the medical front, many neurological and psychiatric disorders - from addiction and post‑traumatic stress disorder (<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/witnessing-trauma-may-cause-ptsd-in-a-different-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PTSD</a>) to Alzheimer’s disease and autism - involve maladaptive synaptic plasticity. 



By revealing that neurons adjust different sets of synapses under separate guidelines, the study offers clinicians fresh targets.



Drugs or stimulation protocols might be tuned to specific compartments, minimizing side effects compared with blanket interventions.



“This work is laying a potential foundation of trying to understand how the brain normally works to allow us to better understand what’s going wrong in these different diseases,” Wright noted.



For example, selectively dampening overactive compartments in fear‑related circuits could reduce traumatic memories. This would not impair other cognitive functions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-research-on-how-the-brain-learns">Research on how the brain learns</h2>



Having demonstrated that neurons juggle multiple instructional manuals, the researchers aim to decode the biochemical tags that assign each synapse to a particular rule set. 



Are different neurotransmitter receptors responsible? Do local glial cells or gene‑expression profiles dictate the choice? And how do neurons coordinate compartment decisions to achieve a coherent behavioral output?



Answering these questions will require even finer imaging tools, genetic manipulations that label specific compartments, and sophisticated computational models. Yet the core insight remains: a single neuron is not a one‑rule machine but a mosaic of learning specialists. 



Recognizing that complexity pushes neuroscience closer to deciphering the full score of the brain’s symphony of adaptation - and opens new avenues for treating disorders and crafting smarter artificial minds.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.ads4706" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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How the brain learns: Study reveals an unexpected twist

Our brain's ability to absorb fresh information - whether that...

Scientists have long puzzled over why Mars, once protected by a global magnetic field like Earth, now shows only a magnetic imprint mostly concentrated in the planet’s southern hemisphere. 



A new study from the <a href="https://ig.utexas.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Texas Institute for Geophysics</a> (UTIG) offers a compelling explanation: perhaps <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-captured-in-true-color-like-youve-never-seen-the-red-planet-before/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a>’ ancient magnetic field was one-sided from the start.



The experts present a model showing that a hemispheric, or one-sided, magnetic field could have emerged if Mars’ core had been entirely liquid during the time its magnetic field was active.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-mystery-buried-in-martian-rock"><a></a>A mystery buried in Martian rock</h2>



Today, Mars does not have a global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-magnetic-field-has-a-dent-and-nasa-is-watching-closely/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetic field</a>. However, scientists believe that billions of years ago, the planet did possess one. It was likely generated by a planetary dynamo - a self-sustaining process powered by the movement of molten metal within Mars’s core.



While Earth’s magnetic field wraps around the entire planet, Mars left behind a lopsided magnetic signature. Most of the crustal magnetism - what’s essentially a fossil record of the planet’s magnetic past - is preserved in the southern hemisphere. 



For decades, that imbalance has puzzled scientists. Chi Yan, a research associate at UTIG and lead author of the study, believes the explanation may be buried deep within <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-internal-structure-of-mars-core-is-finally-revealed/">Mars’ core</a>.



“The logic here is that with no solid inner core, it’s much easier to produce hemispheric (one-sided) magnetic fields,” Yan explained. “That could have implications for Mars’ ancient dynamo and possibly how long it was able to sustain an atmosphere.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-liquid-core-changes-the-game">Liquid core changes the game</h2>



Most prior models of Mars’ ancient magnetic field were based on assumptions drawn from Earth’s internal structure: a solid inner core surrounded by molten metal. But in recent years, that picture of Mars has started to shift.



In particular, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasas-insight-lander-is-still-teaching-us-about-mars-after-its-retirement/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA’s InSight mission</a>, which studied Martian seismic activity, revealed that Mars’ core contains more light elements - such as sulfur and oxygen - than previously thought. These lighter elements lower the melting point of the core, making it more likely to be entirely molten.



“If Mars’ core is molten now, it almost certainly would have been molten 4 billion years ago when Mars’ magnetic field is known to have been active,” said study co-author Sabine Stanley, a professor at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins University</a>.



With a liquid core possibility in mind, the team ran a new set of simulations. Instead of a solid inner core, they modeled a young Mars with a fully liquid core.



The team then added a slight temperature difference between the planet’s northern and southern hemispheres. In the model, the northern mantle was made just a bit hotter than the southern mantle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heat-flow-shaped-the-magnetic-field">Heat flow shaped the magnetic field</h2>



The results were striking. As the simulation ran, heat from the molten core escaped preferentially through the cooler southern hemisphere. 



That focused outflow of heat proved sufficient to power a magnetic dynamo - but only in the south. This simulated southern-hemisphere-only magnetic field matches what we observe today in Martian rock.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/mars_molten-core_magnetic-field-quirks_illustration_credit-UTexas_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/mars_molten-core_magnetic-field-quirks_illustration_credit-UTexas_1s.webp" alt="Computer simulation of a one-sided magnetic field on early Mars based on data from a study led by the University of Texas Institute for Geophysics. The study could explain the unusual magnetic imprint found on Mars today. Credit: Ankit Barik/Johns Hopkins University" class="wp-image-1966274"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Computer simulation of a one-sided magnetic field on early Mars based on data from a study led by the University of Texas Institute for Geophysics. The study could explain the unusual magnetic imprint found on Mars today. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Ankit Barik/Johns Hopkins University</figcaption></figure>



“We had no idea if it was going to explain the magnetic field, so it’s exciting to see that we can create a (single) hemispheric magnetic field with an interior structure that matches what InSight told us Mars’ interior is like today,” Stanley said.



These findings suggest that Mars didn’t necessarily have a planet-wide magnetic field that was later erased from its northern hemisphere - as some researchers have proposed. Instead, the field may have always been asymmetrical.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-the-hemispheric-mystery"><a></a>Rethinking the hemispheric mystery</h2>



The difference between Mars’ northern and southern hemispheres has long intrigued scientists. The north features relatively low, smooth terrain, while the south is higher, more rugged, and more strongly magnetized. 



Some earlier theories suggested that massive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/space-rocks-nasa-dart-asteroid-deflection-mission-may-impact-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asteroid</a> impacts may have obliterated magnetic traces from the northern hemisphere. But the new study offers a different idea: what if the northern rocks were never magnetized in the first place?



“Mars is naturally interesting to look at because it’s like Earth in some ways and it’s the closest planet that we can imagine actually setting up shop on,” said UTIG planetary researcher Doug Hemingway, who was not involved in the study.



“But then, it’s got this dramatic hemispheric dichotomy where the topography, the terrain and the magnetic field of the northern hemisphere and southern hemisphere are dramatically different. Anything that gives a clue at what could account for some of that asymmetry is valuable.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-mars-and-planetary-habitability">Ancient Mars and planetary habitability</h2>



Understanding how Mars lost its magnetic field is more than just a question of planetary history - it has implications for the planet’s climate and potential for life. A global magnetic field helps shield a planet’s atmosphere from solar wind, the stream of charged particles constantly blowing from the Sun. 



When Mars lost its magnetic protection, the atmosphere thinned, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wave-ripples-discovered-mars-surface-indicate-liquid-water-present-4-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water</a> evaporated, and surface conditions became too harsh for life as we know it. The new research suggests that Mars’ magnetic dynamo may have been patchy from the beginning, raising the possibility that atmospheric loss began earlier than previously thought.



By revealing how a small thermal asymmetry in a planet’s mantle could produce a lopsided magnetic field, the study may also help scientists understand other planetary bodies with unusual magnetic features. This includes the planet Mercury and even some of the moons in our solar system.



As planetary scientists continue to digest InSight’s seismic data and refine their models of Mars’ interior, more findings may be on the way. 



For now, this study marks a significant step toward explaining one of the Red Planet’s most persistent mysteries - and suggests that Mars’ inner life may have been every bit as strange as its landscape.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024GL113926" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a>.



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Mars once had a strong magnetic field, but now only traces remain

Scientists have long puzzled over why Mars, once protected by...

In the dense rainforests of the Republic of Congo, western lowland gorillas are often seen foraging through the soil. They were long assumed to be foraging for insects, but recent research has turned this assumption on its head. 



The real prize hidden in the dirt is not insects at all, but deer truffles - specifically, a species known as Elaphomyces labyrinthinus.



This revelation not only reshapes our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-infertility-humans-linked-same-genes-gorilla-small-penises/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gorilla</a> behavior, but also highlights the deep value of traditional ecological knowledge. The research, from the Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park, reveals how primates are deeply connected to their forest environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovery-of-truffle-eating-gorillas">Discovery of truffle-eating gorillas</h2>



The study was led by Gaston Abea, a member of the semi-nomadic Bangombe people and the first Indigenous person in Ndoki to become the lead author of a peer-reviewed scientific paper. 



Born in the village of Bomassa, Abea brought together deep cultural understanding, sharp observational skills, and modern scientific methods to uncover the truth behind soil-scratching <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-gorillas-self-aware-new-research-challenges-old-assumptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gorillas</a>.



Abea spent over a decade working at the Mondika and Goualougo field stations, tracking gorilla behavior. His local tracker background gave him a unique perspective, helping him spot patterns others might miss.



"My people's traditional knowledge of these forests is endangered by modern lifestyles but is proving invaluable in continuing to study and preserve these ecosystems," said Abea.



His work strengthens the growing recognition of Indigenous perspectives in conservation, though academic research still often overlooks them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-truffle-digging-is-a-regular-behavior">Truffle digging is a regular behavior </h2>



To understand this behavior, the researchers conducted daily observations of four different gorilla <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primate-bonds-are-not-just-about-love-theyre-strategic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">groups</a> across two sites: the Goualougo Triangle and the Djéké Triangle. They observed these groups nearly every day for almost ten years, documenting each instance of soil scratching.



The team also used molecular classification tools to identify the truffles being foraged. They conducted group scans to determine how much time gorillas spent searching for truffles. 



Then, the researchers used video observations to measure how efficient the animals were during these foraging bouts. Over time, the pattern became clear: soil scratching was a consistent strategy to find deer truffles, not an aimless search or an insect hunt.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-gorillas-dig-more-than-others">Some gorillas dig more than others</h2>



Interestingly, not all gorilla groups embraced this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primate-bonds-are-not-just-about-love-theyre-strategic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior</a> equally. Soil scratching was most frequent in Buka’s group, followed by Kingo’s and Mététélé’s groups. 



In contrast, the Loya-Makassa group rarely engaged in truffle foraging. The behavior’s distribution seems tied partly to the availability of truffles, but not entirely.



Social factors appear to influence the practice as well. In one striking example, an adult female gorilla moved from a group that rarely scratched soil to one that did so almost daily. She soon began to mirror the habits of her new group, suggesting that cultural transmission may shape how gorillas forage.



"This is an exciting finding for our understanding of gorilla foraging behavior," said David Morgan of the <a href="https://www.lpzoo.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lincoln Park Zoo</a>, who worked on the study and has spent years researching in Ndoki.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gorillas-carefully-select-truffles">Gorillas carefully select truffles</h2>



One of the most vivid pieces of evidence came from a gorilla named Jeanne. Photographed in the Goualougo Triangle, Jeanne was seen scraping away forest leaf litter with her hands. 



Once the gorilla exposed the soil, she pinched her fingers together and brought a small round object - presumably a truffle - to her mouth. This precise motion defined a successful foraging attempt and offered a glimpse into just how deliberate the behavior is.



The study's inclusion in a special issue of the journal Primates marked a milestone. The issue celebrated 25 years of research in the Ndoki forest and brought attention to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-early-primates-lived-in-pairs-and-were-not-solitary-creatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behaviors</a> that may have otherwise gone unnoticed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-truffle-foraging-traditions">Protecting truffle-foraging traditions</h2>



Abea’s findings were incorporated into an ecological impact assessment for the Djéké Triangle.



As a result, conservation managers decided to adjust planned locations for tourism-related infrastructure. The aim was to protect areas where truffle foraging occurs regularly, ensuring this unique behavior could continue undisturbed.



"This is Gaston's first article as lead author - a milestone for his career and for our capacity-building efforts," said Morgan. "He is the first research assistant of Indigenous People's origin to become first author, in the Ndoki landscape." 



The decision to shift construction plans also highlights a growing understanding of cultural behavior in wildlife. These are not just instinctive acts but socially-influenced practices that may vary by group and change with experience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-gorilla-hunters-to-guardians">From gorilla hunters to guardians</h2>



Abea’s story represents more than scientific achievement. It also reflects a cultural shift within his own community. He is one of over 100 Congolese research assistants trained since 2005 at Ndoki, many of whom come from nearby villages and Indigenous Ba’Aka communities.



"Our ancestors used to hunt gorillas, now we protect them, and I hope to inspire other Ba'Akas to do the same," said Abea.



His journey, from a boy in Bomassa to lead author of a major scientific article, mirrors the broader transformation in conservation thinking - one that values the voices and wisdom of local communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-local-insights-shape-global-research">Local insights shape global research</h2>



While the knowledge about gorillas and foraging for truffles is slowly gaining recognition in the sciences, it still appears too rarely in published research. This study shows how blending local knowledge with science can reveal key insights into animal behavior and ecosystem health.



"This paper shows how much traditional ecological knowledge, scientific research, and conservation can benefit from each other," said Dr. Sydney Ndolo, second author of the paper and now professor of Botany at Université Marien Ngouabi in Brazzaville.



"Local cultures will only survive if they are properly valued, and research is an important means of achieving this."



Through Abea’s work and this study, a hidden part of gorilla life now comes into view - one shaped by truffles, food, forest, and social bonds. And alongside it, the role of Indigenous knowledge in science gains new ground.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10329-024-01151-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Primates</a>.



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Gorillas are digging for a surprising food in the jungle soil

In the dense rainforests of the Republic of Congo, western...

Nature-based activities are showing real promise in improving mental health, with visible benefits reported in as little as 12 weeks. 



In a recent evaluation of a community program for people with mild to moderate mental health conditions, participants experienced better mood and lower anxiety levels after joining weekly outdoor sessions. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reshaping-mental-health-through-nature">Reshaping mental health through nature</h2>



This study is part of the UK government’s larger effort to rethink how mental health care is delivered.



One initiative included setting up seven “test and learn” green social prescribing sites across England. The first site to release its findings comes from Humber and North Yorkshire, where researchers from the <a href="https://www.york.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of York</a> led the evaluation.



Green social prescribing works by linking people with community-based nature activities instead of, or alongside, traditional medical treatments. 



Healthcare professionals can refer patients to activities that bring them outdoors and into contact with the natural world. Though still in the testing phase, the evidence is growing stronger that this approach can be a useful tool in mental health support.



More than 220 participants took part in the Humber and North Yorkshire program. The researchers measured their mental health using the Office for National Statistics’ personal well-being metrics and the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS). The participants ranged in age from 18 to 85 and included people of all genders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-longer-activities-deeper-impact">Longer activities, deeper impact</h2>



The results showed consistent improvement across the board, but participants in longer sessions - typically nine to 12 weeks - saw the most progress.



Activities that involved direct interaction with nature, such as horticulture and care farming, had a bigger effect than sports, crafts, or mindfulness sessions alone.



Professor Peter Coventry from the University of York’s Department of Health Sciences elaborated on the findings.



“We have known for some time that nature has a positive impact on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-scents-linked-to-improved-health-and-well-being/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health and wellbeing</a>, but in more recent years, a stronger evidence base has grown that proves this to be true for mental health in particular," he said.



“The fact that activities such as gardening, tending allotments, and care farming had the most impact on the participants in our study, demonstrated that it is not just about being passive in nature, but connecting with it in a meaningful way." 



Professor Coventry added that spending time in nature with others from your community can ease <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-do-fear-and-anxiety-reside-in-the-brain-new-cells-identified/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anxiety</a> and depression by reducing loneliness and fostering connection. Participating in local activities that support the environment can boost mood and promote a sense of belonging.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-accessible-and-enjoyable-nature-activities">Accessible and enjoyable nature activities</h2>



The benefits of the program were seen across different age groups and income levels. Of the participants, 65% came from low socioeconomic backgrounds. 



Horticulture-based sessions had particularly high attendance, suggesting these activities were both accessible and enjoyable for a wide range of people.



“This intervention might not work for everyone, but through an initial exploratory conversation a social prescriber will discuss with a patient or user of the service if nature-based activities would be suited to them," said Trish Darcy, a research associate from the University’s Mental Health and Addiction Research Group. 



"For that choice to happen, we need more investment to support these community-based activities."



“In our study, 65% of participants were from low socioeconomic groups and we now know that not only can it help improve their mental health, but participation was high for horticultural based activities in particular, meaning that not only is it good for the individual, but for the local community environment too."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-green-partner-in-healthcare">A new green partner in healthcare</h2>



The experts conducted the study in partnership with The HEY Smile Foundation and the NHS Humber and North Yorkshire Integrated Care Board. 



The research is part of a national cross-government initiative, with backing from DEFRA and several departments and agencies including the Department of Health and Social Care and Sport England.



Dr Hannah Armitt, clinical lead for the regional program, emphasized the potential to bridge medical care with community programs.



“The research conducted in our region has the potential to enhance service delivery by connecting statutory services with local providers of nature-based and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/outdoor-classes-improve-childrens-mental-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">outdoor activities</a>," said Dr. Armitt.



“It is important to evidence the potential of green space and nature to ensure clinicians and patients alike can harness the benefits of this wonderful free natural resource we have in abundance in Yorkshire and Humber.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-nature-prescriptions">Future of nature prescriptions </h2>



As more of healthcare shifts into the community, the role of local organizations is becoming increasingly important. 



Anthony Hurd is the program manager of the <a href="https://www.york.ac.uk/healthsciences/research/mental-health/projects/humber-north-yorkshire-green-social-prescribing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humber and North Yorkshire Green Social Prescribing</a>.



“This work has not only shown the positive outcomes that nature-based activities have on mental health, it has also highlighted the role that community-based organizations play in supporting the health and wellbeing of communities," said Hurd.



“As healthcare begins to move more into the community, and with a focus on prevention, the community-based organizations delivering activities such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gardening-is-beneficial-for-physical-and-mental-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gardening</a>, care farming, and walking groups need to be recognized as key players in our national health service and be resourced appropriately.”



With continued investment, green social prescribing could become a trusted and lasting part of mental health care across the country - offering hope, healing, and a healthy dose of fresh air.



The research is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1155/hsc/2016261" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Health &amp; Social Care in the Community</a>.



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How nature heals: Outdoor activities greatly improve mental health

Nature-based activities are showing real promise in improving mental health,...

A team of researchers has recently identified the right frontal lobe as a vital part of logical thinking and the ability to tackle new problems.



The study reveals that when the right brain is damaged, people’s capacity for reasoning suffers, implying that this area is central to our day-to-day cognitive functions.



The research was led by experts at <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London</a> (UCL) and <a href="https://www.uclh.nhs.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London Hospitals</a> (UCLH).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-damage-to-the-right-frontal-lobe">Damage to the right frontal lobe </h2>



Scientists have long used functional imaging (fMRI) to study cognition in healthy individuals. These studies, however, only show correlations rather than proving which parts of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-specialized-regions-develop-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain</a> are essential. 



To pinpoint causation, experts rely on lesion-deficit mapping, a technique that examines how specific types of brain damage affect behavior.



Finding sufficient patients with carefully localized right frontal lobe damage can be challenging. The research team overcame that hurdle by enrolling 247 patients with unilateral focal brain lesions (either in the left or right, frontal or posterior regions).



Another 81 healthy adults served as a baseline for comparison. By systematically observing what happens when parts of the brain are damaged, the team could identify the areas indispensable for particular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lifestyle-choices-in-young-adulthood-impact-cognitive-ability-in-midlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive skills</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-the-brain-s-reasoning-ability">Measuring the brain's reasoning ability</h2>



To measure <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumblebees-showcase-smart-logical-reasoning-abilities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">logical reasoning</a>, the researchers created two original tests. One verbal analogical reasoning task asked participants to determine relationships between words. 



A question might read: “If Sarah is smarter than Diana, and Sarah is smarter than Heather, is Diana smarter than Heather?” Such questions test one’s ability to deduce logical conclusions from given statements.



The second was a nonverbal deductive reasoning task that required spotting patterns or similarities among shapes, pictures, or numbers. 



One sample query stated: “Which set of numbers is 1, 2, 3 most similar to 5, 6, 7 or 6, 5, 7?” The goal was to see how patients reason about relationships without relying on language.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-right-brain-is-essential-for-reasoning">Right brain is essential for reasoning </h2>



When the researchers compared test results, one detail stood out: patients with injuries in the right frontal lobe scored significantly worse on both tests than those with lesions in other areas. These patients were about 15% more prone to errors than their counterparts and the healthy controls. 



This outcome supports the idea that the right brain is essential for reasoning. It's especially important when interpreting novel information and drawing logical conclusions.



Lead author Joseph Mole of the <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/ion/ucl-queen-square-institute-neurology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology and Department of Neuropsychology</a> emphasized the importance of these findings in spotting reasoning issues early.



“Our study explores how the front right part of the brain helps people think and solve new problems,” said Mole. “It also shows that our two new tests can help detect reasoning problems in individuals with brain damage, improving diagnosis and treatment.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ties-to-fluid-intelligence"><a></a>Ties to fluid intelligence</h2>



Another important takeaway involves what neuroscientists call fluid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/every-part-of-the-brain-works-together-to-support-intelligence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">intelligence</a> - our capacity to solve problems in new or unfamiliar situations.



Senior author Lisa Cipolotti, a professor in the same institute at UCLH, noted that the study shows a substantial overlap between the brain networks responsible for fluid intelligence and reasoning. Both networks appear to rely heavily on the right frontal lobe.



The experts used advanced lesion mapping techniques developed by Professor Parashkev Nachev and colleagues at the UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology. These tools made it possible to explore precisely which portions of the frontal lobe, when damaged, most affect reasoning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-neurological-care"><a></a>Implications for neurological care</h2>



The practical impact is significant. Brain injuries from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stroke-risk-is-elevated-by-air-pollution-and-traffic-noise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">strokes</a> or tumors can affect daily life in subtle ways. These injuries require the early identification of cognitive deficits. 



Many neurological assessments miss right frontal lobe dysfunction because standard tests often focus on memory, language, or motor skills. By contrast, the tasks introduced here specifically examine higher-order reasoning.



The researchers hope that once validated further, these tests can be integrated into clinical settings. For patients, that means more thorough evaluations and, potentially, more focused rehabilitation programs.



If doctors know that a person’s right frontal region has sustained damage, they can anticipate potential problems in logical thinking and develop strategies. This type of cognitive training or specialized therapy will help patients manage symptoms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-right-brain-studies-are-needed">More right-brain studies are needed</h2>



Future studies may refine the new tasks to confirm their effectiveness. Additional testing will also detect right-brain deficits across a wider range of patient populations. 



Researchers also aim to examine whether training that targets reasoning skills can bolster recovery, potentially improving quality of life for people with frontal lobe injuries.



As this line of research advances, the main lesson is clear: while multiple parts of the brain support different aspects of cognition, the right frontal lobe’s role in reasoning appears especially vital. 



For anyone dealing with brain damage - or anyone working to help those who are - this knowledge reshapes how we assess, treat, and ultimately understand the very nature of human thought.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/brain/advance-article/doi/10.1093/brain/awaf062/8104772?searchresult=1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brain</a>.



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Where logic lives: Brain region responsible for reasoning revealed

A team of researchers has recently identified the right frontal...

A honeybee colony seems like a perfect model of unity. Inside the hive, thousands of individuals work in rhythm. Foragers seek nectar. Water collectors hydrate the group. Ventilators fan their wings to cool the brood. Guard bees monitor the entrance. 



In this coordinated dance, defense is critical - but personality plays a role, and not all bees choose to sting.



What triggers a bee to sting? Why do some launch themselves into action while others hold back? A new study from the <a href="https://www.uni-konstanz.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Konstanz</a> has explored these questions.



Researchers discovered that not only do <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-bees-choose-the-same-flowers-again-and-again/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> differ in their readiness to sting, but their personalities remain consistent across time and context. The hive may move as one, but decisions start within the individual.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-choose-to-sting-or-abstain">Bees choose to sting or abstain</h2>



Doctoral student Kavitha Kannan and neurobiologist Morgane Nouvian led the research at the University of Konstanz. To examine stinging behavior, they needed a reliable group. They selected guard <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-wildflowers-may-be-harming-bees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> - those that are naturally closer to the frontlines.



"Basically, you can expect that, simply by the distribution of tasks, a collector will have a different stinging behaviour than a guard. As we wanted to exclude as many influencing factors as possible, this selection was the first logical step. We were then able to gradually test other influencing factors," explained Kannan.



The bees were exposed to a rotating dummy that simulated a predator. The setup allowed repeated trials without harming the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-honey-bee-day-protecting-our-vital-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a>. When a bee stings in natural conditions, its stinger is lost and it dies. Here, the bees could engage or abstain multiple times without being harmed. Each action or lack of action was logged.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alarm-scents-don-t-trigger-all-bees">Alarm scents don’t trigger all bees</h2>



In honeybees, a sting is more than a weapon. It is a call to arms. When a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-diet-offers-hope-for-saving-endangered-honey-bees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bee</a> stings, it releases a complex scent signal known as the sting alarm pheromone (SAP), which is primarily composed of iso-amyl acetate (IAA).



This alerts others and encourages them to join in the group defense. As more bees respond, the concentration of IAA increases. Eventually, the response declines - a strategy that may ensure not too many casualties occur. 



The study found that SAP does influence bees, but not equally. When exposed to synthetic IAA, bees showed varied reactions. The presence of this signal raised the odds of stinging - but some bees still held back.



"Ultimately, it turned out that although these factors had an influence, they did not impact the predictability of individual stinging behavior," said Nouvian. The bees that chose to sting in one trial often did so again. Others remained passive, regardless of the alarm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bee-personality-and-stinging-behavior">Bee personality and stinging behavior </h2>



To probe deeper, the researchers tracked <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bee</a> responses over four repeated trials. The results were striking. Stinging behavior stayed consistent in most individuals. Some stung every time, others never stung, and very few wavered between the two choices.



Even more interestingly, the bees showed greater consistency in behavior when the time between trials was less. This suggests that internal states - perhaps neurological or hormonal - affect decisions. A bee wasn’t flipping a coin each time. It was acting from a semi-stable inner condition.



This state dependence was especially clear when patterns like 1−0−1−0 (stinging, not stinging, stinging, not stinging) were rare. Instead, most bees either kept attacking or kept abstaining. These temporal patterns implied that bees make evaluations based on more than stimulus alone - they carry a mood-like persistence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peers-aren-t-always-influential">Peers aren't always influential</h2>



Bees are famously social. Still, the presence of another bee had a surprising effect. Rather than encouraging aggression, it reduced it. Pairs of bees were less likely to sting than solo bees, even when faced with the same threat.



This finding challenges currently-held assumptions. Larger groups don’t necessarily mean higher per-bee aggression. In fact, the data aligns with older studies suggesting that larger colonies can show less per-capita defense.



When tested in pairs, real bees stung less than would be predicted by combining data from singles. The effect appeared again, even when both bees could detect IAA. "Pairs as entities did [respond to IAA] (z = −4.327, p &lt; 0.001) … individual bees within pairs (z = −3.68, p &lt; 0.001)," the research paper noted.



Yet, the experts also found that SAP, when released naturally by one bee, could recruit another. The first bee’s sting raised the odds that its partner would follow. But over multiple exposures, this recruitment faded. Responsiveness to IAA dropped, trial by trial. Even social signals have an expiry date.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-with-gentle-personalities-sting-less">Bees with gentle personalities sting less</h2>



Another part of the study tested whether bees adjust based on their companions' personalities. After identifying aggressive and gentle bees, the team mixed them in various combinations. Would gentle bees become bolder when placed among aggressive peers?



The answer was no. Bees classified as gentle stayed that way, even in groups full of stingers. Aggressive bees also stayed true to type. The only thing that influenced changes was the SAP level in the arena. More SAP raised the chance of stinging, less reduced it.



These results reveal that honeybees don’t mirror the behavior of those around them. They react to chemical signals, not peer pressure. 



“We propose that [Lecomte’s] results were rather the consequence of the reduced group size,” noted the researchers, questioning earlier claims about social inhibition among bees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-resist-group-influence">Bees resist group influence</h2>



What does this mean for our understanding of bee society? This study breaks the idea of a hive acting as one. Each bee carries an internal threshold. That threshold can be nudged by alarm pheromones or dulled by time. It can be lowered by a sense of threat or raised by the presence of others.



Still, the final decision lies with the bee. Stinging isn’t a hive decision. It’s an individual one, shaped by subtle internal states and stable personality.



"That bees stop responding to the SAP but not to the threat itself might be another example of social information being less valued than personal information," the researchers suggested.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-honeybee-behavior">Future research on honeybee behavior </h2>



This study paves the way for deeper research into honeybee behavior. By proving the stability of individual responses, it opens doors for exploring the biological roots of personality. Future work could look into the neurobiology of aggression or the hormonal triggers behind it.



The hive may appear unified, but it is made of diverse minds. Some are ready to die for the colony. Others prefer to wait, even when the alarm is raised. Both types are part of nature’s plan - and together, they balance risk and survival.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.241295" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



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Bees have unique personalities that determine whether they sting

A honeybee colony seems like a perfect model of unity....

Warm sunshine, soft sand, rolling dunes, and the scent of saltwater can make it easy to forget that every beach getaway relies on a fragile coastal balance. In many regions, that balance is maintained by barrier islands - narrow offshore landforms that serve as nature’s protective shield for inland communities.



Researchers have been investigating how these islands stand firm against <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/star-dunes-lala-lallia-origin-of-earths-largest-desert-sands-mystery-solved/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">storms</a> and shifting sea levels. 



One such effort has been led by Orencio Duran Vinent, an assistant professor in the <a href="https://engineering.tamu.edu/ocean/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Ocean Engineering</a> at Texas A&amp;M University, who recently studied how an island’s dunes factor into its survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dunes-lose-strength-after-storms">Dunes lose strength after storms</h2>



Many coastal communities rely on these islands to slow down erosion and reduce the force of crashing waves. When a major <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-arabia-was-once-green-and-lush-with-rivers-lakes-and-grasslands/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">storm</a> hits, a robust dune system can keep floodwaters and pounding surf from destroying roads and homes.



These dunes work like natural walls, but they need healthy vegetation and enough elevation to hold their ground. A recent <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-024-01611-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">paper</a> co-authored by Professor Duran Vinent highlights how storms and sea-level shifts can strip away that plant cover, leaving behind a sandy expanse that gives no real protection.



Once the dunes vanish, the shoreline can begin to lose land at a rapid pace. Some researchers call the bare expanse a barren state, and see it as marking a low point from which it is difficult to rebound.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tall-dunes-protect-beaches">Tall dunes protect beaches </h2>



Dunes sprout where winds carry sand <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/major-coastal-cities-around-the-world-could-disappear-under-rising-seas-by-2100/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">inland</a>, then vegetation anchors those grains in place. That green cover also helps the dunes grow tall enough to act as a sturdy barricade.



When dunes stand at a comfortable height, they are sometimes called the high state, hinting at their role in keeping storm waters at bay. This state represents more than just a sand pile because it supports plants, habitats for local wildlife, and a measure of safety for property owners.



If strong floods sweep over these dunes, they can break apart and lose the vegetation that once solidified the structure. Recovery is possible if the plant life can take root again, but everything depends on how frequently storms bombard the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-seas-are-already-toppling-coastal-cities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">island</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-dunes-cannot-recover">When dunes cannot recover</h2>



The recent findings mention a key threshold that separates a healthy dune system from a flattened shoreline. Once the island’s elevation dips below that point, its chances of bouncing back get slimmer with every wave.



If flooding becomes a regular event, the island’s dunes may fail to restore themselves in time. That path leads toward the barren state, in which the dunes lack enough height to safeguard the land behind them.



According to a <a href="https://geonarrative.usgs.gov/cch-bi/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">USGS</a> overview, these islands often have two fates: they either hold onto dunes or end up with a barren profile. The difference lies in how quickly vegetation can regrow and how much time passes between storm assaults.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-nature-to-rebuild-island-dunes">Using nature to rebuild island dunes</h2>



“Modern coastal engineering aims to use natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sinking-land-will-intensify-the-effects-of-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dynamics</a> rather than concrete constructions, promoting sustainable approaches that include and protect natural systems,” said Professor Duran Vinent.



He and his collaborators see a chance to protect shorelines by working with wind, waves, and plants instead of fighting them head-on.



Interventions could involve planting hardy vegetation or creating gentle slopes that encourage natural sand buildup. Small changes may cut down the frequency of flooding events that push islands toward a barren state.



This approach has gained attention because it costs less in the long run and blends better with local habitats. Some designs even factor in shifting tides and seasonal wind patterns to allow dunes to expand naturally.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dunes-protect-homes-and-tourism">Dunes protect homes and tourism</h2>



From seafood joints to boardwalk shops, many livelihoods sit on the strip of land just behind these protective islands. One big storm could wash away tourism revenue, so local leaders are tuning in to research that highlights these natural defenses.



Whenever dunes flourish, families, restaurants, and entire ecosystems see fewer disruptions from flooding. That stability can help keep roads open, preserve local wildlife, and maintain the scenic charm that folks love.



“A better understanding of the natural dynamics of barrier islands will allow a more timely and effective intervention from coastal engineers, mitigating the risks to coastal infrastructure,” said Duran Vinent.



He noted that this outlook calls for close collaboration among ecologists, geologists, and city planners who share a stake in a stable shoreline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planning-for-tomorrow">Planning for tomorrow</h2>



Communities that sit near the water can help by limiting construction in sensitive dune zones. Strong dunes form more easily when the beach isn’t overcrowded with walls or heavy equipment that deflect windblown sand.



Local governments might offer guidelines that restrict development near fragile dune ecosystems, thus ensuring that vegetation can grow where it’s needed most. Scientists suggest that these proactive steps stop small storms from doing big harm.



Such measures can be tough decisions for places that depend on beach tourism, but they are essential for long-term safety. If the barrier island dips below that critical elevation, it may never return to a robust dune profile.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-and-protecting-island-dunes">Monitoring and protecting island dunes</h2>



<a href="https://www.careerexplorer.com/careers/coastal-engineer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Coastal engineers</a> are looking beyond sand and concrete by joining forces with ecologists who track plant growth. That teamwork reveals how dunes can flourish or fail under shifting water levels and changing climates.



“A deeper understanding of the connection between the natural environment and coastal engineering is essential. Fresh insights might help everyone predict which spots are most at risk and how to keep vital vegetation alive,” explained Professor Duran Vinent.&nbsp;



Future research could include advanced computer models that pinpoint weak links in these systems. Better data might also guide decisions on restoring islands that have already flattened out.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-restoring-dunes-to-save-islands">Restoring dunes to save islands</h2>



Efforts that restore a failing barrier island offer big payoffs for marine life, beach-goers, and folks who worry about eroding coastlines. These efforts can bring back the taller dunes that block storm surge and protect local homes.



It may take patience, but many see no better way to keep beaches safe and welcoming for future generations. Prioritizing natural systems can save money, preserve landscapes, and keep that salty breeze blowing over sandy shores.



Discussions around climate change make the role of barrier islands even more pressing. Some predict stronger storms and higher sea levels, which calls for solutions that nurture dunes in a natural way.



Research continues to offer new ideas that blend ecological wisdom with engineering know-how. Beach lovers everywhere stand to gain if these protective stretches of sand stay healthy in the face of future challenges.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-024-01611-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



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Healthy dune systems on barrier islands protect coastal cities

Warm sunshine, soft sand, rolling dunes, and the scent of...

Mars is a planet of dramatic contrasts. Roughly one hemisphere of the globe is rugged and ancient, scarred with craters that indicate its age. The other is smoother, having been shaped by lava flows that have covered the underlying rugged surface.



A recent image from the Mars Express spacecraft offers a vivid glimpse of these two faces in a region known as Acheron Fossae. This area lies between two massive volcanoes - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-gravity-map-exposes-ancient-structures-and-volcanic-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Olympus Mons</a> to the south and Alba Mons to the northeast. 



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Space Agency</a> (ESA) studied the new images to understand better how volcanic and tectonic activity once reshaped the Martian surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-structures-reveal-tectonic-past">Ancient structures reveal tectonic past</h2>



The right side of the image reveals a network of long, trench-like structures known as grabens. These geological features formed on Mars when the planet's crust was pulled apart by tectonic stress.



Huge blocks of land cracked, sank, and created deep troughs that are separated by ridges. The grabens formed nearly four billion years ago and stretch about 800 kilometers (500 miles) - roughly the length of Germany.



The crustal tension responsible for the grabens likely came from the shifting of Mars’s surface during periods of intense volcanic activity. 



The presence of nearby volcanoes, such as Olympus Mons and Alba Mons, suggests a strong link between volcanic activity and surface deformation in this area.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glaciers-and-lava-shape-younger-plains">Glaciers and lava shape younger plains</h2>



Just below the center of the image is a smooth region that marks the beginning of younger plains. These plains were likely formed by glacial movement and lava flows. 



Close to the grabens, evidence points to rock glaciers - combinations of ice and rock - that flowed slowly over time. These glaciers appear to have crept away from the cliffs, leaving behind patterns that resemble waves lapping at a shoreline. 



The movement ends in gently sloping piles of debris, known as "debris aprons," that spread away from the cliff bases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-older-features-of-mars">Older features of Mars</h2>



Zoomed-in 3D views highlight the grabens, glacial flow, and areas where lava poured over older features. 



One clear example is a half-visible impact crater, about 28 kilometers (17 miles) wide, that is partially buried beneath a smooth lava field. This suggests the crater existed before the volcanic activity that resurfaced the terrain.



In the upper right of the main image, three cone-shaped peaks rise above the plains. These domes are likely volcanic in origin. 



What’s fascinating is that the grabens slice through some of these features, indicating that the crust continued to stretch and shift even after the volcanic domes formed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-powerful-geological-changes-on-mars">Powerful geological changes on Mars</h2>



Since launching in 2003, ESA’s Mars Express has been <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-captured-in-true-color-like-youve-never-seen-the-red-planet-before/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photographing Mars in color</a> and 3D with high resolution. For over 20 years, it has offered scientists a window into the Red Planet’s layered history. 



Today, the spacecraft continues to reveal how time, lava, and ice worked together to shape the Martian landscape.



The Acheron Fossae image is just one example of how Mars, though quiet today, was once a planet of powerful geological change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-window-into-planetary-evolution">A window into planetary evolution</h2>



Scientists continue to investigate areas such as Acheron Fossae in order to learn more about the forces that sculpted not just Mars, but rocky planets in general. 



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/odyssey-orbiter-captures-unprecedented-images-of-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Red Planet</a> offers a special geological record. Mars does not have plate tectonics and has very little wind or water erosion, unlike Earth, so its surface features have been preserved for billions of years. 



These historic landscapes are snapshots of planetary processes locked in time. By examining the cracks, flows, and plains of Mars, scientists can reconstruct how the planet cooled, stretched, and changed. 



The fact that there are ancient grabens, glacial landforms, and volcanic plains indicates a complicated and energetic past, even though today the planet is geologically calm. 



These findings also assist scientists in constructing improved models of the appearance of other planets in the distant past.



With additional missions in the pipeline, including future sample-return missions and eventual crewed missions, Mars will continue to provide new opportunities to study planetary history, climate evolution, and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-curiosity-rover-finds-sulfur-crystals-martian-rock-hints-at-possible-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">possibility of ancient life</a>.



Information for this article was obtained from an European Space Agency <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Mars_Express/Martian_rock_on_the_move">press release</a>.



Image Credit: ESA



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Split personality of Mars revealed in its striking features

Mars is a planet of dramatic contrasts. Roughly one hemisphere...

Most people imagine crocodiles as relics from the dinosaur era - unchanged, prehistoric predators lurking in murky waters. But their survival story is much more complex.



New research from the <a href="https://www.uco.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Central Oklahoma</a> and the University of Utah shows that these animals aren’t just fossils with teeth. They’ve made it through two mass extinctions, thanks in part to one big advantage: adaptability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-crocodiles-survived">Why crocodiles survived</h2>



Crocodylians - today’s crocodiles, alligators, and gharials - are the last surviving members of a larger group called crocodylomorphs, which goes back 230 million years.



These ancient creatures included many now-extinct species that once lived in a range of environments.



The research is the first to closely examine the diets of these extinct animals to understand how some survived while others did not.



“Lots of groups closely related to crocodylians were more diverse, more abundant, and exhibited different ecologies, yet they all disappeared except these few generalist crocodylians alive today,” said Keegan Melstrom, lead author and assistant professor at UCO. 



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-extinction-risk-is-heavily-influenced-by-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Extinction</a> and survivorship are two sides of the same coin. Through all mass extinctions, some groups manage to persist and diversify. What can we learn by studying the deeper evolutionary patterns imparted by these events?”



Today, many scientists believe Earth is entering its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-sixth-mass-extinction-is-currently-in-progress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sixth mass extinction</a>, fueled by habitat loss, invasive species, and climate change. Studying past survivors, like crocodylians, may offer clues on how to protect today’s wildlife.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crocodylians-vs-mammals">Crocodylians vs. mammals</h2>



For years, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammals-ground-dwellers-survived-the-asteroid-impact-that-killed-the-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammals</a> have been the go-to group for studying extinction and survival. Their flexible diets and ability to live in many habitats seemed to explain their resilience. But crocodylomorphs have long been overlooked in this conversation. This crocodylian study changes that.



“There’s a danger of trying to draw conclusions from millions of years ago and directly apply it to conservation. We have to be cautious,” said co-author Randy Irmis. 



“If people study mammals and reptiles and find the same patterns with respect to extinction survival, then we might predict that species with a generalist diet may do better. That information helps us make predictions, but it’s unlikely we’ll ever be able to pick out which individual species will survive.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shrinking-diversity-of-crocodile-ancestors">Shrinking diversity of crocodile ancestors</h2>



Modern crocodylians are known for living in water and eating just about anything that crosses their path - fish, small mammals, even fellow crocodiles. But this lifestyle is only a narrow snapshot of their past.



In the Late Triassic Period, crocodylomorph ancestors lived mostly on land. They were small-to-medium-sized predators feeding on small animals. Other reptile groups were more dominant at the time, showing off a wide range of sizes and shapes. 



But when the end-Triassic extinction struck, these dominant groups vanished. Only <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-crocodiles-weighed-1000-pounds-and-walked-on-two-legs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crocodylomorphs</a>, especially those with flexible diets, pulled through.



“After that, it goes bananas,” said Melstrom. “Aquatic hypercarnivores, terrestrial generalists, terrestrial hypercarnivores, terrestrial herbivores - crocodylomorphs evolved a massive number of ecological roles throughout the time of the dinosaurs.”



For a while, crocodylomorphs thrived in every corner of their ecosystems. But during the Late Cretaceous Period, their diversity began to shrink. By the time a meteor ended the age of dinosaurs 66 million years ago, only a few crocodylian lineages survived - most of them semi-aquatic generalists.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-evolution-of-crocodylians">The evolution of crocodylians</h2>



To understand what these animals ate, the researchers studied the shape of fossilized teeth and skulls. 



Sharp, pointed teeth suggested a meat-heavy diet, while flatter, grinding teeth pointed to a plant-based menu. Skull structure also offered clues about how the animals hunted and fed.



The crocodylian study was massive in scope. The researchers traveled to museum collections in seven countries across four continents. 



The experts examined the skulls of 99 extinct crocodylomorph species and 20 living crocodylian species. To compare, they also analyzed dietary traits in 89 mammals and 47 lizards. This fossil record, stretching over 230 million years, revealed how crocodylians evolved into a variety of forms.



Some were fast-moving land predators. Others grazed like herbivores. Many returned to the water. Today, that wide-ranging history is mostly hidden behind the toothy grin of a croc.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-will-crocodiles-survive-future-changes">Will crocodiles survive future changes?</h2>



While modern crocodylians continue to thrive in rivers and swamps, many face serious threats. The gharial of the Himalayan foothills and the Cuban crocodile in the Zapata Swamp are critically endangered. Their survival may still hinge on one of their oldest traits - a flexible diet.



“When we see living crocodiles and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alligators-birds-hearing-dinosaur/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alligators</a>, rather than thinking of ferocious beasts or expensive handbags, I hope people appreciate their amazing 200+ million years of evolution, and how they’ve survived so many tumultuous events in Earth history,” said Irmis. 



“Crocodylians are equipped to survive many future changes - if we’re willing to help preserve their habitats.”



The full crocodylian study was published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/pala.70005" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Palaeontology</a>.



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How crocodiles survived Earth's biggest mass extinctions

Most people imagine crocodiles as relics from the dinosaur era...

Comets streak in from the outer solar system, shed streams of dust, and sometimes trigger brief meteor storms on Earth. For years, astronomers blamed the random tug of the planets for the way these meteoroid streams gradually drift in and out of Earth’s path.



However, a new study led by <a href="https://www.seti.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SETI Institute</a> scientists Stuart Pilorz and Peter Jenniskens argues that the real architect is more subtle. The research points to the Sun’s own motion around the solar‑system barycenter, the shared center of mass for all planets and the Sun.



“Contrary to popular conception, everything in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spiral-structure-discovered-at-the-edge-of-our-solar-system-oort-cloud/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar system</a> does not orbit the Sun,” explained Pilorz. “Rather, the Sun and planets all orbit their common center of mass, known to scientists as the solar system barycenter.”



That off‑center dance gives long‑period comets - and the dust grains they release - a tiny gravitational nudge each time they dive toward the inner solar system. Over centuries, those nudges unravel a needle‑thin meteoroid ribbon into a broad, wandering sheet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-position-and-velocity-of-the-sun">Position and velocity of the Sun</h2>



Most orbital models anchor the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/see-the-sun-in-exquisite-detail-in-rare-solar-orbiter-video/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sun</a> at the exact center, a convenient simplification because it holds more than 99 percent of the solar system’s mass. But the new work shows that the simplification hides the critical mechanism that disperses long‑period comet streams.



“Long‑period comets spend most of their lives so far away from the solar system that they feel the tug from the barycenter,” Pilorz said. “But every few hundred years they swoop inside Jupiter’s orbit and come under the Sun’s influence.”



During that brief inner‑system swing, solar heating triggers jets of gas that eject dust grains. The grains initially follow the comet’s path, forming a ribbon so narrow that Earth almost never encounters it. 



Yet when each grain nears the Sun again, it experiences a gravitational boost or braking because the Sun has shifted slightly in both position and velocity. This shift is relative to the barycenter since the previous visit.



“That kick is exactly in the same way that we use planetary encounters to speed or slow down spacecraft,” Pilorz stated. If you imagine bouncing a tennis ball off the front or back of a moving train, the analogy fits: the ball’s speed changes only because the train itself is moving.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meteor-showers-and-the-sun-s-wobble">Meteor showers and the Sun's wobble </h2>



Jenniskens first suspected the Sun’s wobble was important in 1995, when he noticed that certain ephemeral meteor showers - sometimes lasting less than an hour - seemed to recur on a 60‑year rhythm. 



That period matched the combined gravitational influence of Jupiter’s 12‑year orbit and Saturn’s 30‑year orbit, which together dictate the Sun’s main oscillation around the barycenter.



“We traveled to Spain in an attempt to record one of these showers and saw what was described in the past as ‘stars fall at midnight.' The whole shower lasted only 40 minutes, but there was a bright meteor every minute at the peak," noted Jenniskens.



The observation validated his prediction method: track where Jupiter and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-energy-imbalance-discovered-on-saturn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn</a> will push the Sun, then forecast when a dust stream - nudged by that same motion - will intersect Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-subtle-jumps-reshape-meteoroid-path">Subtle jumps reshape meteoroid path</h2>



Inside <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-jupiters-magnetosphere-will-help-us-predict-space-weather/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jupiter</a>’s orbit, a meteoroid abandons the barycenter frame and orbits the Sun directly. When it retreats beyond Jupiter, it switches back to barycentric motion.



“We found that the two jumps in the plane of motion, when the Sun takes control as the comet approaches and then again when it hands control back to the barycenter as the comet heads away, kicked the inclination and node of the orbit by a small amount,” said Pilorz.



Grains at different points in the stream meet the Sun at different barycentric phases, so each accrues a slightly different orbital tweak. 



Over centuries the narrow ribbon diffuses, weaving above and below Earth’s path - sometimes delivering a brief meteor outburst, other times leaving the night sky empty.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reframing-the-random-comet-streams">Reframing the random comet streams</h2>



“We’re used to telling ourselves that a comet’s motion changes randomly due to a series of complex perturbations from the planets,” said Pilorz. “That isn’t wrong, but if we recall that the Sun also orbits the barycenter, the explanation becomes much simpler.”



Planetary tugs still matter: between Jupiter and Saturn, their combined <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-gravity-pulls-earth-closer-to-the-sun-warming-our-climate-scientists-say/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gravity</a> exerts a steady torque that slowly precesses a meteoroid stream’s orbit. 



Yet the study shows that the dominant driver of the short‑term, seemingly erratic spreading is the Sun’s own wander.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meteor-forecasts-and-lost-comets">Meteor forecasts and lost comets</h2>



Understanding how quickly a meteoroid stream disperses helps astronomers trace the dusty breadcrumb trail. Trails are traced back to a parent comet, even if the comet itself has grown faint or disappeared. 



The new framework gives modelers a cleaner way to predict when Earth will next plow through a dense filament - information useful for both sky watchers and satellite operators wary of high‑speed dust impacts.



By recognizing that our star is a fellow traveler around the solar system’s barycenter, astronomers can now see the graceful mechanism behind what once looked like cosmic caprice. 



The Sun’s gentle sway sets the rhythm for meteor showers that occasionally turn the night sky into a fleeting storm of falling stars.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S001910352500106X?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Icarus</a>.



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How the wobbling Sun can help us predict meteor showers

Comets streak in from the outer solar system, shed streams...

Recent research points to protein-rich food choices as powerful drivers of health. Many people are now asking whether a meat-heavy approach to protein is truly the best strategy when it comes to living longer.



The recent findings show that countries with higher levels of animal-based protein see lower mortality rates among children under five, yet plant-based protein is linked with longer lifespans for adults.



The study was conducted out by PhD candidate Caitlin Andrews and her team, led by Dr. Alistair Senior at the <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sydney</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-plants-to-meat-protein">From plants to meat protein</h2>



Populations worldwide seem to be trading vegetables for meat. Researchers have observed that animal-based protein consumption has climbed across various regions over the past several decades. More societies are gravitating toward protein-dense foods derived from cattle, poultry, and pigs.



These shifts are not uniform, though. In several corners of the globe, chickpeas, beans, and other legumes are still mainstays, along with certain dairy and egg products. In resource-constrained nations, individuals often rely on whatever is the most affordable form of protein.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meat-protein-lowers-child-death-rates">Meat protein lowers child death rates</h2>



“For the <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/child-mortality-under-5-years" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">under-fives</a>, a food system that supplies large amounts of animal-based proteins and fats lowered rates of infant mortality,” said Andrews.



In places where young children miss out on ample nutrition, extra amounts of animal-based protein can be tied to better early survival rates.&nbsp;



One explanation involves the nutrients found in eggs, dairy, and meat. These foods contain essential amino acids, iron, zinc, and vitamins that help children grow. They also provide energy-dense fat, which supports early development.



Families who live in impoverished settings, however, often struggle to access such staples.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-protein-helps-adults-live-longer">Plant protein helps adults live longer</h2>



“For adults, plant-based proteins increased overall life expectancy,” said Andrews.



Higher plant-based protein intake appears to bring key advantages. Diets built around legumes, peas, lentils, and nuts are linked with fewer chronic conditions, including <a href="https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.924977" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cardiovascular disease</a>.



Adults who rely on beans, lentils, or tofu may also get more dietary fiber. That <a href="https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/carbohydrates/fiber/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fiber</a> supports normal digestion and can lower the risk of type 2 diabetes. Meanwhile, too much red or processed meat is often linked with harmful effects that might shorten lifespan.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-good-fats-early-less-later">Good fats early, less later</h2>



Another interesting aspect involves fat. Research suggests that in infancy and early childhood, certain animal fats might help reduce malnutrition. 



Later in life, though, cutting back on high-fat products can aid weight management, possibly easing issues like <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK572145/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">type 2 diabetes</a> and <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/4314-hypertension-high-blood-pressure" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hypertension</a>.



Foods loaded with saturated fat may disrupt the balance if combined with processed sugars and a sedentary lifestyle. Such combinations might trigger an inflammatory state and higher vulnerability to illnesses. 



This pattern emphasizes how dietary composition can be more important than any single <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-are-suffering-from-declining-plant-quality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nutrient</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-higher-cost-for-the-planet">A higher cost for the planet</h2>



“Protein is a crucial part of the human diet, but as eating habits change and developed countries look to decarbonize, where we get our protein from has come under greater scrutiny,” noted the research team.



Meat production draws attention for environmental reasons. Livestock farming typically requires more land and water compared to growing legumes or grains.



Those aiming to reduce <a href="https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/sources-greenhouse-gas-emissions" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gas emissions</a> often look to pea or chickpea farming as lower-impact methods. This is sparking interest in alternative proteins, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-based-foods-promote-weight-loss-regardless-of-processing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant-based</a> meat.



But these shifts need to be carefully approached, given how vital animal-sourced protein appears to be for child development.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-protein-needs">Shifting protein needs</h2>



What each person puts on the plate can differ by budget and culture. For families with small children, variety may be the safest bet. Adults seeking to improve their longevity might gain from swapping out meat for beans, peas, or other plant-based sources.



Some individuals find plant protein more economical, while others view meat as a valued tradition. Experts advise that local resources and medical concerns shape the ideal balance. 



The best approach might be a mixed plan, adjusting as people move from childhood into later stages of life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-protein-for-global-well-being">Rethinking protein for global well-being </h2>



These results highlight a pattern: keep an eye on total protein intake first, then prioritize more plant-based sources past childhood. 



Future innovations may focus on improving vegetarian options for children at risk of malnutrition. Researchers also stress the need for more accessible programs, especially in areas with low food security.



Shifting the global menu can pose challenges. It involves policy support, agricultural reforms, and nutrition education. The end goal is to see infants thrive and older people enjoy extra years, while also safeguarding natural resources.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-58475-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Meat protein boosts survival, but plants boost longevity

Recent research points to protein-rich food choices as powerful drivers...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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