Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Archaea are tiny, single-celled organisms often confused with bacteria. They live everywhere - from inside salty lakes to down our own guts - and yet, they rarely get the attention they deserve.



Although they are unicellular and might look like bacteria on the outside, archaea are genetically closer to plants and animals.



And now, new research shows they’re capable of something that was long thought to be exclusive to more complex life forms.



Scientists have uncovered a surprising trait in archaea: under certain physical conditions, these microscopic organisms can behave like multicellular beings.



This finding may change the way we think about life’s earliest building blocks and the evolution of biological complexity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-archaea-so-unique">What makes archaea so unique?</h2>



Archaea don’t have the rigid cell walls that many bacteria do. Instead, they’re wrapped in a flexible protein surface. That detail sparked curiosity. 



“The absence of a covalent-bound <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-plants-build-their-cell-walls-is-seen-by-scientists-for-the-first-time-ever/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cell wall</a> suggests a more dynamic, but less rigid structure, leading to the hypothesis that archaea might be 'squishy' and sensitive to mechanical stimuli,” explained Alex Bisson from <a href="https://www.brandeis.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brandeis University</a>.



This initial hunch led the research team to examine what happens when these "squishy" cells are put under pressure. 



The result? A completely unexpected display of complex behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-simplicity-to-multicellular-structure">From simplicity to multicellular structure</h2>



The team studied <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/finding-alien-life-may-be-as-simple-as-watching-microbes-move/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Haloferax volcanii</a>, an archaeon known for surviving in extreme environments like salt flats. 



When the cells of this species were placed under mechanical pressure, something extraordinary occurred. They didn’t divide the way that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aggressive-predatory-behavior-discovered-in-tiny-single-celled-organisms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">single-celled</a> organisms normally do.



Instead, they got bigger and started forming organized structures that resembled tissues. These clusters even contained multiple copies of genetic material.



“It was Theopi Rados, the first author leading the project, who first observed and described this remarkable behavior,” said Bisson. 



“As Olivia Leland, co-first author, aptly put it - it's as if the cells were squished down and then encouraged to grow wider and taller, more like a rising sourdough loaf than traditional cell division.”



This physical transformation suggests that archaea have a hidden potential for structural organization, despite their very ancient origins.



“That such behavior can be triggered by a simple physical constraint and involves cytoskeletal remodeling, and coordinated cellularization suggests that the capacity for structural organization runs deeper in biology than previously thought,” remarked Rados.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-universal-thread-of-complexity">A universal thread of complexity?</h2>



This study doesn't just shed light on the archaea - it challenges assumptions about all forms of life.



“Our work shows that the emergence of complexity in life isn’t limited to a few special branches on the tree of life - it’s a deeper property, present even in lineages we’ve long overlooked,” noted Vikram Alva of the <a href="https://www.bio.mpg.de/2923/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Biology</a> in Tübingen.



“This work also underscores the power of combining comparative genomics with observable traits to uncover genes behind novel behaviors - an approach that has long driven discoveries in plants and animals,” Pedro Escudeiro, a postdoctoral researcher in the Alva group, added.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/archaea_Haloferax-volcanii_going-multicellular_credit-Alex-Bisson_1big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/archaea_Haloferax-volcanii_going-multicellular_credit-Alex-Bisson_1s.webp" alt="Sensing complex multicellularity: The observed transition of Haloferax volcanii, revealing archaea’s novel capacity to go from unicellular to complex multicellular structures when subjected to mechanical forces. Credit: Alex Bisson, Brandeis University" class="wp-image-1965449"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Sensing complex multicellularity: The observed transition of Haloferax volcanii, revealing archaea’s novel capacity to go from unicellular to complex multicellular structures when subjected to mechanical forces. Credit: Alex Bisson, Brandeis University</figcaption></figure>



The research emphasizes that mechanical pressure alone can coax a basic single-celled organism into displaying a complex, multicellular-like response. 



“The fact that archaea can orchestrate complex from tissue-like structures suggests that nature can emerge complex traits from seemingly unsophisticated raw materials,” remarked Bisson.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-direction-in-cell-biology">A new direction in cell biology</h2>



The findings may not only be applicable to archaea.



“We found that mechanical compression induces <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannibalism-cellular-level-common-across-various-life-forms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multicellularity</a>, a surprising finding, to say the least!” said Tanmay Bharat from the <a href="https://www2.mrc-lmb.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MRC Laboratory</a> of Molecular Biology in Cambridge.



This suggests other single-celled organisms might also have the hidden ability to form multicellular structures - if exposed to the right conditions.



It’s long been understood that archaea don’t do well in confined spaces, likely due to their flexible outer layers. But now, that same flexibility appears to be key to their ability to adapt and organize. 



This raises an important question for future research: Could multicellularity be a more common and accessible state than previously believed?



This study encourages scientists to revisit the origins of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-microbes-may-have-given-rise-to-complex-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complex life</a> - not just by examining genetics, but by paying attention to the physical forces that shape biology from the outside in.



-----



Researchers from Brandeis University, the MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology in Cambridge, and the Max Planck Institute for Biology in Tübingen participated in this study.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adu0047" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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When the pressure builds, archaea go multicellular

Archaea are tiny, single-celled organisms often confused with bacteria. They...

Injecting,Injection,Vaccine,Vaccination,Medicine,Against,Covid-19,Into,A,Syringe.

Five years ago, as the world reeled from the emerging COVID-19 pandemic, the first volunteers lined up to test what would become a groundbreaking vaccine. Within a year, tens of millions of Americans had received at least one dose - free of charge. Now, new research shows that decision paid off in many ways.



A new study led by researchers at the <a href="https://umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan</a> (U-M), has confirmed that the U.S. national COVID-19 vaccination strategy not only saved lives but also saved money - making it a rare example of a public health effort that fully paid for itself, and then some.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-worthwhile-national-investment">A worthwhile national investment</h2>



“All in all, we can safely say that this was a prudent investment for the American people, using a really conservative analysis,” said Lisa Prosser, lead author of the study and a professor at the U-M Medical School and School of Public Health.



“From a broader societal economic perspective, and from the perspective of medical care costs, the federal government’s decision to accelerate vaccine testing, buy large quantities of vaccine, and support the cost of vaccination in many settings was wise.”



The study assessed not only how much was spent on testing, distributing, and administering the vaccine, but also what the country saved in return - from reduced hospitalizations and emergency care, to fewer cases of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/long-covid-persistent-spike-proteins-accumulate-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">long COVID</a>, and even fewer work days lost.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breaking-down-the-savings">Breaking down the savings</h2>



The research team, including senior author David Hutton from U-M, created a comprehensive economic model to evaluate the costs and benefits of the vaccine rollout during its first year.



The analysis included factors such as: the price of the vaccine and associated delivery costs, medical care for various degrees of illness, costs related to testing, rare vaccine side effects, the impact of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/many-people-who-suffer-from-long-covid-never-even-tested-positive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">long COVID</a>, and productivity losses from illness and death.



Even when productivity losses weren’t factored in, the strategy was cost-saving for most adults over 40. And for younger adults aged 18 to 39 - who tend to have milder COVID cases - the vaccine program still proved cost-effective by national standards.



Thus, since the vaccines reduced how many people developed serious illnesses or died, the U.S. saved more money than it spent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-conservative-estimate">A conservative estimate</h2>



The researchers emphasize that their findings likely underestimate the true financial benefits. The model doesn’t include a number of indirect costs, such as unpaid family caregiving, patients’ out-of-pocket expenses, or transportation to and from medical facilities.



The model also didn’t include the government’s decades-long investment in basic mRNA research that paved the way for the Pfizer and Moderna vaccines, nor the broader economic damage a deadlier pandemic might have caused.



According to Prosser,&nbsp;since the model uses conservative estimates, the amount of the savings may in fact be even larger than the study reports.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-covid-vaccines-still-matter-in-2025">COVID vaccines still matter in 2025</h2>



While the early years of the pandemic saw record numbers of hospitalizations and deaths, the situation in 2025 is markedly improved. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/universal-vaccine-may-be-effective-against-any-variant-of-any-virus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vaccination</a> and improved treatments have brought down the death toll - but the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/viruses-can-hide-in-lung-cells-and-cause-chronic-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">virus</a> hasn’t disappeared.



Still, 800 to 1,000 people have died of COVID-19 every week of 2025 for which full data is available. Additionally, approximately 1% of all emergency department visits in recent months have been for COVID-19.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-guidance-for-covid-vaccines">Guidance for COVID vaccines </h2>



The <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CDC</a> currently recommends that everyone over the age of six months receive at least one dose of one of the three updated COVID-19 vaccines, which have been revised annually since 2023. As of now, about 30 million people have followed that recommendation.



Among those at highest risk - people aged 65 and older - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-vaccines-linked-to-neurological-blood-and-heart-related-issues/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vaccination</a> rates hover around 30%, a figure that public health officials hope to increase. 



For those in that group, or for people who are immunocompromised, the CDC recommends a second dose six months after the first. That means individuals who received their updated vaccine in September 2023 are due for another.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



The U-M team has continued its work by modeling the cost-effectiveness of additional waves of vaccination after 2021 in collaboration with the CDC. They hope to develop models for future vaccine updates, depending on funding and data availability.



The research confirms that the benefits of vaccination extend beyond health and safety - they’re also a smart economic choice. As Prosser put it, this was a prudent investment for U.S. citizens.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264410X25000222?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vaccine</a>.



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COVID vaccine strategy paid off - and it’s still saving lives

Five years ago, as the world reeled from the emerging...

Wave,Function,Series.,Backdrop,Of,Colored,Sine,Vibrations,,Light,And

A little over 50 years ago, theorists predicted that certain groups of quantum particles could switch into a coordinated, collective state without any outside push. However, until very recently, this phase was thought to be impossible in the real world.



Researchers just reported the first direct observation of this behavior, known as superradiant phase transition (SRPT), showing that reality can sometimes match even the most puzzling theoretical ideas. 



Their work points to interesting possibilities in quantum computers and sensing devices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-srpt-the-basics">Understanding SRPT - the basics</h2>



The superradiant phase transition (SRPT) is a remarkable phenomenon that occurs when a collection of atoms - each behaving like a tiny dipole - interacts very strongly with a shared <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invisible-electric-field-discovered-surrounding-earth-nasa-says-its-as-crucial-as-gravity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electromagnetic field</a>, typically within a cavity or resonator. 



Under normal conditions, atoms emit light independently, but in this case, they begin to radiate collectively, producing an intense burst of light. 



What sets SRPT apart is that this collective behavior marks a distinct phase of the system, much like the transition from liquid to solid. 



When the coupling strength between the atoms and the electromagnetic field exceeds a critical threshold, the system shifts into a superradiant phase in which the field acquires a nonzero value, even without any external driving force.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-team-discovered">What the team discovered</h2>



The scientists found evidence of this unexpected state in a crystal containing erbium, iron, and oxygen. 



The crystal was chilled to minus 457 degrees Fahrenheit and placed under a powerful 7-tesla magnetic field, which is over 100,000 times stronger than <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/earths-magnetic-field-origin-structure-and-impact-on-humanity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s magnetic field</a>.



“Originally, the SRPT was proposed as arising from interactions between quantum vacuum fluctuations - quantum light fields naturally existing even in completely empty space - and matter fluctuations," explained lead author Dasom Kim from <a href="https://www.rice.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rice University</a>.



“However, in our work, we realized this transition by coupling two distinct magnetic subsystems - the spin fluctuations of iron ions and of erbium ions within the crystal.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-no-go-theorem">No-go theorem</h2>



Spin describes the magnetic orientation of particles like electrons. When spin patterns ripple across a solid, those <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/goodbye-electrons-future-computers-may-be-powered-by-magnons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ripples are magnons</a>. 



Until now, there were questions about whether this phase could happen at all due to a theoretical obstacle sometimes called a no-go theorem.



One group of magnons in the material did the job once believed to belong to quantum vacuum fluctuations, while another group of spins served as matter fluctuations. 



This approach allowed the team to dodge that long-standing obstacle and see unmistakable signs of a new phase.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observing-srpt-in-the-lab">Observing SRPT in the lab</h2>



“We established an ultrastrong coupling between these two spin systems and successfully observed an SRPT, overcoming previous experimental constraints,” Kim said. 



In practical terms, the energy signal of one spin mode dropped away, and another showed a sudden shift. 



Those signs matched theoretical predictions for the onset of the new phase, reinforcing that a half-century-old prediction really plays out in nature.



“Near the quantum critical point of this transition, the system naturally stabilizes quantum-squeezed states - where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microsoft-announces-giant-leap-in-quantum-computing-majorana-1/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum noise</a> is drastically reduced - greatly enhancing measurement precision,” Kim explained. 



“Overall, this insight could revolutionize quantum sensors and computing technologies, significantly advancing their fidelity, sensitivity, and performance.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



By catching this event in a solid crystal, the team showed that methods from quantum optics can be adapted for use in other materials. 



“Although the basic mathematical model was already laid out before by Motoaki, we needed to account for some of the specific magnetic properties of the material to obtain the precise results," noted Rice graduate student and co-author Sohail Dasgupta, who collaborated with <a href="https://www.ynu.ac.jp/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yokohama National University</a> professor Motoaki Bamba on the model.



"When your theory matches the experimental data - which happens rather rarely - it is the best feeling for a scientist."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-phases-of-matter">Controlling phases of matter</h2>



Research on magnons has already helped make sense of several quantum effects, and these latest findings add a fresh piece of evidence for the versatility of such approaches.



“This opens a new way to create and control phases of matter using ideas from cavity quantum electrodynamics,” said Rice associate professor of physics and astronomy, <a href="https://profiles.rice.edu/faculty/kaden-hazzard" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kaden Hazzard</a>. 



He and Dasgupta worked closely to interpret the measurements and confirm that the data aligned with the model.



The crystal that was used belongs to a bigger family of magnetic materials, so there might be more examples of interesting behaviors hidden in similar crystals. 



The latest work hints that related combinations of spins could yield novel quantum features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next-with-srpt">What happens next with SRPT?</h2>



“Demonstrating a form of SRPT driven entirely by coupling two internal matter fluctuations marks a significant breakthrough in quantum physics, establishing a new framework for understanding and exploiting intrinsic quantum interactions within materials,” concluded Junichiro Kono, the Karl F. Hasselmann Professor in Engineering and the corresponding author on the study.



This discovery shows that ideas once confined to theory can become a reality under the right lab conditions. 



It offers a peek at fresh opportunities for sensing, computing, and beyond, all thanks to a single crystal and a well-chosen magnetic field.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt1691" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Exotic quantum phase, once thought impossible, was just observed in the lab

A little over 50 years ago, theorists predicted that certain...

Fiddler crab mating on the bustling mudflats of southern Europe is about sending seismic love signals beneath the surface - quite literally.



In their quest to attract a mate, male crabs produce ground vibrations as part of an elaborate courtship ritual. For the first time, scientists have recorded and analyzed these signals to understand how they communicate in a chaotic and noisy habitat.



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a> have captured the full courtship display of the European fiddler crab (Afruca tangeri), combining video footage and geophone recordings to listen in on the crabs’ seismic conversations. 



These crabs inhabit the muddy shores of the Iberian Peninsula, where waves, wind, and competing crabs make for a challenging environment to get a message across. 



However, the study reveals that these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-invasive-crustacean-species-discovered-in-the-mediterranean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crustaceans</a> have developed a clever and consistent way to make themselves heard - and felt.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-fiddler-crabs-use-vibrations">How fiddler crabs use vibrations</h2>



Male fiddler crabs are known for their oversized claws, which they use to wave at potential mates and generate ground vibrations. These signals are produced by striking the ground with the claw or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crab-shells-could-help-pave-the-way-for-sustainable-electronics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shell</a>, and later by drumming from inside their burrows.



The researchers discovered that fiddler crab mating follows a four-step courtship routine, starting with subtle claw waves, followed by body drops, synchronized movements, and ending with underground drumming if a female shows interest.



As each stage progresses, the energy of the vibrations increases. The recordings, captured with GoPro cameras and precise geophones, allowed the team to measure over 8,000 seismic signals during the courtship routines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seismic-vibrations-reveal-crab-size">Seismic vibrations reveal crab size</h2>



The key question was whether these vibrations serve as honest signals of the male’s size and strength. The results suggest they do. 



The data showed that larger male crabs with bigger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strawberry-claws-the-hermit-crab-that-sings-underwater/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">claws</a> produced more powerful seismic signals, especially during drumming. This means the crabs can’t fake their physical traits – what you vibrate is what you are.



“It appears as though the males cannot, or do not, lie about their physical size,” said Tom Mulder from the Department of Biology at the University of Oxford. 



“Females can rely on the loudness of seismic signals to honestly assess a potential mate’s quality, all without needing to see him.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-machine-learning-meets-marine-dating">Machine learning meets marine dating</h2>



When it comes to fiddler crab mating, the frequency of vibrations stays the same - but other features like rhythm, duration, and loudness change depending on the&nbsp;crab’s demeanor.



This allowed the researchers to classify each action (such as a body drop or an underground drum) by analyzing the vibration patterns.



To test this further, the team used <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientific-discoveries-machine-learning/">machine learning</a> to teach a computer how to distinguish between different crab behaviors based solely on these recordings.



The program achieved a 70% accuracy rate, showing strong potential for future applications. The technique could lead to the development of non-invasive monitoring systems for a wide range of animals.



From tracking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-is-the-future-of-the-endangered-species-act/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">endangered species</a> across the savannah to identifying crop pests or spotting injured livestock, material-bound vibrations could become a new frontier in remote wildlife observation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vibrations-work-for-the-fiddler-crab">Vibrations work for the fiddler crab</h2>



When it comes to fiddler crabs, relying on seismic signals instead of sound makes perfect sense. Their noisy, open-air environment is difficult to navigate acoustically, but the ground beneath them offers a stable way to communicate.



By altering the strength and tempo of their vibrations, they can get their messages across without saying a word.



“Larger claws have the advantage of overcoming seismic noise so that they can signal to females that are further away, and females will show more interest in them,” explained Dr. Beth Mortimer, also from the Department of Biology.



“However, the advantages are only observed for the percussive signals such as drumming, and fortunately for smaller clawed crabs, these are only part of the courtship routine.”



So, while size matters when it comes to seismic communication, smaller males can still show off through other parts of the ritual. In the unpredictable world of fiddler crab mating, it’s not just about waving your claw - it’s about how hard you drum.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/228/7/jeb249323/367607/Constraints-on-percussive-seismic-signals-in-a" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Experimental Biology</a>.



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Fiddler crabs use seismic vibrations to attract mates

Fiddler crab mating on the bustling mudflats of southern Europe...

Launched just seven months ago, the Arctic Weather Satellite is already reshaping the future of weather forecasting.



Despite its compact size and modest development time, the satellite is producing detailed temperature and humidity data that could soon boost short-term forecasts - especially in remote regions like the Arctic.



Developed by scientists from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Space Agency</a> (ESA), this prototype satellite was built in only three years and at a fraction of the cost of traditional Earth observation missions. ESA designed it to test a new approach: build fast, build affordably, and still deliver high-quality data. 



Early results show this model is working. The satellite’s microwave radiometer has proven capable of producing data that are comparable with those gathered by much larger, more established missions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-size-powerful-data">Small size, powerful data</h2>



At the heart of the Arctic Weather Satellite is a 19-channel cross-track scanning microwave radiometer. This tool measures atmospheric <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-temperature-increase-2023-blew-past-all-climate-models/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperature</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humidity-increases-urban-heat-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humidity</a> through cloud cover, providing critical information in all weather conditions. 



Though named after the Arctic, the satellite gathers global data. Its insights into water vapor levels are particularly valuable in polar regions, where rapid changes in humidity can dramatically alter forecasts.



What makes this even more impressive is that the satellite weighs just 125 kilograms - roughly the size of a washing machine. It also uses a new 325 GHz sounding channel, a frequency that has never before been applied to operational <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellite-data-could-revolutionize-weather-forecasts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weather monitoring</a>. 



This addition allows for better cloud-ice measurements, potentially improving forecast accuracy even further.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-step-toward-a-satellite-constellation">Step toward a satellite constellation</h2>



The Arctic Weather Satellite is just the beginning. It serves as a prototype for the proposed EPS-Sterna constellation, a future group of six similar satellites. 



ESA would build the satellites, and Eumetsat would manage their operations and data distribution - mirroring the approach used for Europe’s Meteosat and MetOp weather missions.



Before making that leap, though, scientists need to confirm how much value this small satellite’s data can add to existing forecasts. That evaluation is already underway.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broad-testing-strong-feedback">Broad testing, strong feedback</h2>



Meteorological agencies across Europe are studying the satellite’s data, including the Danish Meteorological Office, the German Weather Service, and the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts. 



Eumetsat is also running its own independent performance assessments. So far, the feedback is overwhelmingly positive.



“Our team has carefully evaluated the quality of the Arctic Weather Satellite’s data and has already been able to demonstrate a positive impact on our forecasts at the global scale, and we plan to include the data in our global prediction system later this year," said Philippe Chambon from Météo-France. 



According to Chambon, this a very promising achievement in view of the EPS-Sterna constellation, which is seen as a key component of the future observing system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-valuable-data-from-small-satellites">Valuable data from small satellites</h2>



“The Arctic Weather Satellite is a great example of the quality of meteorological data that can be achieved from a small satellite," commented Niels Bormann from the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts. 



Bormann noted that the initial results are very promising for global weather forecasts and, if they hold up, the data may be used operationally later in the year. From a regional perspective, the data is proving just as useful.



“Together with the Nordic national meteorological services, we are evaluating the Arctic Weather Satellite’s data for regional forecasting over Scandinavia and the Arctic," said Adam Dybbroe from the Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-closing-the-polar-coverage-gap">Closing the polar coverage gap</h2>



Current weather satellites have limitations. For example, <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/meteosat-weather-satellite-captures-earth-in-stunning-detail/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Meteosat satellites</a> orbit 36,000 kilometers above the equator, returning images every 15 minutes, but they can’t cover the high latitudes near the poles. 



MetOp satellites, which follow a polar orbit, can reach these regions but take up to 24 hours for full global coverage.



The proposed EPS-Sterna constellation of six satellites would dramatically shorten this time gap, offering more frequent data - especially over the Arctic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-huge-potential-in-a-small-satellite">Huge potential in a small satellite </h2>



ESA’s Arctic Weather Satellite project manager, Ville Kangas, summarized the progress.



“We have demonstrated that a small satellite, weighing just 125 kg, can match the performance of large meteorological missions," said Kangas.



"And since we are at a relatively early stage, the data still need to be further corrected and analyzed so we expect the Arctic Weather Satellite to shine even more in the months to come."



If approved, the EPS-Sterna constellation will work alongside Europe’s next-generation weather satellites, including MTG-S1 and MetOp-SG-A1, which are scheduled for launch later this year. 



Together, these systems could create a far more complete and timely picture of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-shrinking-earths-atmosphere-and-thats-bad-for-satellites/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s changing atmosphere</a>.



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Small satellite could transform weather forecasting

Launched just seven months ago, the Arctic Weather Satellite is...

Harvest,Pink,Moon,On,Night,Sky,Back,Over,Silhouette,Pines

The Moon has always fascinated humans. But even now, with satellites and science at our fingertips, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-ridges-on-moons-surface-suggest-that-it-is-still-active/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Moon</a> can still surprise us. This Saturday night, skywatchers will witness one such surprise: a pink micromoon.



While not as dramatic as a total eclipse or as bright as a supermoon, the micromoon holds its own quiet charm. It’s a moment to pause, look up, and remember that the heavens are always in motion - even if the changes aren’t always obvious.



Let’s explore what makes a micromoon special, why our brains sometimes trick us, and how even seasoned scientists are still mystified by the Moon’s shifting appearance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-exactly-is-a-micromoon">What exactly is a micromoon?</h2>



A micromoon occurs when the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/march-2025-stargazing-a-red-moon-and-a-vanishing-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Moon</a> reaches the farthest point in its elliptical orbit around Earth. That moment, called apogee, coincides with the full moon phase.



When this happens, the Moon looks smaller and dimmer than usual. The effect is subtle - most people won't notice unless they compare photos side by side.



“It’s a very subtle difference,” said astrophysicist Alain Brizard from <a href="https://www.smcvt.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saint Michael’s College</a> in Vermont.



In contrast, a supermoon happens when the Moon is at its closest point to Earth. The difference between a micromoon and a supermoon isn’t huge, but it’s measurable. Supermoons can appear about 14% larger and 30% brighter.



Micromoons and supermoons aren’t rare. They happen several times a year when the Moon’s full phase syncs up with the right point in its orbit. 



Another micromoon will arrive in May. Three supermoons are expected later this year in October, November, and December.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-moon-illusion">The Moon illusion</h2>



Many people believe the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/total-lunar-eclipse-will-paint-the-moon-blood-red-tomorrow/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Moon</a> looks biggest when it rises over the horizon. This is true - at least, visually.



When we see the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whats-up-in-the-night-sky-during-the-month-of-april-2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Moon</a> rise over city skylines, treetops, or mountains, it can seem enormous. The truth is, though, that its size hasn’t changed at all. It’s a trick of the mind.



Photos show the Moon stays the same width, whether near the horizon or overhead. Still, our eyes say otherwise. The Moon looks larger near the horizon, though it's not.



This illusion comes from how our brains handle visual information. It's a perception trick. Even after thousands of years of watching <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-ridges-on-moons-surface-suggest-that-it-is-still-active/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the Moon</a>, no one fully understands why we see it this way.



This phenomenon is known as the Moon illusion. It has nothing to do with the Moon itself and everything to do with human perception.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-to-test-the-micromoon-illusion-yourself">How to test the micromoon illusion yourself</h2>



You don’t need a telescope to prove the illusion is real.



<a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a> suggests simple tests. Hold out your index finger next to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-that-once-threatened-earth-may-target-the-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Moon</a>. Your fingernail and the Moon will appear nearly the same size - no matter where the Moon sits in the sky.



You can also look through a paper tube or even bend over and look between your legs. The Moon will suddenly seem much smaller than it did a moment before.



Step outside on a full moon night and watch the Moon as it rises. It can feel magical - so big and beautiful that it might make you say “Wow!” out loud. 



When the Moon is low in the sky, near mountains, buildings, or trees, it looks huge. It seems like it’s towering over the landscape.



But here’s the truth: the Moon hasn’t actually grown. Your brain is just playing a trick on you.



The large size you see is an illusion. It’s not caused by the atmosphere or the Moon’s distance. It’s all about how your mind interprets the scene in front of you.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-micromoon-looks-pinkish">Why the micromoon looks pinkish</h2>



While the Moon doesn’t grow or shrink in size, it can appear to change color.



When the Moon is low in the sky, it often looks pink, yellow, or sometimes orange. This happens because its light must travel through more of Earth’s atmosphere. 



The atmosphere scatters shorter wavelengths of light, like blue and violet. What’s left are the longer wavelengths - pink, orange, and yellow.



Dust or pollution in the air can make this effect stronger, giving the Moon a deeper red or orange tint.



This effect is especially visible during events like lunar eclipses. A total eclipse in March turned the Moon a deep coppery red - a visual reminder of how much the atmosphere shapes what we see.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-theories-behind-the-moon-illusion">Theories behind the Moon illusion</h2>



Despite centuries of study, scientists still don’t have a full explanation for the Moon illusion. Here’s the surprising part: scientists still don’t fully understand why the Moon illusion happens.



That might sound frustrating if you like clear answers. But it also shows how mysterious our brains can be. Even after years of research, no one has found a complete explanation for why the Moon looks bigger near the horizon.



So depending on how you see it, this mystery can either be disappointing - or something to wonder about and enjoy.



The most common idea is that our brains misjudge size and distance when the Moon is near the horizon. When objects like buildings, mountains, or trees are in the foreground, they can trick the brain into thinking the Moon is closer - and therefore larger - than it actually is.



One well-known theory is the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ponzo_illusion" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ponzo illusion</a>. Imagine railroad tracks converging into the distance. Place two identical lines across the tracks - one higher, one lower. 



The upper line will seem longer. This may be similar to how we view the Moon over a landscape.



But the mystery deepens. Astronauts in space, far from any such cues, also report seeing the Moon illusion. So the story doesn’t end there.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-micromoon-s-mystery-is-worth-enjoying">Why the micromoon’s mystery is worth enjoying</h2>



In the end, maybe we don’t need a perfect answer.



Imagine seeing the Moon rise during the day over mountains. Even without knowing the science behind it, that sight can fill you with wonder.



We may not fully understand why the Moon looks bigger or more dramatic at times. But while scientists keep searching for answers, there's nothing stopping us from enjoying the view.



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What is a pink micromoon? You'll find out tonight

The Moon has always fascinated humans. But even now, with...

Japan loves otters and so does the internet. From squeaky coos to floating belly naps, Asian small-clawed otters have taken over YouTube and Instagram feeds. These animals show up in themed cafés, cozy up to coffee cups, and pose beside smiling tourists. It’s not hard to see why they’ve become a social media sensation.



But this viral fame hides a growing crisis. The adorable otter’s rise to stardom has come at a cost to wild populations. Behind every click, like, and share may lie a deeper story - one of trafficking, genetic decline, and fading <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-otters-help-kelp-forests-recover-but-theres-more-to-the-story/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>. 



Japan sits at the center of this trade, both as a consumer and as a mirror to a broader wildlife issue across Asia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-japan-s-pet-otter-boom">Japan’s pet otter boom</h2>



Asian small-clawed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-otters-have-protected-california-kelp-forests-for-a-century/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">otters</a>, native to South and Southeast Asia, are now listed as vulnerable by the IUCN. Their populations are threatened by habitat destruction, human-wildlife conflict, and poaching. 



Since 2019, they have been listed in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (<a href="https://cites.org/eng/disc/what.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CITES</a>), which bans commercial trade except in exceptional cases.



Despite this listing, the otters continue to appear in Japan’s pet stores and animal cafés. Their presence in such places indicates an active, and often illegal, wildlife trade. The allure is strong - cuddly, curious, and highly intelligent, otters are marketed as ideal companions for exotic pet lovers.



But their popularity on social media has created a feedback loop of demand that encourages continued trafficking from wild populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-illegal-otters-sourced-from-thailand">Illegal otters sourced from Thailand</h2>



To understand how otters are ending up in Japanese cafés, researchers from <a href="https://www.kyoto-u.ac.jp/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kyoto University</a> teamed up with Thai scientists. 



They aimed to trace the geographic origins of the otters now living in captivity in Japan. Most attention turned to Thailand - a country previously identified as a key player in the illegal otter trade.



"Collaborative research can help identify the origins of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-otters-use-tools-to-access-larger-prey-and-protect-their-teeth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">otters</a> kept in Japan and hot spots of illegal trade in Thailand, thus encouraging legal control in both countries," said study first author Mayako Fujihara.



Over the last two decades, more than 100 otters have been seized at airports in Thailand and Japan. Most seizures involve multiple individuals at once, suggesting coordinated smuggling efforts. 



Despite Japanese import bans and Thailand’s export restrictions, traffickers continue to find ways to move these animals across borders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-links-otters-to-wild-origins">DNA links otters to wild origins</h2>



To track where the otters came from, researchers sequenced 1,511 base pairs of mitochondrial DNA from 81 captive otters in Japan.



These included <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">individuals</a> from zoos, aquariums, animal cafés, and customs seizures. The goal was to compare these sequences with those from known wild populations in Thailand and surrounding countries.



The analysis revealed 12 different haplotypes, grouped into three major clades. Six of these haplotypes matched wild otters from southern Thailand - areas known for coastal wetlands and hilly riparian zones. 



This suggests that the majority of otters found in cafés and seized at airports had likely originated from poaching hotspots in southern Thailand.



The findings are troubling. According to the CITES trade database, no legal otter imports from Thailand to Japan have occurred since 1988. This means the otters arriving since then - including those born to trafficked individuals - have entered the country through illegal means.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-media-stardom-drives-demand">Social media stardom drives demand</h2>



The modern otter craze didn’t start in a forest - it started online. YouTube channels featuring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-report-disturbing-details-about-the-state-of-earths-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pet</a> otters have millions of subscribers. One top channel in Japan, showing the lives of two otters, has over 1.8 million followers and a merchandise line. The same owner also runs otter cafés in major cities.



These cafés, known as exotic animal cafés, let customers play with otters while sipping coffee. They are part of a broader industry that has expanded rapidly since the early 2000s. 



As of 2019, Japan hosted at least 137 exotic animal cafés, housing more than 400 species. The Asian small-clawed otter is among the most popular mammals in these cafés.



Some cafés even sell otters, with prices reaching over $10,000 per animal. In 2018, nearly half of the otters advertised for sale in Japan came from unknown sources. This lack of transparency fuels concerns about continued reliance on wild populations and unclear breeding histories.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-japan-s-native-otter-is-gone">Japan’s native otter is gone</h2>



Japan’s obsession with otters may also stem from a deep-rooted cultural memory. The kawauso, or river otter, appears in Japanese folklore as a playful and mischievous shapeshifter. But this creature was based on a real animal - the Japanese river otter, once common across the country.



Decades of hunting for fur and destruction of river habitats led to its tragic extinction. It was declared extinct in 2012 after not being seen for over 30 years.



"It is precisely because Japan's endemic otter species has gone extinct that we aim to continue conducting research that will help protect other vulnerable species," said Fujihara.



This extinction leaves a shadow over current efforts to protect other otters in captivity and the wild. It also heightens the urgency to prevent similar outcomes for other species caught in the trade.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uneven-diversity-in-captivity">Uneven diversity in captivity</h2>



One of the most striking findings from the study was the difference in genetic diversity between otters in zoos and those in cafés. 



Otters in zoos and aquariums had higher genetic diversity and more varied haplotypes. This is likely due to more structured breeding programs and a larger pool of founding individuals.



In contrast, the otters found in cafés often shared just a few haplotypes. Many had been bred in-country from a narrow gene pool. Some appeared to be closely related. 



This lack of diversity poses risks. Inbreeding can cause health problems and lower reproductive success. It also weakens the species’ long-term ability to adapt and survive.



Otters in zoos also came from a wider range of regions, including Peninsular Malaysia and Indonesia. This indicates legal or semi-legal acquisition before tighter regulations were in place. But many of the café otters clustered genetically with those from southern Thailand - regions known for illegal poaching activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-as-a-shield-for-conservation">Science as a shield for conservation</h2>



The study's genetic work serves a dual purpose: it not only tracks trafficking routes but also supports captive breeding. 



By understanding the genetic background of individual otters, zoos can avoid inbreeding and maintain genetic health. Otters with rare haplotypes - some found in just one or two individuals - can be prioritized for conservation.



However, mitochondrial DNA offers only part of the story. The researchers suggest that nuclear DNA sequencing could give more precise geographic information. This would allow officials to better identify the origin of seized otters and link them to specific regions.



The findings also highlight a need to build comprehensive genetic reference maps for otters across Southeast Asia. Expanding these databases would help pinpoint where wild-caught animals originate and guide future protection efforts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breeding-for-a-future-not-a-fad">Breeding for a future, not a fad</h2>



As of late 2022, Japan’s zoos and aquariums housed more than 200 Asian small-clawed otters. Many participate in coordinated breeding programs, but others still rely on imports or unverified sources. Without full genetic records, some valuable lineages may be lost.



For example, rare haplotypes found in only one or two otters could disappear without focused efforts. Losing these variants would narrow the gene pool and reduce future adaptability.



Better genetic planning, stronger import regulations, and broader cooperation between nations can help secure the future of this species. The café boom may fade, but the consequences for wildlife will last unless steps are taken now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-japan-s-love-for-otters-has-limits">Japan’s love for otters has limits</h2>



Otters continue to delight audiences with their charm and antics. But behind every viral video lies a question - where did that otter come from, and what did it cost to bring it here?



If admiration leads to exploitation, then love for animals becomes dangerous. Science, policy, and awareness must align to ensure that what we adore today doesn’t vanish tomorrow.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/csp2.70010" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Conservation Science and Practice</a>.



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Japan’s obsession with otters comes at a cost

Japan loves otters and so does the internet. From squeaky...

A recent study suggests that sleep may not only preserve our memories but actually enhance them, especially when it comes to recalling the order in which events occur. 



This discovery points to the significant role that restful sleep plays in consolidating daily experiences. It shows that this effect can remain robust for more than a year after the events in question.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-boosting-memory-through-sleep">Boosting memory through sleep</h2>



The research was carried out by a team affiliated with a leading center for aging and brain health. The scientists developed an innovative approach to test how sleep influences the sequence of memories over extended periods.



Study senior author Brian Levine is a scientist at the <a href="https://www.baycrest.org/about-us-rri">Rotman Research Institute</a>, part of the Baycrest Academy for Research and Education.



“While our memory for features such as object size and color declines over time, sleep can improve our memory for event sequence,” said Levine. "This study deepens our understanding of how critical sleep is for integrating experiences into memory,” he added.



According to these findings, sleep organizes daily events in order, strengthens their links, and helps us remember them months later.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-museum-tour-and-memory-recall">Museum tour and memory recall</h2>



To achieve these insights, the researchers moved beyond typical laboratory procedures that ask participants to memorize word lists or pictures. Instead, they created a 20-minute, audio-guided tour of selected artworks to provide a more authentic experience.



People who took part in this study walked through the exhibit while listening to narrated explanations. They then completed memory tests at intervals ranging from one hour after the tour to 15 months later.



The tests included both questions about the physical features of each artwork and about which piece came first, second, third, and so on. Although shape and color memory faded, sleep notably improved recall of the order in which tour items appeared.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deep-sleep-boosts-memory">Deep sleep boosts memory</h2>



A second experiment reinforced these results through a design that separated participants into two groups. One set - the sleep group - experienced the art tour in the evening and was tested shortly afterward. They then slept in a monitored environment where their brain activity was recorded using electroencephalography (EEG).



The other set - the wake group - took the tour and the initial test in the morning, stayed awake during the day, and was re-tested that evening. Both groups took additional memory tests a week, a month, and 15 months later.



The data showed that even a single night of slumber made a meaningful difference in how participants remembered the order of the tour items. Their advantage, established early, remained evident more than a year afterward.



Meanwhile, memory for the physical features of each artwork continued to deteriorate for both groups. Detailed EEG readings revealed that deep sleep, particularly the combination of slow waves and sleep spindles, correlated strongly with this sustained memory improvement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleep-s-lasting-impact">Sleep’s lasting impact </h2>



Sleep’s effect on memory has long intrigued scientists. These findings show that the sequence of experiences can remain intact over extended periods.



Furthermore, the study suggests that certain types of memory, such as object details, may not benefit in the same way. 



By showing this difference, researchers explore why our brains preserve event order even as other details fade over time. Understanding this pattern also holds relevance for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/defying-time-three-ways-to-slow-biological-aging/">aging</a> populations and those with cognitive conditions, since it sheds light on why memory for events can change so dramatically in later life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cognitive-health-and-new-interventions">Cognitive health and new interventions</h2>



The benefits of a good night’s rest extend beyond short-term improvements. “The benefits of sleep on memory are powerful; just one night makes a difference that persists over a year,” Levine said.



This underscores the importance of consistent, high-quality sleep as part of an overall strategy to maintain and strengthen cognitive health. Activities such as regular exercise, a balanced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-health-and-diet-nutrition-helps-lower-dementia-risk/">diet</a>, and attention to sleep routines can work together to keep the mind functioning at its peak.



Researchers hope studying sleep rhythms, slow waves, and spindles will lead to new memory-boosting interventions. These interventions might prove especially significant in helping older adults or those living with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-sleep-may-predict-memory-loss-years-in-advance/">dementia</a> retain key aspects of their experiences for longer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ongoing-frontier-of-discovery">Ongoing frontier of discovery </h2>



For anyone interested in preserving the narrative thread of life’s events, these results offer an encouraging perspective: better rest today might translate into clearer, more accurate recollections tomorrow and beyond.



The ways in which sleep shapes our memories remain an ongoing frontier of scientific inquiry, but one message comes through loud and clear. 



Whether you are studying for an exam, trying to remember cherished family moments, or simply hoping to keep your recollections intact over time, sleeping well stands out as a critical part of the formula.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-025-02117-5">Nature Human Behavior</a>.



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Sleep can boost memory in a surprising way

A recent study suggests that sleep may not only preserve...

Efforts to protect birds from the growing impacts of climate change may be missing a key piece of the puzzle. According to new research, understanding the specific climate conditions that birds need to survive - known as their climatic niche breadth - could be crucial for identifying which species are at greatest risk.



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.uea.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of East Anglia</a> analyzed data from 159 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/european-breeding-birds-adapt-to-climate-change-at-a-slower-pace/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European bird species</a> to explore how a species' tolerance to different temperatures and rainfall patterns relates to its population trends. 



The researchers analyzed four decades of bird population data across 29 countries, combined with 30 years of climate information, to measure how adaptable each species is to a variety of conditions within its habitat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-even-common-birds-face-climate-risks">Even common birds face climate risks</h2>



It’s widely assumed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-birds-diving-petrels-return-home-island-conservation-efforts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rare birds</a> or those with small geographic ranges are most vulnerable to climate change. However, new findings suggest that a bird’s vulnerability isn’t solely about how widespread it is. What seems to matter more is how broad - or narrow - the range of climate conditions a species can handle is.



“Deciding which species are more at risk isn’t straight forward, and species may be declining for a range of reasons,” said lead author Karolina Zalewska, a postgraduate researcher in UEA’s School of Environmental Sciences.



“Rare species and those that have smaller distributions are more likely to be vulnerable to climate change. This study has shown that birds that are more widespread, such as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-but-mighty-the-significance-of-world-sparrow-day/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">house sparrow</a> and the common starling, can also face threats to their populations."



"Species, whether rare or widespread, with narrower climatic niches may be more susceptible to the rapid changes brought on by climate change compared to those with broader niches, and this may be one of the underlying reasons behind the population declines observed."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-with-narrow-climate-ranges">Birds with narrow climate ranges</h2>



According to Zalewska, the results emphasize the importance of understanding and incorporating the level of exposure to climatic variability when assessing vulnerability to climate change and long-term population declines.



The study confirmed that a bird’s ability to cope with a variety of climate conditions is strongly linked to its population stability. Even among species with similar geographic ranges, those with narrower climate tolerances were more likely to be in decline.



“Faced with the challenges of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-biodiversity-crisis-is-actually-worse-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global biodiversity crisis</a> and climate change, the rapid assessment of species vulnerability to environmental change has become of paramount importance to address priorities for conservation," said co-author Professor Aldina Franco.



"As climate change accelerates, our study highlights the need to prioritize species that are most at risk due to their more restricted environmental requirements.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-better-way-to-assess-risk">A better way to assess risk</h2>



The team used their climate data to develop a new index - climatic niche breadth adjusted for range area - that can help predict which birds are more vulnerable to environmental change. This index, combined with data on diet, body size, primary habitat, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migratory-behaviors-are-shaped-by-experience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migratory behavior</a>, offers a more complete picture of each species' resilience.



“These findings can help us understand the threats associated with climate change and allow for rapid assessment of the importance of climatic factors on population trends, providing an invaluable tool for targeting species conservation,” said Zalewska.



“In particular, we show that the climatic niche breadth to range area index can help predict which species may be more vulnerable to population declines.”



Out of the 159 species examined, 58 were found to be declining, 68 remained stable, and 33 were increasing. 



Birds that inhabit farmland - such as corn buntings and skylarks - were more likely to be in decline. By contrast, species more comfortable in human-altered landscapes, like blackbirds and blue tits, were faring better.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-through-a-climate-lens">Conservation through a climate lens</h2>



The research offers a way forward for conservation strategies in an era of accelerating climate change. 



Instead of relying solely on range size or rarity, conservationists may need to look more closely at how birds respond to different climates across their range.



Recognizing which species are climate-sensitive could make all the difference in keeping their populations from slipping away.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jbi.15127" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Biogeography</a>.



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Some birds are more at risk from climate change than others

Efforts to protect birds from the growing impacts of climate...

Dogs have long been recognized for their remarkable ability to detect faint scents associated with various diseases. 



From identifying cancer and low blood sugar to sensing infections, their keen noses have inspired trainers to develop specialized tasks that enhance safety and independence for people managing health conditions.



Scientists recently <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0320158" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">discovered</a> new connections between how dogs interpret ambiguous situations and how they tackle scent detection tasks.



The research was led by Sharyn Bistre Dabbah of the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, who explored whether a dog’s upbeat or doubtful attitude influences how well it can sniff out important odor cues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-dogs-learn-medical-scent-detection">How dogs learn medical scent detection</h2>



<a href="https://www.medicaldetectiondogs.org.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Medical detection dogs</a> have earned respect among healthcare professionals, especially for their role in identifying certain <a href="https://bmcinfectdis.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12879-020-05281-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diseases</a> and assisting people with chronic issues. 



They are trained to detect unique scent markers in clinical samples or to warn someone about an imminent change in health status.



Training starts young, using exercises to boost focus and confidence in new environments. The programs highlight gentle yet consistent methods that reward a dog for accurate performance and reduce confusion through repetition.



Because tasks based on scent detection are demanding, these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pet-dogs-severely-harm-wildlife-even-when-leashed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">canines</a> must learn to keep calm under pressure. They must stay determined and engaged through repeated trials, which can be challenging for some dogs. Despite these challenges, many dogs handle the work with remarkable ease.



When some dogs show more precision and fewer false alerts, experts start searching for the reasons why. If these traits can be identified early, it could bring more certainty to an already impressive field.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connecting-optimism-and-performance">Connecting optimism and performance</h2>



One experimental approach used in this research is <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26440495/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">judgment bias testing</a>, a strategy for gauging how animals respond to uncertain situations. 



Dogs learn a bowl in one spot with a known scent means a reward, but in another spot, it doesn't. When the bowl appears in a middle spot, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-dogs-replacing-children-how-modern-society-is-changing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">canines</a>’ reaction time can hint at their emotional outlook.



“Dogs that approached ambiguous cues more quickly - indicative of ‘optimism' - were associated with higher levels of traits such as confidence and playfulness. These insights could have important implications for training and selection methods in medical detection dogs,” said Dabbah.



In plain terms, dogs that zipped toward the bowl, hoping it held a tasty morsel, also seemed to have strong overall abilities when it came to learning and focusing. They appeared quicker to embrace new tasks and bounced back from empty bowls without getting flustered.



At the same time, some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-99-of-dogs-in-the-u-s-have-a-behavior-problem/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">canines</a> showed a more guarded approach. They paused a moment longer at uncertain bowl placements, almost as if they were doing a double-check before taking action.



Interestingly, these dogs often had fewer false positives, indicating that a degree of “cautious thinking” may reduce errors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-optimistic-dogs-and-scent-detection">Optimistic dogs and scent detection</h2>



Older dogs showed signs of calm confidence, which might help them approach tricky tasks without wasting energy on confusion. It is possible that time in training leads to more measured responses, as dogs hone both their search skills and emotional stability.



Dogs with a high drive for food did not hesitate to check a bowl, reflecting an eagerness to score a reward. While that can propel a dog to excel in learning, it may lead to hasty alerts on non-target scents. Balancing that enthusiasm with steady caution can be a challenge.



Some dogs leaned on playfulness to make tasks more pleasant. Tail-wagging and enthusiasm can boost training, but too much excitement may disrupt focused sniffing. Striking a middle ground is ideal for daily practice.



When a trainer recognizes that a dog’s personality tends toward optimism, that knowledge can guide how training is structured. The approach may focus on channeling the dog’s quick reactions while refining its ability to stop and think when necessary.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-optimistic-dogs-have-greater-detection-ability">Optimistic dogs have greater detection ability</h2>



“Our findings suggest that dogs displaying more ‘optimistic’ responses in a judgment bias test tend to demonstrate higher overall ability, as rated by their trainers. Understanding this link could help us to better train, select, and support successful medical detection dogs,” said Dabbah.



Some of the more reserved dogs achieved stronger scent specificity, which can be a valuable quality for tasks where false alarms carry greater cost. Training might then look for ways to add a dash of positive expectation to help these dogs stay motivated.



Moving ahead, experts are exploring whether these insights might hint at early screening tools. Dogs that have an optimistic streak could be strong candidates for highly active detection tasks.



Such early indicators might spare time and resources, enabling trainers to focus on dogs whose personality suits the intensity of constant sniffing and monitoring. 



Research suggests this approach may also enhance the dog’s well-being, as training can be fine-tuned to match its natural tendencies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-dog-training">The future of dog training</h2>



Trainers often keep logs of each dog’s progress and note any unusual struggles. A quick emotional test could add insight into what drives each dog’s successes and setbacks



Dog organizations might use these new findings to perfect selection programs. Dogs that see gray areas as opportunities often recover quickly from setbacks, making training more enjoyable.



The broader community of working-dog enthusiasts is always on the lookout for ways to elevate standards in canine professions. 



By evaluating how optimism or hesitation shapes detection tasks, it may be possible to maximize performance without pushing dogs beyond healthy limits.



Refining this process promises a better match between each dog’s inherent scent style and the tasks they are asked to tackle. Such harmony could improve the reliability of medical alerts while protecting the dog’s quality of life.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0320158" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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Good mood, sharper nose? Optimistic dogs excel in scent detection

Dogs have long been recognized for their remarkable ability to...

Electric,Cars,At,Charing,Station,In,Hanoi,,Vietnam

Electric vehicles (EVs) have come to symbolize the green revolution. Quiet, zero-emission cars now glide through city streets, while governments offer tax breaks and incentives to accelerate the shift from gasoline to electric power. 



Headlines celebrate electric vehicles as a solution for climate change. But are they? A recent study raises new doubts.



Researchers from the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.auckland.ac.nz/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Auckland</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href="https://www.xmu.edu.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Xiamen University</a>&nbsp;argue that electric <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/driverless-utility-vehicles-are-taking-over-boring-and-risky-jobs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vehicles</a> cannot help the planet unless we clean up the electricity that powers them. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-electric-vehicles-can-raise-emissions-nbsp">Electric vehicles can raise emissions&nbsp;</h2>



The analysis reveals a surprising and uncomfortable truth: electric vehicles can, in some cases, increase carbon emissions.



The research team examined data from 26 countries over a 15-year period using a rigorous method known as the STIRPAT framework. 



This analytical tool enables experts to assess the impact of population, economic development, and technological change on emissions.



The researchers looked beyond surface-level calculations. They tested how electric <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-electric-vehicle-owners-have-high-carbon-footprints/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vehicle</a> adoption, renewable energy use, population clustering, and green innovation all shape a country’s carbon output. 



The results do not align with the common belief that more electric vehicles mean fewer emissions.



"On the contrary, EV adoption is positively associated with CO₂ emissions. This finding appears counterintuitive. It challenges the conventional belief that EVs contribute to decarbonization," said study lead author Miaomiao (Simon) Tao, a doctoral candidate at the <a href="https://www.energycentre.auckland.ac.nz/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UoA Energy Centre</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-electric-vehicles-and-climate-issues">Electric vehicles and climate issues</h2>



The counterintuitive results of the study are linked to where electric vehicles get their power. In many parts of the world, electricity still comes from burning coal, oil, or gas. Charging an EV in such places often leads to more emissions than using a fuel-efficient petrol car.



“Take EVs charged using electricity from coal-fired power plants. In that case, they may indirectly contribute to higher emissions than modern gasoline or diesel vehicles, especially considering the entire lifecycle from production to disposal," said study co-author Professor Stephen Poletti.



The experts identified a clear tipping point. Electric vehicles only start cutting emissions once clean electricity makes up nearly half of a country’s power supply.



In 2023, renewables made up just over 30 percent of the global electricity mix. Most nations still fall short.



"Electric <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brake-pad-copper-emissions-are-worse-than-diesel-exhaust-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vehicles</a> are often seen as a silver bullet for climate change, but our results show that's not the case if the electricity powering them isn't clean,” said Professor Poletti.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-power-that-fuels-electric-vehicles">The power that fuels electric vehicles </h2>



Some countries do better than others. New Zealand, for example, gets over 80 percent of its electricity from renewable sources. This makes EV adoption far more effective. In such places, switching from petrol to electric really does lower emissions.



"This research is a reminder that decarbonizing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/direct-evidence-electric-vehicles-measurably-reduce-carbon-emissions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">transport</a> can't happen in isolation," said Professor Poletti. The grid and the garage are closely linked. You can’t clean one and ignore the other.



The researchers also found that countries focused on EV sales alone may miss the bigger picture. 



Without electricity reform, the environmental benefits of EVs disappear. Countries must first green their energy sectors before EVs can truly help fight climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clean-energy-lowers-emissions">Clean energy lowers emissions</h2>



The study didn’t stop at electric vehicles. The team analzyed several other factors that influence carbon emissions. Economic growth came out as a strong driver of increased emissions.



More businesses, more consumption, and more industry almost always mean more pollution. On the other hand, green innovation, renewable energy, and population density in urban areas were associated with lower emissions.



Technological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-future-is-electric-epa-sets-strictest-ever-vehicle-emission-rules/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">advances</a>, especially those related to energy use and storage, helped countries emit less carbon. Densely populated cities, when designed efficiently, used energy more wisely.



Notably, the study found that renewable energy had the strongest emissions-reducing effect of all variables. When renewables replace fossil fuels, the results are dramatic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-electric-vehicles-can-still-help">Electric vehicles can still help </h2>



How much clean energy do countries need before EVs make a positive difference? According to the study, the magic number is 48 percent. 



Once nearly half the electricity comes from sources like wind, solar, or hydro, the environmental gains of EVs begin to outweigh their hidden costs.



Before reaching that point, EVs can actually increase emissions. That’s because battery production and fossil-fuel-powered charging create more problems than they solve.



 In high-emission countries, adding more EVs often raises electricity demand, putting more pressure on already dirty grids.



With EV sales growing rapidly - over 10 million units sold globally in 2022 - this tipping point becomes urgent. Nations need to match that growth with equally aggressive investments in renewables.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-early-adoption-may-backfire">Why early adoption may backfire</h2>



Using an advanced model called Method of Moments Quantile Regression (MMQR), the researchers found that the link between EVs and emissions varies depending on how polluted a country already is. 



In lower-emission countries, electric vehicles had a modest effect. But in high-emission countries, the adoption of EVs actually worsened the situation.



This reinforces the idea that EVs are not one-size-fits-all. They must be part of a broader environmental strategy. Without reforming energy sources, even a fleet of electric vehicles won't reduce overall carbon output.



The results show that early-stage EV deployment often leads to a spike in electricity consumption. If that power comes from coal, the net emissions rise. As the share of renewable energy grows, this negative effect fades - and can eventually reverse.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-electric-vehicles-need-clean-power">Electric vehicles need clean power </h2>



The takeaway? Clean cars need clean power. Governments should not treat EVs as an end in themselves. Instead, policies must align EV growth with renewable energy targets, urban planning, and investments in green technology.



Infrastructure matters too. Building smart grids and improving battery storage systems can help EVs use more clean energy. 



Likewise, offering incentives for off-peak charging - when renewable generation is high - can reduce their footprint.



If governments only focus on getting people to buy EVs, they risk making climate goals harder to reach. The real gains come when electric vehicles are part of a clean ecosystem, powered by wind, sun, and smarter design.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-transport">The future of transport </h2>



The future of transport must be electric, but it must also be clean. That’s the core message of this study. It doesn’t reject electric vehicles; It warns that their benefits depend on context - especially the cleanliness of the power grid.



As Tao and Poletti show, electric vehicles alone won’t save the planet. But with the right mix of policies and infrastructure, they can still play a crucial role.



The road to net zero is longer and more complex than many assume. It runs not just through car factories, but through power plants, research labs, and city streets. Electric vehicles are a solid step toward climate mitigation - but only if we power them right.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S036054422500115X?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Energy</a>.



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Dirty power: The hidden climate cost of electric vehicles

Electric vehicles (EVs) have come to symbolize the green revolution....

Scientists have long wondered how the brain updates itself with new information and memories. Some ideas revolve around chemical changes in specific neurons, while others focus on structural shifts among brain cells.



<a href="https://www.tcd.ie/research/profiles/?profile=tryan6">Dr. Tomás Ryan</a> from <a href="https://www.tcd.ie" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Trinity College Dublin</a> is among the neuroscientists who have explored these questions by tracking cells involved in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/memory-isnt-only-stored-in-our-brains-other-cells-can-remember-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">learning</a>. 



New <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(23)01512-9">findings</a> suggest memory formation hinges on connections between groups of <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41380-023-02137-5">engram cells</a>, which are neurons thought to capture and store distinct experiences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-memories-become-linked">How memories become linked</h2>



Researchers believe each experience leaves a pattern of brain cell activation that can be switched on later. To see this process in action, neuroscientists tracked two sets of engram cells, each tied to a different memory. 



They discovered that when one set of cells was reactivated, the other set sometimes lit up too, as if the memories had become linked.



This idea runs counter to the old notion that an individual neuron stores an entire memory. Instead, the memory might be in the connections these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-rewires-the-brain-to-strengthen-memories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cells</a> build and reshape over time. 



Such structural rearrangements help us handle new information without losing old experiences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-which-brain-cells-store-memories">Which brain cells store memories?</h2>



“Memory engram cells are groups of brain cells that, activated by specific experiences, change themselves to incorporate and thereby hold information in our brain,” said <a href="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8365-2762" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Clara Ortega-de San Luis</a>, Postdoctoral Research Fellow and lead author on the study. 



She and her colleagues monitored how similar or related memories were stored across different brain areas. 



They used genetic techniques to label neurons that fired for one event, then watched how those same <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smartphones-are-teaching-us-how-to-supercharge-our-memory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurons</a> responded to a second event that felt related.



One major clue came from measuring how well these labeled neurons made new links with cells that were tied to older, separate experiences. 



Optogenetics, a method that turns cells on or off with light, let them test whether blocking these newly formed links disrupted the memory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-one-protein-shapes-memory">How one protein shapes memory</h2>



A specific protein, <a href="https://molecularbrain.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13041-019-0520-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PSD-95</a>, emerged as a gatekeeper of these engram cell connections. This protein sits at nerve cell junctions called <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/24790" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">synapses</a> and helps anchor receptor molecules.&nbsp;



When the team lowered the amount of PSD-95 in the neurons storing a given memory, these connections behaved differently. Under certain conditions, the memory seemed to linger even when researchers tried to dampen it.



That persistence hints at how the brain can hang on to memories that we might assume should fade. It also hints at why a shortage or disruption of PSD-95 could derail normal learning <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-memories-close-in-time-feel-connected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-cells-build-on-old-memories">Brain cells build on old memories</h2>



This work taps into a broader shift in neuroscience. Rather than focusing on single cells, many researchers now examine how multiple cells form networks that hold our daily experiences. 



By using cutting-edge genetic tagging, scientists can identify where new links are happening and whether these connections are essential for recalling the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forgetting-things-is-a-natural-part-of-the-memory-process/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory</a> later.



Many of the previous studies mapped separate steps: encoding a memory, storing it, then reactivating it. 



This project took it one step further by showing how the brain might slot fresh information into an existing network, so the old memory is updated instead of replaced.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-these-findings-matter">Why these findings matter</h2>



Experts have debated how new learning manages not to overwrite older memories in the same region of the brain. According to Dr. Ryan, “we should search for information ‘between’ cells.”&nbsp;



This view suggests memories are not locked inside one specific location but scattered as connections that can be modified. If true, it may explain how we learn quickly from everyday life without dismantling what we already know.



Therapies could one day target the proteins that enable these shifting connections. If molecules like PSD-95 shape synapses to store a memory, then changing them might help reframe harmful memories tied to fear or trauma, though more studies are needed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-brain-cells-shape-daily-memory">How brain cells shape daily memory</h2>



Memory isn’t purely academic. Our daily routines demand constant learning, whether it’s recalling names, navigating busy streets, or picking up a new hobby. 



Understanding how the brain cells keep all that information flexible, yet stable, offers hope for tackling age-related memory issues or conditions that affect learning.



Additional work in the field has shown that certain neurons can take on multiple roles depending on the situation. 



Those roles often shift over time, especially when new experiences pile up. By homing in on the connections, scientists add a piece to the puzzle of how these cells adapt.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-this-research-could-lead">Where this research could lead</h2>



Unraveling the complicated dance among engram cells might eventually guide how we teach, treat memory disorders, or support mental health. 



If wiring changes are at the core of learning, there might be clever ways to prompt healthy rearrangements in people struggling with conditions like post-traumatic stress or depression.



This study gives a peek into that process. It reveals a fragile, but critical, balance at the heart of learning: strengthen certain neural links for new knowledge, but keep enough structure so older skills and memories remain intact.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(23)01512-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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How does the brain create and retrieve memories? Scientists figured it out

Scientists have long wondered how the brain updates itself with...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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