Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Aerial,View,Of,Sossusvlei,Sometimes,Written,Sossus,Vlei,Is,A

Sand dunes shape some of the most fascinating scenery on Earth, particularly in arid regions. Among them, star dunes - sometimes called pyramid dunes - stand out for their towering height and eye-catching form. 



Sand seas, located in places like Africa, Arabia, China, and North America, are home to these beautiful, star-like formations.



Star dunes form in areas where wind arrives from multiple directions and where sand accumulates in large quantities.



They have a tall, pyramid-like center with several arms spreading out, creating a star shape when seen from above. 



Some reach extraordinary heights, including one in China’s Badain Jaran Desert that measures about 984 feet, placing it on par with a famous landmark in Paris. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-dunes-and-the-geological-record">Star dunes and the geological record</h2>



Despite being common in modern deserts and even appearing on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-had-ancient-beaches-shorelines-similar-to-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a> and Saturn’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturns-moon-titan-has-shorelines-shaped-by-waves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon Titan</a>, they have been unusually difficult to find in the geological record. 



Researchers have often wondered why these dunes leave so little trace in old sandstone layers.



Professor Geoff Duller, from the Department of Geography and Earth Sciences at <a href="https://www.aber.ac.uk/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aberystwyth University</a>, has been at the forefront of investigating these hidden giants. 



His latest study, undertaken alongside collaborators at <a href="https://www.bbk.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Birkbeck</a> and University College London (<a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCL</a>), offers new insights into the internal structure and speed of formation of a star dune in Morocco. 



This research helps explain why geologists have had trouble identifying these dunes in ancient deposits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-patterns-in-the-sahara">Hidden patterns in the Sahara</h2>



Until now, star dunes received limited attention compared to other well-known dune varieties. The recent study in the Erg Chebbi region of southeastern Morocco reveals a star dune named Lala Lallia, meaning “highest sacred point” in the Berber language. 



It rises about 328 feet and stretches about 2,297 feet across its base. Scientists found that its oldest layers date back roughly 13,000 years, around the time of the Younger Dryas, a sudden cooling phase in Earth’s past.



Ground-penetrating radar scans show that the dune remained mostly dormant for about 8,000 years. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/star-dune_Lala-Lallia_Erg-Chebbi_Morocco_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/star-dune_Lala-Lallia_Erg-Chebbi_Morocco_1s.webp" alt="Lala Lallia star dune in Erg Chebbi, the largest sand Dune in Morocco at sunset. Merzouga has become a popular destination for tourists because of this feature." class="wp-image-1963690"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Lala Lallia star dune in Erg Chebbi, the largest sand Dune in Morocco at sunset. Merzouga has become a popular destination for tourists because of this feature. Click to enlarge.</figcaption></figure>



Pottery discovered nearby suggests wetter conditions, possibly driven by an expanded monsoon, that kept sand from piling up. Once drier weather arrived, sand began accumulating at a much faster pace. 



The results, published in the journal Scientific Reports, indicate that the dune gained most of its size in the last thousand years and is currently shifting westward at about 1.6 feet each year.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-radar-and-luminescence-offer-clues">Radar and luminescence offer clues</h2>



“Using ground-penetrating radar to look inside this star dune has allowed us to show how these immense dunes form, and to develop a new model so geologists know better what to look for in the rock record to identify these amazing desert features," explained Professor Charlie Bristow of Birkbeck and UCL.



Researchers also used optically <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/golds-glow-luminescence-caused-quantum-realm-effects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stimulated luminescence</a> (OSL) dating to determine when minerals in the sand were last exposed to sunlight. 



This approach made it possible to figure out precisely when the dune began building after the African Humid Period had ended. 



The study concludes that large star dunes may form far more rapidly than many geologists once assumed.



“This research is really the case of the missing sand dune - it had been a mystery why we could not see them in the geological record. It’s only because of new technology that we can now start to uncover their secrets," noted Professor Duller.



"These findings will probably surprise a lot of people as we can see how quickly this enormous dune formed, and that it is moving across the desert at about 50 cm a year. These fantastic star dunes are one of the natural wonders of the world.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-dunes-and-ancient-deserts">Star dunes and ancient deserts</h2>



The discovery sheds light on why star dunes appear absent in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/living-microbes-discovered-in-2-billion-year-old-rocks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">older rocks</a>. Their internal layers can mimic those of other dune types, making them hard to recognize once they have turned to stone. 



This new model, drawn from the Moroccan site, gives geologists a better guide for identifying similar formations preserved deep underground.



“It’s quite a privilege to think that the luminescence dating techniques developed here in Aberystwyth are unlocking some of the secrets of the most challenging climates in the world," Professor Duller added.



"They are giving us insight into geology that could have wider implications including geological deposits that are used for water resources and storing carbon.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-the-shifting-winds-across-eons">Tracking the shifting winds across eons</h2>



Experts note that changes in wind direction contributed to the dune’s star-like shape. As the desert climate became drier, gusts from different angles helped shape the steep pyramid center and radiating arms. 



The speed with which it gained height shows that dramatic environmental shifts can build a towering dune in a geologically short window. 



Researchers also point out that similar wind shifts might have influenced dunes in other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saudi-arabia-is-turning-degraded-desert-sand-into-blooming-soil/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deserts worldwide</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-star-dunes-matter">Why star dunes matter</h2>



To sum it all up, star dunes hold importance for the study of past environments. The tools and findings from Morocco offer a chance to spot these features in buried <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gale-crater-reveals-secrets-of-water-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sandstone layers</a>. 



That means geologists can learn more about the behavior of ancient winds, as well as periods of relative stability or intense dryness. 



Understanding these long-past climatic patterns might help in present-day attempts to manage <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-storms-create-temporary-lakes-in-the-sahara-desert/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water in desert regions</a>.



Studying how star dunes grow in modern deserts could open new avenues for interpreting desert rocks of the past. 



By pinpointing signs of varied wind directions, geologists gain a clearer picture of what conditions shaped Earth’s surface thousands of years ago.



With fresh ways to identify these pyramidal giants in ancient layers, scientists are better equipped to find the missing chapters of desert history.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-53485-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Star dunes: Shrouded in beauty and wonder, they are now a bit less mysterious

Sand dunes shape some of the most fascinating scenery on...

Life on our planet has been shaped over an immense span of time. About 4 billion years ago, Earth began to show signs of the conditions that allowed the first cells, and eventually living organisms, to take hold and populate the planet.



Many researchers have tried to figure out how early chemical structures came together to create the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/did-the-building-blocks-of-life-replicate-on-their-own/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">building blocks of life</a>. Some suggest that tiny, spherical assemblies of fats, known as protocells, got the ball rolling.



These protocells might have sparked a cascade of changes that turned basic building blocks into more complex materials. After countless generations, those materials gave rise to fully functional cells. 



Questions remain about how these first <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rainwater-may-have-played-a-key-role-in-the-origin-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">protocells</a> picked up the pieces they needed to diversify in such a dramatic way. 



Now, Ramanarayanan Krishnamurthy, PhD, professor in the Department of Chemistry at <a href="https://www.scripps.edu/science-and-medicine/research-departments/chemistry/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scripps Research</a>, along with a team of scientists, have uncovered new clues that may finally provide answers to this ancient mystery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-earth-chemistry-and-protocells">Early Earth chemistry and protocells</h2>



Early studies have suggested that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/omega-3-and-omega-6-fatty-acids-may-reduce-cancer-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fatty acids</a> and other simple molecules existed in the planet’s primeval soup. 



Researchers have worked hard to figure out how these molecules might have assembled into containers able to grow and split. 



During this recent investigation, teams paid special attention to phosphates. These groups of atoms are vital to many functions in modern cells, but their presence in ancient structures was puzzling.



Scientists reported that phosphorylation, the process of adding phosphate groups, may have occurred at an earlier stage than once believed. That step likely led to more complex double-chained protocells. 



“At some point, we all wonder where we came from. We’ve now discovered a plausible way that phosphates could have been incorporated into cell-like structures earlier than previously thought, which lays the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-building-blocks-of-life-zinc-arrived-on-early-earth-planetesimals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">building blocks for life</a>,” says Krishnamurthy. 



“This finding helps us better understand the chemical environments of early Earth so we can uncover the origins of life and how life can evolve on early Earth.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-cells-shifted-to-double-chains">First cells shifted to double-chains</h2>



Researchers point to phospholipids - molecules with two fatty acid tails - as being crucial in modern cell membranes. 



Early protocells probably had only one chain of fatty acids, making them less stable than the membranes of contemporary cells. 



The new study posits that a blend of simpler fats and early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/phospholipids-tiny-bubbles-that-may-have-been-earths-first-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phospholipids</a> might have provided the shift toward a more robust double-chain structure.



This two-tailed arrangement made those protocells better at handling environmental challenges. Lab experiments used various chemical mixtures, including glycerol and short-chain fatty acids. 



In some conditions, the vesicles gained stability, suggesting that an ancient environment could have offered the perfect setting for these changes to take hold.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Part of the excitement around this work comes from the possibility of creating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/creating-mirror-life-forms-could-pose-extraordinary-dangers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">synthetic cells</a>. 



Lab-built cells that behave like living ones could someday allow scientists to design new methods for making important materials or finding sustainable sources of energy. 



The researchers examined how temperature, metal ions, and fluctuating pH might have influenced the sturdiness of protocells. 



Their observations hint at several routes for protocells to split, fuse, or combine components.



“The vesicles were able to transition from a fatty acid environment to a phospholipid environment during our experiments, suggesting a similar chemical environment could have existed 4 billion years ago,” says first author Sunil Pulletikurti, postdoctoral researcher in Krishnamurthy’s lab. 



This fresh perspective adds weight to the notion that evolving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-building-block-of-life-called-tna-created-in-the-lab/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cell-like structures</a> might have undergone a stepwise assembly that drew from naturally occurring materials.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-the-first-cells-to-complex-life">From the first cells to complex life</h2>



Krishnamurthy’s group joined forces with the lab of soft matter biophysicist Ashok Deniz, PhD, professor in the Department of Integrative Structural and Computational Biology at <a href="https://www.scripps.edu/science-and-medicine/research-departments/integrative-structural-and-computational-biology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scripps Research</a>. 



By combining chemical expertise with biophysical approaches, the teams pinpointed conditions where phosphorylated molecules emerged and interacted with fatty acids to form sturdier compartments. 



Published in the journal Chem, these findings highlight how subtle environmental shifts could have nudged protocells toward more lifelike behavior.



“It’s exciting to uncover how early chemistries may have transitioned to allow for life on Earth. Our findings also hint at a wealth of intriguing physics that may have played key functional roles along the way to modern cells,” says Deniz. 



Each insight gained is a small step toward explaining how simple vesicles might have paved the way for more dynamic elements of biology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



With these observations in hand, the team plans to investigate why <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/origin-of-life-on-earth-may-have-been-found-in-ancient-hot-springs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">some protocells</a> merge while others split or flourish under certain chemical pressures. 



Such investigations could clarify how flexibility in membrane structures contributed to swift adaptation in various environments. 



Understanding these features may open doors to engineered systems that harness ancient chemical reactions for modern applications.



Though many pieces of the puzzle remain scattered, each study brings us closer to answering profound questions about our beginnings. 



Researchers hope that continued collaboration among chemists, biologists, and engineers will pinpoint the mechanisms that gave rise to functional cells. 



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/chem/abstract/S2451-9294(24)00069-X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chem</a>.



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How did the first cells form on Earth? Scientists think they finally figured it out

Life on our planet has been shaped over an immense...

The forests and fields of North America hold secrets that even motion-sensitive cameras can't always reveal. Among those secrets are weasels - small, swift, and almost invisible to modern wildlife monitoring.



These elusive predators have slipped through digital traps for decades, making scientists wonder whether their silence signals absence or simply stealth.



It’s not just curiosity that drives this concern. Weasels, as small mustelids, play vital roles in ecosystems. They control rodent populations and serve as prey for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">larger animals</a>. 



Understanding where they thrive or vanish can reveal larger patterns of ecological change. But until recently, researchers lacked a clear method to study their population numbers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenge-of-monitoring-weasels">Challenge of monitoring weasels</h2>



Camera traps work well for large mammals. Deer, bears, and even coyotes often stroll past, triggering a flurry of images. But weasels are a different story. 



Their bodies are small and they move fast. They often live in habitats with thick cover, making them almost invisible, even when present.



Roland Kays is a research professor at <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Carolina State University</a> and scientist at the N.C. Museum of Natural Sciences.



“We’re a little worried about the weasels,” said Kays. "We don’t see them very often, but it’s difficult to tell if they’re actually gone or if they’re just so sneaky that we can’t find them."



"We decided that we needed to better understand the best method to detect them. There wasn’t a great consensus on that.”



The lack of consensus led Kays and a group of researchers to try something new. Instead of relying on luck, they decided to identify the best <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-conservation-day-2024-saving-species-from-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bait</a> - and the best method - for attracting weasels to camera traps.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-designing-a-massive-survey">Designing a massive survey</h2>



Between January 2022 and April 2023, the scientists launched one of the largest camera-trap bait studies ever done for mustelids.



The team placed 486 cameras across 122 clusters in 14 U.S. states, focusing on areas where weasels were previously recorded or where habitat conditions seemed ideal.



Each site hosted a set of four trail cameras, positioned close enough to give weasels a full choice of lures while minimizing overlap between camera zones.



The researchers tested various bait types. These included red meat, raw chicken, cat food, and scent-based lures like anise oil, salmon oil, and a commercial product called Weasel Super All Call. 



In 2023, they switched fully to meat baits after finding weak results from scent lures alone the year before.



The bait wasn't just thrown on the ground. It was secured in cages to prevent theft by other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-era-in-wildlife-conservation-how-ai-will-help-protect-elephants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>. One new method, a cage-within-a-cage system, eventually proved highly successful in stopping bait robbers like raccoons and coyotes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-weasels-preferred">What the weasels preferred</h2>



“There is a huge variety of scent lures available, and trappers often make their own from all kinds of ingredients,” noted Kays. “As it turns out, however, just having a chunk of meat works the best.”



Red meat emerged as the top performer. It tripled the chance of weasel detection compared to scent lures alone. 



Short-tailed weasels especially loved red meat, showing up twice as often at those <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-secretly-reshape-landscapes-in-powerful-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bait</a> stations than at sites with chicken or cat food. When salmon oil was added to the red meat, results improved even further - especially for short-tailed weasels.



In the southern U.S., long-tailed weasels appeared more frequently at chicken-baited sites. They also arrived faster. On average, it took just 14.5 days for a chicken-baited camera to record a long-tailed weasel, compared to nearly 40 days with red meat.



Cat food, by contrast, was the least effective. It took over 27 days to attract weasels - if it attracted them at all.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-least-weasel-may-be-in-trouble">The least weasel may be in trouble</h2>



Of all the weasel species in North America, the least weasel remains the most mysterious. The study detected only four individuals in total - one in 2022 and three in 2023.



Their scarcity raises conservation alarms. Researchers have suggested that the least weasel may be the most endangered of the group, with one study estimating a 54% decline in this species' habitat over the past century.



Even in targeted areas, where previous records or ideal habitats existed, least weasels barely registered. This highlights the need for specialized monitoring tools, such as enclosed camera traps like the Mostela, which have had some success in limited trials.



“Now that we have an understanding of the best ways to lure the weasels, we can be more confident in the findings of our surveys,” Kays said. 



“When we have sites where we don’t detect them, we can be much more assured that they aren’t just in hiding, they’re really just not there at all.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-activity-patterns-and-behavioral-clues">Activity patterns and behavioral clues</h2>



The study also revealed new insights into how different weasel species behave. Short-tailed weasels were active both day and night - an unusual pattern that differs from past observations in Europe and Canada.



In contrast, long-tailed weasels were mostly nocturnal or crepuscular, showing peak activity at dawn and dusk.



These activity patterns have practical implications. If researchers know when weasels are likely to appear, they can time camera placements and checks more effectively. 



It also offers clues about predator-prey dynamics, as prey animals may adjust their own schedules to avoid these hunters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-bait-matters">Why bait matters</h2>



Getting the bait right was only half the battle. The researchers quickly learned that non-target species - especially raccoons and opossums - loved the bait too. Red meat and chicken were often stolen, reducing the time that bait remained in front of cameras.



In southern sites, bait theft was particularly high. This lowered detection rates. When cameras lost their bait early, they became less attractive to passing weasels. 



In contrast, northern sites experienced less bait theft. That could explain why red meat worked so well in the north, where short-tailed weasels live.



The addition of salmon oil helped keep sites attractive even after the meat disappeared. Its strong scent lingered, possibly drawing in curious weasels until the bait was replenished. Cameras baited with salmon oil recorded detections in just 6.5 days, compared to 22 days without the oil.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-a-better-monitoring-system">Building a better monitoring system</h2>



This study provides a crucial step toward standardizing how we monitor small carnivores like weasels. With clear bait preferences identified, wildlife agencies can now deploy cost-effective, reliable surveys over large areas.



The best approach? Use red meat or chicken, depending on the region. Add salmon oil for stronger scent cues. Protect the bait using a cage-within-a-cage system. Place cameras in areas with prior weasel activity or suitable habitat. And check the traps monthly during winter, when meat lasts longer and bear activity is low.



Large-scale, standardized surveys like this can finally reveal what decades of anecdotal data couldn’t - the locations where weasels still thrive, and those where they don’t, and how their numbers change over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-way-to-track-weasels">A new way to track weasels</h2>



Despite their size, weasels carry ecological weight. They matter. This study, which was published in <a href="https://wildlife.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/wsb.1580" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wildlife Society Bulletin</a>, helps bring these predators out of the shadows.



The research team included experts from over 20 universities and wildlife agencies, and was led by corresponding author Scott M. Bergeson of <a href="https://www.pfw.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Purdue University Fort Wayne</a>. Funding came from the Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act of 1937, a cornerstone of American conservation.



Thanks to their work, weasels are no longer invisible. We can now track their paths, confirm their presence, and protect what remains - one camera trap at a time.



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Weasels are vanishing - or are they just too sneaky to spot?

The forests and fields of North America hold secrets that...

When you sit down to work, your to-do list waits, but so does your phone. One buzz, one glance at your phone, and suddenly you’re distracted, and start scrolling through a feed, not a spreadsheet.



This cycle repeats daily, quietly slicing your attention into fragments. It feels innocent and normal, but the effects run deep.



We often blame the phone itself. It’s a small, glowing thing we can’t resist. Productivity hacks suggest hiding it, muting it, or moving it away. But do these tricks actually help? 



A recent study, published in Frontiers in Computer Science, challenges this approach. It asks a deceptively simple question: If you put the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/phone-bans-dont-help-children-learn-to-navigate-the-digital-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phone</a> just a little farther away, does your mind come back to focus? The answer turns out to be more complicated than expected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-subtle-changes-and-behavioral-shifts">Subtle changes and behavioral shifts</h2>



“The study shows that putting the smartphone away may not be sufficient to reduce disruption and procrastination, or increase focus,” stated Dr. Maxi Heitmayer, a researcher at the London School of Economics (<a href="https://www.lse.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LSE</a>) and author of the study.



“The problem is not rooted within the device itself, but in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/taking-a-smartphone-break-can-improve-your-life-in-surprising-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habits and routines</a> that we have developed with our devices.”



To explore this, the researchers invited 22 participants into a controlled setting. For two days, each participant worked alone in a soundproof room. They brought the devices they usually used at work - laptops and phones.



The researchers did not change notification settings. All incoming alerts came naturally, as they would on any other workday.



The only variable that shifted was the phone’s location. On one day, it stayed right on the participant’s desk. On the other, it was placed 1.5 meters (about 5 feet) away, on a separate surface. This small shift created a subtle yet revealing change in behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-phones-aren-t-the-only-distraction">Phones aren't the only distraction </h2>



When the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/childrens-screen-time-shapes-their-mental-health-as-teens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phone</a> sat within arm’s reach, people used it often. When it was farther away, phone use decreased. But rather than becoming more focused, participants simply diverted their attention elsewhere - primarily to their laptops.



This redirection didn’t affect how much time people spent on actual work versus leisure. The total amount of distraction remained consistent across both setups. 



So, even when the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-media-pressure-is-straining-teen-friendships/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phone</a> was harder to reach, the impulse to break concentration didn’t vanish - it just found a new outlet. Phones still drew more attention than laptops.



“It’s your connection with loved ones and with work. It’s your navigation system, alarm clock, music player, and source of information. Unsurprisingly, people turn to the tool that does everything,” said Heitmayer.



“Even if you have no clear purpose, you know it has your socials and can provide entertainment.”



Though laptops could provide similar access, they lacked the same appeal. Phones felt more distracting to use. They were more portable, more personal, and more instantly rewarding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-phone-itself-is-not-the-issue">The phone itself is not the issue</h2>



“In my research I want to shift the discourse beyond device-centric debates,” Heitmayer said. “The smartphone itself is not the problem. It’s what we do with it and, frankly, the apps that generate and reinforce these habits." 



"The key issue lies in the rituals we’ve built around these devices. Picking up a phone doesn’t require intent anymore. It’s automatic. A second of silence, a moment of rest, and we reach our hand out toward it, without thinking."



This reflex isn’t just about checking the time or answering a call. It's about filling tiny gaps in the day - gaps where our brain used to wander, pause, or recharge. Those gaps are now filled with feeds, images, updates, and loops that rarely end with one swipe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-phone-apps-designed-for-distraction">Phone apps designed for distraction</h2>



To reduce distractions, people often try turning off phone notifications or setting strict rules. Some set alarms to limit scrolling. Others use apps to block other apps. These strategies may offer brief relief, but they rarely change behavior for long.



“Whenever there is a small break, people check their phone, regardless of whatever system they have in place. And then there’s the socials, which is an entirely different beast,” said Heitmayer.



“There is a very unequal battle fought out every single day by each and every one of us when we use our phones."



“The things inside phones that are the biggest attention sinks are developed by large corporations who greatly profit from our failure to resist the temptation to use them; all of this is literally by design.”



The most engaging parts of your phone are not random. They are engineered. Social media apps, messaging platforms, news updates - they all compete for your time. Such apps reward small clicks with large dopamine hits. And they rely on repeated use, even if you feel worse afterward.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-call-for-responsibility-and-protection">A call for responsibility and protection</h2>



For most adults, managing their relationship with phones and their constant distraction takes daily effort.



It’s hard, even when we understand what’s happening. But for younger users, who have grown up with this digital environment as a norm, the risks may be even greater.



“These devices are incredibly useful and can facilitate learning and creativity, but they come at a cost that most adults struggle to manage, so we simply cannot ignore this,” noted Heitmayer.



This caution points to a future where digital responsibility must expand. It’s not enough to educate users on balance in their lives. Platforms and apps must be designed with user well-being in mind.



Children, in particular, need tools that support - rather than erode - their ability to focus, reflect, and grow.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-it-s-not-the-phone-it-s-the-habit">It’s not the phone, it’s the habit</h2>



At the center of this issue lies a simple truth: distraction is a habit that is alive and well. In order to make a significant change, we must recognize the loop and disrupt it - not just with tools or rules, but with awareness and intention.



When we stop seeing the phone as the sole culprit, we can start reshaping the way we think, work, and live in its presence.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/computer-science/articles/10.3389/fcomp.2025.1422244/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Computer Science</a>.



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Digital distraction: The real culprit isn’t your phone

When you sit down to work, your to-do list waits,...

Predicting whether it will rain or snow might seem like a basic job for weather forecasters. But, as it turns out, classifying precipitation as either rain or snow - especially when temperatures hover around freezing - is far trickier than we might think.



A recent study, led by researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, puts this challenge into sharp focus.



Using massive datasets and both traditional and machine learning models, the experts found that even the most advanced tools can struggle with one key problem: nature doesn’t always make a clear distinction between rain and snow.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-importance-of-getting-it-right">The importance of getting it right</h2>



Knowing whether <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/future-forecast-more-extreme-precipitation-ahead/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">precipitation</a> is falling as rain or snow matters more than most people realize. It affects road and air travel, flood forecasting, reservoir planning, and infrastructure maintenance. 



In mountainous regions, it’s even more critical. A snow-heavy storm may boost a ski season or replenish water reserves. But if that same storm delivers rain instead, it could trigger floods or damage roads and bridges.



Despite the stakes, weather stations rarely have direct measurements that can tell us whether it's raining or snowing. Most surface data - such as temperature, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humidity-increases-urban-heat-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humidity</a>, and pressure - come from airports and don’t reflect the complex conditions in mountainous terrain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rain-and-snow-at-the-freezing-point">Rain and snow at the freezing point</h2>



To fill the gap, meteorologists use something called “precipitation phase partitioning.” These are mathematical methods that estimate rain or snow based on surface data. 



But there’s a catch: they work best when it's clearly cold or warm. Around the freezing point, where conditions for rain and snow are nearly identical, the predictions often miss the mark.



“The challenge is at those temperatures near <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/north-american-lakes-are-freezing-later-thawing-earlier/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">freezing</a>, the air and wet bulb temperature distributions of rain and snow overlap heavily,” explained Dr. Keith Jennings, lead researcher on the project. "This means the traditional partitioning methods cannot consistently separate rain from snow."



"What surprised us is that the machine learning models did not perform much better. Even by using more data and complex mathematics, they are still trying to tease apart the same information, and they’re seeing rain and snow with almost the exact same meteorological properties.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-tech-same-problem">New tech, same problem</h2>



The team analyzed two major sources of data. One was a collection of nearly 40,000 crowd-sourced weather observations from NASA’s Mountain Rain or Snow project. The other was a dataset of over 17 million weather reports from across the Northern Hemisphere.



They tested both older partitioning techniques - like basic temperature thresholds - and more sophisticated machine learning tools such as random forest, XGBoost, and artificial neural networks. These models had access to the same types of surface weather data.



Despite their complexity, the machine learning models only performed slightly better than traditional methods. The boost in accuracy was tiny - just 0.6% at most.



All methods struggled to classify precipitation correctly near freezing, especially in the 1.0°C to 2.5°C range. The models also failed to reliably identify mixed precipitation (like sleet) and rain that falls when it is below freezing.



The study pinpointed the core issue: rain and snow simply occur under very similar conditions at these borderline <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astonishing-global-heat-in-january-2025-defied-climate-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperatures</a>. When the input data doesn’t clearly separate the two, no amount of model sophistication can compensate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-increasing-rain-on-snow-events">Increasing rain-on-snow events</h2>



This research suggests that it's time to rethink how we approach the rain-versus-snow problem. 



Instead of trying to squeeze more performance out of limited surface <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellite-data-could-revolutionize-weather-forecasts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weather data</a>, scientists may need to explore new types of input. That could mean tapping into different data streams - like radar, satellites, and more crowd-sourced reports. 



These tools might provide the missing context that surface measurements alone can't offer. As the climate continues to shift, getting precipitation forecasts right is only becoming more important.



Rain-on-snow events are expected to become more common, increasing the risk of floods and infrastructure stress. Knowing the difference between a snowstorm and a rainstorm could be the key to managing those risks.



If we want to be prepared for the storms of tomorrow, we may need to stop asking surface data to do what it simply cannot. It is time to start building smarter, more integrated systems that reflect the full picture of what's happening in the sky.



The study was a collaboration between experts from UVM, Lynker, the Desert Research Institute, the Cooperative Institute for Research in the Atmosphere, the University of Nevada Reno, and Utah State University.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-58234-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Rain and snow are difficult to forecast at near-freezing temperatures

Predicting whether it will rain or snow might seem like...

Some fish are not just fast - they’re smart. A team of scientists, including researchers from the University of Edinburgh, has revealed a never-seen-before hunting trick in the Mediterranean Sea. Small fish called blue runners hide behind sandbar sharks to sneak up on prey.



This behavior stands out. Fish often swim near <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-sharks-make-sounds-despite-not-having-vocal-cords/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sharks</a> to avoid threats or shed parasites. But hiding behind a shark to launch a hunt? That’s a first.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-use-sharks-as-cover">Fish use sharks as cover </h2>



Until now, scientists had noticed that fish sometimes trail sharks. This was usually for protection or parasite removal. Some even used <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/top-predator-missing-what-happens-when-great-white-sharks-disappear/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sharks</a> as moving shields to escape larger predators. But the new footage captured around Lampione Island in Italy shows something more calculated.



Over several years, divers and remotely operated vehicles recorded 34 separate cases of blue runners sneaking behind sharks. Each time, a lone blue runner shadowed a sandbar shark for about 30 seconds. Then, without warning, it broke away to dart at smaller fish, especially damselfish.



What changed wasn’t just the fish’s timing - but their approach. Blue runners typically hunt in groups. But these solo hunts seemed far more effective when combined with the shark’s distraction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shark-cover-boosts-hunting-success">Shark cover boosts hunting success </h2>



The team analyzed hours of underwater footage to understand the success of this hunting trick. The findings were clear. When blue runners used sharks as cover, prey detected them only 10 percent of the time.



In contrast, when they hunted as a group - without shark cover - their targets noticed them over 95 percent of the time.



The difference changed everything. Instead of fleeing or forming tight defensive schools, the damselfish and other prey stayed relaxed. The shark’s presence seemed to lull them into a false sense of security, never realizing another <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-shark-species-face-extinction-despite-fishing-bans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predator</a> swam in its shadow.



The blue runners also appeared to gain other benefits. Scientists believe that swimming behind the shark may help conserve energy, thanks to reduced water resistance. It may also offer safety, as predators are less likely to attack a fish moving close to a large shark.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-rare-gathering-of-sharks">A rare gathering of sharks</h2>



This remarkable behavior occurs in one of the few places in the Mediterranean where sandbar sharks still gather in groups. 



Every summer, they return to the waters around Lampione Island, creating what scientists call an “aggregation.” This kind of natural event is rare in these seas, especially as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chemical-clues-from-old-shark-jaws-reveal-diets-and-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shark populations</a> decline due to overfishing and habitat stress.



Because of the consistency and uniqueness of this site, the researchers had the chance to observe complex behaviors that would likely go unnoticed elsewhere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shark-loss-could-affect-hunting-behavior">Shark loss could affect hunting behavior</h2>



“The study highlights how interactions between species can drive alternative hunting tactics in marine ecosystems. Understanding these dynamics enriches our knowledge of marine biodiversity and underscores the importance of conserving high-level predators, like sharks,” said Professor Fabio Badalamenti, of the University of Edinburgh and CNR-IAS Palermo.



“This unique interaction emphasizes the ecological importance of the few remaining shark aggregations, which can influence the structure and function of ecosystems,“ noted Dr. Carlo Cattano, of the Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn.



“Lampione Island is one of only two known aggregation areas for the sandbar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-some-great-hammerhead-sharks-rarely-leave-home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shark</a> in the Mediterranean Sea. The ongoing decline in large shark populations due to overfishing could jeopardize associations like these, which could have knock-on effects on other species.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-dynamics-of-fragile-ecosystems">Hidden dynamics of fragile ecosystems </h2>



This behavior isn't just a cool trick of nature - it carries serious implications. The blue runners’ strategy depends on the shark’s presence. If sharks vanish, so might these unique hunting methods. As top predators decline, ripple effects may shift entire ecosystems in ways we don’t yet understand.



Understanding these hidden dynamics reveals how fragile marine systems can be. Every player in the food web, no matter how strong or small, shapes the behavior of others. 



Preserving biodiversity, then, isn't just about saving one species - it’s about keeping the game of life in motion, with all its surprises intact.



The study's success resulted from collaboration across institutions. Scientists from the University of Edinburgh, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, the National Biodiversity Future Center, CNR-IAS, and the University of Palermo all played roles.​



Support from the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.bluemarinefoundation.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Blue Marine Foundation</a>&nbsp;and the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.org/society/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Geographic Society</a>&nbsp;enabled long-term observation, which proved key in documenting this behavior over multiple seasons.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ecy.70028" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology</a>.



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Sneaky fish use sharks like moving shields while hunting

Some fish are not just fast - they’re smart. A...

Farmers rely on insecticides to protect their crops from damage by pests. But using them too often may lead to an unexpected side effect - more weeds.



A new study reveals that the way insecticides are applied can shape weed growth, especially in corn and soybean fields. 



Researchers from <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a> conducted a three-year study to understand the bigger picture. They compared two insecticide strategies: applying them preventively at planting, versus only applying them when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pesticides-have-become-increasingly-toxic-to-insects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a> were actually present. 



The experts also tested how cover crops - plants grown after harvest to protect the soil - interact with both approaches.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insecticides-may-harm-helpful-insects">Insecticides may harm helpful insects</h2>



By the third year, the results showed a clear pattern. Fields treated with insecticides but left without cover crops ended up with more weeds, especially a type called marestail. In contrast, fields with cover crops didn’t have this issue - even if insecticides were used.



This finding raised questions. One possible reason, the researchers suggest, is that insecticides may be hurting more than just the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-use-a-molecular-alarm-system-to-respond-to-insect-pests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pests</a>. 



Some insects - like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-will-climate-impact-the-beetles-that-protect-our-crops/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beetles</a>, crickets, and ants - actually help by eating weed seeds. If these helpful insects are harmed by the insecticides, the weeds have more of a chance to thrive.



“Always using an insecticide at planting does not seem to be the best approach in Pennsylvania, considering that early-season insect pests tend to be a relatively uncommon problem,” said John Tooker, a professor of entomology in the College of Agricultural Sciences at Penn State.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-case-for-smarter-pest-control">A case for smarter pest control</h2>



The study supports the idea of integrated pest management (IPM). Instead of spraying chemicals by default, IPM involves monitoring fields and only treating them when necessary. This reduces harm to helpful insects and may keep weed populations in check.



“When taking an IPM approach, we advocate for using the right products at the right time to control the right pests, and that will also then help reduce these negative consequences of using these treatments too much,” said Tooker.



This message may be especially important now. Elizabeth Rowen, lead author of the study and assistant professor at the University of California, Riverside, said that weeds are getting harder to manage.



“Many of the seeds growers use were developed to not be killed by herbicides,” explained Rowen.



“This allows growers to use glyphosate to control weeds; however, this also results in the evolution of herbicide-resistant weeds, which makes it much harder to control weeds without killing the crops. So, having multiple strategies to help manage weeds is really important.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-benefits-of-less-insecticide-use">Benefits of less insecticide use</h2>



The study was carried out at Penn State’s Russell E. Larson Agricultural Research Center. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-sweet-corn-at-high-densities-improves-yield/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Corn</a> and soybean plots were assigned one of three pest control treatments: preventive insecticides at the time of planting, IPM-based insecticides used only when needed, or no insecticides at all. Each treatment was tested with and without cover crops.



Over the course of three years, the researchers tracked many details. They measured cover crop growth, insect communities, seed predation, weed density, and crop yields.



The results showed that applying insecticides only when needed did not reduce productivity. In fact, it came with some added benefits - less pesticide use and better weed control when cover crops were involved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-limited-approach-pays-off">A limited approach pays off</h2>



“Oftentimes corn and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-virus-can-benefit-soybean-eating-insects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soybean</a> fields are so big that growers are inclined to do all of the management up front so they don't have to go back and walk the fields,” Tooker said. 



“But our evidence suggests that walking these fields to identify problems as they happen can provide clear benefits in terms of not needing certain pesticides, namely many of the fungicides and insecticides.”



Taking time to observe what’s actually happening in the soil and among the plants can reveal issues that automated treatments might overlook. 



This study reminds us that nature is full of connections. Choosing when and how to use insecticides may not just control pests - it can also change the entire balance of a field.



The research suggests that a slower, more watchful approach might lead to better results in the long run.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://peerj.com/articles/18597/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PeerJ</a>.



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Insecticides may be helping weeds thrive

Farmers rely on insecticides to protect their crops from damage...

Every thought we have, every emotion we feel, and every memory we hold requires one essential ingredient: energy. 



This energy is produced by mitochondria - tiny, bean-shaped structures inside our cells that act like batteries, powering everything our body does.



In the brain, mitochondria are especially important. But for all their importance, we still know very little about how these microscopic engines are distributed throughout the brain, how they vary, or how they impact mental health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-map-of-mitochondria-in-the-brain">Map of mitochondria in the brain</h2>



To investigate, scientists at <a href="https://www.columbia.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Columbia University</a> created a tool called MitoBrainMap, the first comprehensive map of mitochondria distribution across the human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-complete-map-of-every-neuron-in-the-brain-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain</a>.



This tool offers a closer look at how energy is managed in different parts of the brain, and what that means for our mood, memory, and overall brain function.



The study was led by Martin Picard, associate professor of behavioral medicine at the Robert N. Butler Columbia Aging Center, along with with Michel Thiebaut de Schotten, who is a research director at the University of Bordeaux.



“There’s an emerging notion that energy is really important to health, but we don’t have a way to look at bioenergetics across the entire human brain,” explained Picard.



“MitoBrainMap marks a milestone toward understanding the energy landscape underlying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-health-may-literally-be-a-state-of-mind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain health</a>, with implications for tracing the origin of neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric disorders and developing new approaches to treatment."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detailed-energy-profile-of-the-brain">Detailed energy profile of the brain</h2>



Studying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mitochondria-cells-batteries-leaking-causes-inflammation-diseases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mitochondria</a> in the brain isn’t easy. Traditional brain scans like MRIs give a big-picture view, while microscopic studies only focus on individual cells. The researchers needed a way to connect these two scales.



They started with a frozen human brain. From this brain, they sliced out a section and cut it into 703 small cubes, each measuring just 3 millimeters on each side. That’s about the size of a grain of sand and similar to the resolution of standard brain scans.



Inside each cube, the experts measured two things: the number of mitochondria and how efficiently those mitochondria could convert nutrients into usable energy.



These results were then used to build a detailed energy profile of that single brain slice.



Since analyzing all 50,000 sections of a whole brain would take years, the team used computational modeling to estimate the energy map for the rest of the brain. 



This approach allowed them to create a first-of-its-kind model of how energy is spread out in the human brain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mitochondria-vary-by-brain-region">Mitochondria vary by brain region</h2>



The results were surprising. Mitochondria, it turns out, are not uniformly distributed. Their density and energy-producing capabilities vary not just by the type of brain cell, but also by brain region.



Anna Monzel is a computational research scientist who was involved with the single cell mitochondrial phenotyping ("mitotyping") component of the study.



“These differences are remarkable since all mitochondria originate from the same 'mother' pool of mitochondria in the oocyte,” said Monzel.



“But during development they specialize in a cell type-dependent manner to subserve bioenergetic demands and guide the acquisition of specific cellular phenotypes."



Newer parts of the human brain - those that evolved more recently and help define what makes us human - had more mitochondria.



These mitochondria were also more efficient. That makes sense, considering these newer regions are more energy-hungry than older parts of the brain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-energy-and-mental-function">Brain energy and mental function </h2>



The team’s initial map is just the beginning. Future work will focus on validating and expanding these findings. 



“If validated, our model could be used to estimate the functional properties of mitochondria in the live brain using standard MRI scans, essentially creating the first non-invasive way of peering into the biology of mitochondrial bioenergetics in the human brain,” said study first author Eugene Mosharov, a research scientist in the Department of Psychiatry.



This would open up entirely new ways to study the connection between brain energy and mental function in real time - during learning, emotional experiences, or even <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/contagion-most-people-would-conceal-an-infectious-illness-in-public/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">illness</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-the-accuracy-of-the-brain-map">Improving the accuracy of the brain map</h2>



The researchers are already working on a second version of MitoBrainMap. They’re analyzing brain samples from 500 individuals, and looking at nine different regions to see how mitochondrial patterns vary from person to person.



These efforts will improve the accuracy of the map and help explain how energy differences might relate to conditions like Alzheimer’s or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/depression-increases-the-risk-of-stroke/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">depression</a>.



“Energy is the missing dimension of biomedicine,” said Picard. "If you think of health as energy, it inspires you to ask different questions. How much energy does it cost to heal the brain? Does the food you eat influence your mitochondria? Do energy constraints affect normal brain function, or the development of Alzheimer’s disease?" 



"This MitoBrainMap v1.0 is a step toward understanding the energetics of the brain and the experiences it allows us to have.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-energy-in-the-brain">Significance of energy in the brain</h2>



By visualizing how energy is distributed in the brain, MitoBrainMap encourages us to think differently about mental health and disease. 



It suggests that energy - something we rarely consider - may be just as important as anatomy or chemistry for brain function.



This first version is just a starting point. As scientists continue to build on this map, it could become a powerful tool in understanding not just the brain, but the experience of being human.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08740-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Fueling the mind: New map reveals where the brain gets its energy

Every thought we have, every emotion we feel, and every...

In recent years, cold plunges have become a fixture on wellness feeds and gym schedules. People swear by them - claiming everything from mental clarity to faster recovery. But what does science say when you strip away the hype?



A team of researchers at the <a href="https://www.uottawa.ca/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Ottawa</a> has taken a closer look. Their work didn’t just explore how our bodies handle cold on the outside. It examined what happens on a much deeper level: inside your cells. 



The results of the study could shape how we think about cold exposure and its place in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organ-aging-can-predict-diseases-decades-in-advance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">everyday health</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cold-plunges-change-cells-in-one-week">Cold plunges change cells in one week</h2>



​The&nbsp;<a href="https://hepru.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Human and Environmental Physiology Research Unit</a>&nbsp;conducted a tightly controlled experiment with ten healthy young men.​



Over seven days, each participant immersed himself in 14°C (57.2°F) water for one hour per day. Blood samples were drawn before and after the cold-water sessions on days 1, 4, and 7.



The aim wasn’t to measure surface-level outcomes like muscle soreness. Instead, the team analyzed peripheral blood mononuclear cells to examine cellular stress, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-protein-that-reverses-cellular-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">recovery</a>, and resilience. 



They focused on autophagy (the body's way of cleaning out damaged components) and apoptosis (programmed cell death).



“Our findings indicate that repeated cold exposure significantly improves autophagic function, a critical cellular protective mechanism,” said Professor Kenny. 



“This enhancement allows cells to better manage stress and could have important implications for health and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/defying-time-three-ways-to-slow-biological-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">longevity</a>.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-cold-plunges-caused-stress">Early cold plunges caused stress</h2>



On the first day, the researchers found clear signs of stress. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/random-dna-mutations-shape-biological-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cells</a> showed an increase in proteins like p62, which typically accumulate when autophagy is disrupted. 



LC3-II, a marker of autophagic activity, did not increase. Apoptotic signaling also rose, with a marked spike in cleaved caspase-3, a protein that signals a cell is on its way to self-destruction.



This meant that initially, the cold exposure was overwhelming the cells. The natural repair systems weren't strong enough to counteract the damage. But that would begin to change by day four.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signals-of-cellular-recovery">Signals of cellular recovery</h2>



By the fourth day of immersion, early signs of adaptation emerged. LC3-II levels began to climb slightly, and p62 dropped - although still above baseline.



However, caspase-3 remained high, indicating the cells were still battling stress. The balance had not yet tipped in favor of full recovery.



“By the end of the acclimation, we noted a marked improvement in the participants’ cellular cold tolerance. This suggests that cold acclimation may help the body effectively cope with extreme environmental conditions," explained King, the study's first author.



Day seven marked a significant change. LC3-II rose substantially, showing robust autophagic activity. p62 dropped below baseline. 



Caspase-3 levels returned to near normal. The cells had started to regulate themselves more efficiently, showing they had adapted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cellular-learning-confirmed">Cellular learning confirmed</h2>



To take it further, the researchers tested the participants’ blood cells in cold conditions outside the body - before and after the week-long immersion routine.



Known as ex vivo testing, this allowed the team to simulate hypothermic states (temperatures as low as 4°C) without endangering the volunteers.



Before acclimation, these tests revealed poor autophagic responses and increased <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-reverse-aging-a-bold-new-approach-could-reprogram-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">apoptosis</a> across all cold conditions. 



But after the seven-day program, LC3-II increased significantly at every temperature below 35°C. Apoptotic signals, particularly cleaved caspase-3, decreased, while p62 remained lower across the board.



These shifts showed that cells had become better at handling cold stress, even when removed from the body. It wasn’t just temporary resistance - it was programmed cellular behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cold-plunges-triggered-stress-proteins">Cold plunges triggered stress proteins</h2>



While tracking autophagy and apoptosis, the researchers also looked at heat shock proteins - namely HSP70 and HSP90. 



These proteins help stabilize other proteins during stress. Both increased during cold immersion but did not change significantly across the seven days.



This suggests that the cold exposure was enough to activate them, but the level of stimulus did not escalate throughout the week. 



Instead, it’s possible the body tuned its internal systems to respond more efficiently without ramping up these proteins further.



“This work underscores the importance of acclimation protocols in enhancing human health, especially in contexts where individuals are exposed to extreme temperatures,” noted Professor Kenny.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cooling-curve-and-shivering-clues">Cooling curve and shivering clues</h2>



Besides cellular markers, physiological changes supported the idea of adaptation. 



By day seven, participants had smaller increases in blood lactate levels - indicating less shivering. The body was becoming more efficient at conserving heat without relying on rapid muscle contractions.



Cooling rates slowed too. Participants took longer to reach the cutoff esophageal temperature of 35.5°C. While core temperature didn’t differ much across days, these smaller indicators confirmed the shift in cold tolerance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-and-death-inside-a-cell">Life and death inside a cell</h2>



Interestingly, at colder temperatures (33°C and below), both autophagic and apoptotic signals rose post-acclimation. 



This dual response could mean cells were trying to survive using every tool available. When stress surpassed a certain threshold, even enhanced autophagy wasn’t enough to prevent some cells from progressing toward death.



This mirrors findings in animal models, where excessive autophagy can trigger cell death if damage is too severe. 



The takeaway? Cold adaptation boosts protection, but it’s not a magic shield against extreme stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cold-plunges-may-slow-cellular-aging">Cold plunges may slow cellular aging</h2>



"We were amazed to see how quickly the body adapted," said King. "Cold exposure might help prevent diseases and potentially even slow down aging at a cellular level. It's like a tune-up for your body's microscopic machinery."



While this research focused on healthy young males, it opens a door for broader inquiry. 



Could older adults benefit from structured cold exposure? What about people with chronic illnesses that impair autophagic function? 



These are next steps scientists are eager to explore.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cold-exposure-as-health-practice">Cold exposure as health practice</h2>



This study presents a strong case for integrating safe, structured cold exposure into wellness routines. 



Seven days of one-hour immersion changed how cells handled stress, repaired themselves, and avoided damage. It’s one of the first studies to show these changes at a molecular level in humans.



More research will help define guidelines: how cold, how long, and how often. But one thing is clear - the body learns. And when exposed with care, cold might not be something to avoid, but something to use.



Whether you're an athlete or just someone curious about longevity, this research suggests that the answer might be hiding in plain sight - or maybe, in a tub of ice water.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://advanced.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/adbi.202400111" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Advanced Biology</a>.



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Cold plunges improve your health by literally changing your cells

In recent years, cold plunges have become a fixture on...

The mortar, pestle, and cutting board you use in your kitchen today are modern tools rooted in ancient tradition. Long before stainless steel and ceramic surfaces, people used manos and metates - stone tools designed to grind plants and seeds into edible forms.



A mano is a handheld stone, used in tandem with a metate, which is a flat slab or natural rock depression. Some of these bedrock grinding surfaces date back as far as 15,500 years and appear in clusters across archaeological sites around the world.



Recently, scientists from the <a href="https://www.utah.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Utah</a>, working through the Natural History Museum of Utah (NHMU), have begun using innovative techniques to extract microscopic plant residues from these ancient bedrock metates.



By doing so, they’re uncovering details about the diets and lives of the people who used them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-deeper-into-ancient-tools">Looking deeper into ancient tools</h2>



“People have lived here for time immemorial and have been processing native plants on ground <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tool-discovery-challenges-entire-theory-of-human-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stone tools</a> for a long time too,” said archaeobotanist Stefania Wilks, a research assistant at NHMU and graduate student at the University of Utah.



Her work focuses on identifying food and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/narrowing-the-search-for-new-medicinal-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">medicinal plants</a> processed in the past to understand both traditional lifeways and how landscapes have shifted over time.



Wilks is part of a team working with NHMU’s Curator of Archaeology, Lisbeth Louderback, also a professor of anthropology at the University of Utah. Together, they’re focusing on something extraordinarily small: starch granules.



These are microscopic structures within plant cells used to store energy. Some are so tiny that even the largest are still smaller than a tenth of a millimeter.



Because they’re so small, starch granules can’t be seen with the naked eye. The researchers have to extract them from surfaces where plants were once processed - like pottery, basketry, and now, bedrock metates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-matter-in-ancient-bedrock">Plant matter in ancient bedrock</h2>



Louderback suspected that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bedrock-may-be-secretly-supplying-trees-with-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bedrock</a> metates, despite being exposed to the elements, might still contain preserved plant matter.



Specifically, she believed that deep crevices in the stone might be hiding starch granules that people unknowingly pushed into the rock while grinding food.



“Through their actions of grinding and mashing, people would have forced these starches down deeper into the stone,” Wilks explained.



The bedrock metates themselves come in many forms. In Utah, they’re often long grooves in sandstone. In other areas, they may be bowl-shaped or resemble a modern-day mortar.



While they may not catch the eye like arrowheads or pottery, they are commonly found in groups and can be rich with information.



“They aren’t sexy like an arrowhead, but they still contain valuable information about what plants people processed in the past," said Wilks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-digging-into-the-dirt-microscopically">Digging into the dirt - microscopically</h2>



The research team focused on southern Oregon, where metates are found along basalt outcrops and surrounded by thousands of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/negev-petroglyphs-ancient-art-rock-carvings-face-erosion-fungi-lichens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">petroglyphs</a>.



These sites are also home to culturally significant plants - especially geophytes, which have underground storage organs like roots and tubers.



Archaeologists once believed that ancient people went to these uplands mainly for hunting. Wilks wanted to test whether the grinding surfaces were actually used for plant processing. The team collected samples from both the surface and the crevices of the metates.



First, they used an electric toothbrush and water to scrub the top layer of the stone. Then they added a deflocculant, a cleaning agent similar to detergent, to release particles trapped deeper in the rock. 



Another round with the electric toothbrush followed. For comparison, they performed the same process on nearby rocks that weren’t used for grinding.



When examined under a microscope, the results were clear. The surface samples showed almost no starch granules - nor did the control rocks.



But the material from inside the metate crevices? Hundreds of granules.



“It increased our confidence that what we were seeing was direct evidence that different plant species with starchy organs were processed on the metate,” Wilks recalled.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-diets-recorded-in-bedrock">Ancient diets recorded in bedrock</h2>



With evidence in hand, the researchers began the meticulous process of identifying the starches. 



Wilks compared each granule’s shape and structure to modern examples of plants still found in the region. It was a slow and careful job, but worth the effort. The researchers identified starch granules from several plant families.



One common group was the carrot family, including plants known as biscuit root. They also identified wild grasses, likely wild rye, and members of the lily family. 



All of these plants have been - and in many cases still are - important food sources for local Indigenous communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-bedrock-holds-valuable-archives">Ancient bedrock holds valuable archives</h2>



“Starch analysis is helpful in studying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-diets-early-humans-richer-berries-nuts-plants-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human diets of the past</a> because some plant parts don’t preserve in the archaeological record,” Wilks said.



Root vegetables, for example, decay far faster than seeds or grains. By recovering starch granules from stone, archaeologists have a new way to piece together the food stories of ancient peoples.



These bedrock metates, often overlooked in archaeological surveys, are proving to be valuable archives of cultural history.



This new technique shows that even the most weathered stones can hold on to traces of the past. Each granule recovered tells a story - not just about what people ate, but how they lived, traveled, and used the land around them.



These simple tools, still hiding in plain sight, connect us to generations long gone but not forgotten.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-antiquity/article/starch-granule-evidence-for-biscuitroot-lomatium-spp-processing-at-upland-rock-art-sites-in-warner-valley-oregon/F33A2E88C9999D2786DBC45D89E9BF97" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Antiquity</a>.



Image Credit: Stefania Wilks, University of Utah



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What bedrock can tell us about ancient cooking and culture

The mortar, pestle, and cutting board you use in your...

Walk through any busy street, and you’ll hear it - music, playing from car windows, cafés, or earbuds. People love and enjoy music. It helps us celebrate, grieve, concentrate, and connect. But while we know how music makes us feel, we rarely ask why it makes us feel that way.



Why do <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/live-music-connects-people-emotionally-and-physically/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">melodies</a> spark joy? Why do rhythms move our bodies before we even think? Is our love for music something we learn, or does it go deeper?



A recent study published in Nature Communications brings new depth to this question. The research suggests that our ability to enjoy music is not simply a cultural product or personal habit. 



Scientists have now found that genetics also play a role in shaping how much pleasure we draw from music. That joy, it turns out, may be written in our DNA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-our-love-for-music-rooted-in-biology">Is our love for music rooted in biology?</h2>



For centuries, music has been <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-music-affects-a-babys-heartbeat-before-birth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">more than entertainment</a>. It reflects who we are. It binds people across generations and geographies. It serves as an emotional outlet and a social bridge. 



Even Charles Darwin, fascinated by music's power, once said it "must be ranked amongst the most mysterious with which he is endowed." Despite its deep cultural presence, we still struggle to explain the origins of music enjoyment.



This new research, led by scientists at the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.mpi.nl/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics</a>&nbsp;in the Netherlands, takes a scientific step forward. The international team set out to explore whether the pleasure people feel while listening to music is partly influenced by genetic differences.



“The answer to this big question has the potential to open a window into more general aspects of the human mind, such as how experiences become pleasurable,” said study first author and PhD candidate Giacomo Bignardi.



“We wanted to understand whether genetic differences between individuals can result in differences in the pleasure that people derive from music and what these differences can tell us about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-your-body-moves-to-music-even-if-you-dont-enjoy-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human musicality</a> in general.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strong-genetic-links-to-music-enjoyment">Strong genetic links to music enjoyment</h2>



To investigate, the researchers turned to twin studies - a powerful method in behavioral genetics. Identical twins share almost 100% of their DNA. Fraternal twins share about half.



By comparing similarities between these two groups, scientists can estimate how much genes contribute to a trait. If identical twins enjoy music in more similar ways than fraternal twins, then genetics likely play a part.



​The study was a collaboration between the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.aesthetics.mpg.de/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Empirical Aesthetics</a>&nbsp;in Germany and the&nbsp;<a href="https://ki.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Karolinska Institutet</a>&nbsp;in Sweden.&nbsp;It involved data from more than 9,000 twins.​



Participants provided self-reports on how much pleasure they get from music - what researchers call music reward sensitivity.



They also answered questions about their general sensitivity to rewards and completed tasks that measured their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-has-the-power-to-change-the-mood-of-our-memories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">musical perception</a>, such as identifying pitch, melody, and rhythm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-love-for-music-may-be-genetic">Love for music may be genetic</h2>



The findings were striking. The researchers estimated that about 54% of the variation in music reward sensitivity in the Swedish sample could be linked to genetic differences. 



That means more than half of the difference in how people respond to music may be inherited. This is a significant discovery. It implies that music enjoyment is not just a learned behavior or shaped by environment - it may be part of our biological design.



But the results went further. The researchers also found that the genes affecting music reward were not the same as those influencing general pleasure or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/live-music-evokes-stronger-emotions-than-streamed-music/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">musical skill</a>. 



That distinction is important. It means that enjoying music isn’t just about being musically talented or having a naturally cheerful personality. The capacity to feel joy from music stands apart.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-genes-for-different-experiences">Different genes for different experiences</h2>



As the research dug deeper, more complexity appeared. Music enjoyment is not one single experience. People find pleasure in different ways: some feel emotionally uplifted, others feel compelled to dance, while some enjoy making music with others. The genetic analysis reflected this richness.



The team found that different genetic pathways were associated with different aspects of music reward. This means that the genes influencing your emotional connection to music may differ from those that make you enjoy dancing to a beat or playing in a band.



“These findings suggest a complex picture in which partly distinct DNA differences contribute to different aspects of music enjoyment,” said Bignardi.



“Future research looking at which part of the genome contributes the most to the human ability to enjoy music has the potential to shed light on the human faculty that baffled Darwin the most, and which still baffles us today.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-music-enjoyment-is-inherited">Music enjoyment is inherited</h2>



This study reshapes how we think about the roots of musical pleasure. For years, scientists and philosophers treated music as a purely cultural artifact - something passed down through teaching and tradition. Now we see that biology plays a strong role.



The rhythm that makes your feet move or the melody that brings tears to your eyes may be part of your genetic inheritance.



That doesn’t mean culture or personal experience don’t matter. They still do. What we listen to and how we express our tastes remain deeply shaped by family, society, and personal history. But now, we can add another layer to the story: a biological one.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-music-enjoyment">Future research on music enjoyment </h2>



The study opens new possibilities. Future research may explore which regions of the genome are most involved. Scientists might one day discover genetic patterns linked to musical creativity or preference. Such findings could also have broader applications.



Understanding how our brains respond to music may offer clues to emotional regulation, mental health, or even cognitive development.



In the end, music continues to enchant, connect, and move us. This study reminds us that part of that magic might be found inside our genes - echoing across generations, written into the very code of our being.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-58123-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Some people are born to enjoy music more than others

Walk through any busy street, and you’ll hear it -...

For centuries, foie gras has graced the tables of royalty, chefs, and fine diners. Its creamy richness and deep flavor made it a culinary icon. But behind the luxury lies a harsh reality - one that has stirred protests, divided cultures, and triggered bans across nations.



Foie gras means “fatty liver” in French. Traditionally, it's made by force-feeding ducks or geese until their livers grow large and soft. Germany’s term, “Gänsestopfleber,” bluntly references its origins. 



Animal welfare groups have long opposed the practice. Cities like New York and countries like India have taken legal steps to limit or ban its production.



Still, demand has not vanished. Diners and chefs continue to admire foie gras for its taste and texture. The culinary world has struggled to find a satisfying, ethical replacement. Most plant-based or lab-grown <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-molecule-could-shape-the-future-of-food-security/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">versions</a> fall short in flavor or feel. 



But a group of scientists in Germany may have finally cracked the code.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recreating-foie-gras-without-cruelty">Recreating foie gras without cruelty</h2>



​At the&nbsp;Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research (<a href="https://www.mpip-mainz.mpg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MPI-P</a>)&nbsp;in Mainz, a team of physicists, chemists, and culinary enthusiasts teamed up for a bold experiment. With help from the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.sdu.dk/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southern Denmark</a>, they turned to data, microscopes, and texture analysis to reimagine foie gras without cruelty.​



The study's lead researcher, physicist Thomas Vilgis, also happens to be an avid home cook. He guided the group through months of food science and experimentation. The goal was simple but ambitious: to match the real thing in both flavor and mouthfeel - without harming animals.



“It has always been a goal to reproduce the taste and texture of real foie gras while not losing sight of animal welfare,” said Thomas Vilgis of MPI-P.



This wasn’t a culinary guessing game. They relied on precise tools to explore the microstructure of foie gras. Microscopes showed how fat settled in the liver and how collagen formed a soft, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frozen-food-new-thawing-methods-will-improve-safety-and-quality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supportive network</a>. 



They also used rheological tests to simulate the chewing process and melting sensation on the tongue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-foie-gras-unique">What makes foie gras unique</h2>



The research showed that foie gras isn't just fatty liver - it’s a delicate balance of collagen, fat, and moisture. The collagen gives it structure and softness, while irregular fat clumps create its creamy, melt-away finish.



With these details in hand, the team began crafting their version. They started by simmering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flowers-as-food-how-ultrasound-makes-it-possible/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">collagen</a>-rich tissues such as animal skin, which could provide that tender texture. Then, they added liver and fat in different ratios, trying to mimic the original’s complexity.



However, each batch left something missing. The texture didn’t quite match. The mouthfeel was either too firm or too smooth. Collagen tweaks helped only slightly. After many failed attempts, the experts realized they needed a new strategy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turning-to-nature-for-a-clue">Turning to nature for a clue</h2>



The breakthrough came with a small but powerful idea. They introduced goose lipases - natural enzymes used by birds to break down fat in their digestive systems. These enzymes had never been used in this context before.



By treating the fat with these enzymes, the team saw immediate changes. The fat began forming larger, irregular clumps. These formations closely resembled what they observed in real foie gras under the microscope.



The mouthfeel changed dramatically. It now melted and coated the tongue just like the original. Collagen alone had not done the job, but the enzyme-altered fat transformed the entire product.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-ethical-copy-with-authentic-taste">An ethical copy with authentic taste</h2>



The texture wasn’t the only improvement. The flavor took a step forward, too. Though still a prototype, this enzyme-treated pâté tasted remarkably close to real foie gras. The team avoided using synthetic additives or artificial enhancers.



Vilgis pushed for a clean recipe. He focused on the basic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-pistachio-dna-is-shaping-the-future-of-farming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ingredients</a> and how to manipulate them using science. No extra chemicals. No flavor boosters. Just technique, temperature, and timing.



He has now filed a patent to protect this approach. Talks are underway to explore commercial production. Future phases may involve chefs and sensory scientists to fine-tune taste and aroma. For now, the product holds promise as the most authentic and ethical foie gras alternative yet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-gourmet-without-cruelty">Future of gourmet without cruelty</h2>



This research shows what happens when science, ethics, and passion collide. 



It opens a new chapter for culinary traditions that once depended on animal suffering. Rather than discard foie gras altogether, Vilgis and his team reimagined it from the ground up.



Their creation is not just a lab product - it’s a culinary experience built with care and precision. The research has been published in <a href="https://pubs.aip.org/aip/pof/article/37/3/037196/3340498/Foie-gras-pate-without-force-feeding" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physics of Fluids</a>, a journal more known for fluid dynamics than fine dining. But here, science and food met in harmony.



It’s too early to know how chefs and food lovers will receive this version. Yet, it offers a path where taste and ethics can finally share the same plate.



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Cruelty-free foie gras made with enzymes, not force-feeding

For centuries, foie gras has graced the tables of royalty,...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



—–



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



-----



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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