Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Animals have long navigated nature’s challenges, but mountain roads bring a fresh level of peril. These paved strips stretch deeper into wild corners, cutting across habitats once safely out of reach.



Mountains, once celebrated for their rugged isolation, now host busy highways and higher traffic volumes. Many endangered or vulnerable mammals listed by The International Union for Conservation of Nature (<a href="https://iucn.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN</a>) are turning up as roadkill, a term for animals fatally hit by vehicles in these craggy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cities-are-largely-unprepared-for-the-effects-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">regions</a>.



​Professor Aliza le Roux, a professor in the Department of Zoology and Entomology at the <a href="https://www.ufs.ac.za/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of the Free State</a>, examined patterns of collisions in elevated landscapes.​



She collaborated with other researchers to explore why species like African wild dogs, lions, and elephants are often lost on twisting roads high above sea level.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mountain-roads-invade-wild-habitats">Mountain roads invade wild habitats</h2>



Mountains in regions around the globe were once free from major traffic. Now, expansions in road infrastructure have placed creatures in harm’s way. 



The researchers note that high elevations, above roughly 6,560 feet, can harbor near threatened or vulnerable animals that become casualties on winding routes.



Steep slopes and sudden weather changes do not help anyone on these roads. It is tough for drivers and wildlife to see each other in time to avoid collisions. This leads to unexpected hazards for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-birds-get-road-rage-when-exposed-to-traffic-noise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> already struggling to survive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-roads-cutting-through-habitats">Roads cutting through habitats</h2>



Amphibians appear to be hit most often in mountainous terrain, while mammals are struck more in lower zones. 



Yet those same mammals at high elevations face a greater extinction <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-accelerating-beyond-control-as-co2-levels-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">risk</a> because many are already on watch lists for population declines. The concern is that collisions remove individuals from breeding populations that cannot easily replenish themselves.&nbsp;



One global <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/geb.13375" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">assessment</a> warned of serious outcomes for certain mammals when roads cut through their habitats. The study highlighted animal fatalities on mountain peaks.



“We identified four populations among the 70 species in the target group that could become extinct in 50 years if observed roadkill levels persist,” stated <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Clara-Grilo" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Clara Grilo</a>.



Dr. Grilo is a principal researcher in conservation biology at BIOPOLIS who has published over 100 studies on the effects of road networks on birds and mammals, such as behavior, relative abundance, mortality, genetic structure and extinction risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mounting-collision-risks">Mounting collision risks </h2>



Big birds, including some eagles and vultures, have also suffered. They can fail to gain enough flight height to clear vehicles along narrow turns. 



A single collision might eliminate a breeding adult from a small, isolated population, further weakening a species’ chances for long-term survival.



Motorists also face real risks if large animals cross suddenly. Elephants, lions, and big antelope species can do serious damage to vehicles, placing people in danger and forcing emergency responses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-missing-data-for-mountain-road-collisions">Missing data for mountain road collisions</h2>



Some areas of Africa and other continents do not collect consistent data on wildlife collisions. Researchers often rely on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/traffic-noise-increases-the-risk-of-hypertension/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">roadside</a> surveys that capture only brief snapshots. 



This patchy approach misses detailed seasonal trends, making it difficult to pinpoint best solutions for engineers and policymakers.



A lack of large-scale, systematic monitoring hampers efforts to identify hotspots. More investment in studies is needed, especially in central and western Africa, to understand which roads demand the most urgent intervention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation">Implications for conservation</h2>



Better-planned routes could reduce these accidents. Roads placed away from crucial migration paths or built with safe crossing structures can lower wildlife deaths. 



In many regions, alerting drivers through improved signage and enforcing slower speeds where threatened species roam also helps.



Some experts suggest new technology and fresh ideas for wildlife-friendly design. Yet these efforts require funding and cooperation between governments, road planners, and research institutions. Many animals thrive if given the space and safety to move freely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-guarding-wildlife-from-traffic-hazards">Guarding wildlife from traffic hazards </h2>



Mountain road impacts remind us that nature does not end where pavement begins. When expanding infrastructure, it is vital to account for local species’ needs. 



This balanced approach preserves biodiversity and promotes healthier connections between people and wildlife.



Many countries are taking steps to guard wild populations against traffic hazards. Effective plans often emerge when ecologists, engineers, and community leaders join forces to create solutions that serve both sides.



The study is published in <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/geb.13375" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Ecology and Biogeography</a>.



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Mountain roads are deadly for endangered animals

Animals have long navigated nature’s challenges, but mountain roads bring...

Many people think of Antarctica as an unchanging mass of ice. Scientists, however, know that its hidden underbelly is active and unpredictable. 



A new investigation that was based on 34 million years of data suggests that we would be wise to take note of these dynamic phenomena as <a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/cr/2021/02/19/subglacial-hydrology-for-dummies-water-water-everywhere/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">subglacial water</a> movements may reshape our understanding of future sea-level <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-much-did-sea-levels-rise-after-the-last-ice-age-alarming-new-clues-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">changes</a>.



“Many studies say the past is an analogue of what might happen in the future,” said Anna-Mireilla Hayden, a PhD candidate from the <a href="https://uwaterloo.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Waterloo</a>, and first author of the study. She noted that ignoring the invisible waterways under the ice could lead to big surprises.



Hayden worked alongside Dr. Tyler Pelle from <a href="https://scripps.ucsd.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scripps Institute of Oceanography</a> in the U.S., and other experts, to understand how these secret river systems evolve over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-subglacial-rivers-shape-antarctica-s-ice">Subglacial rivers shape Antarctica's ice</h2>



Antarctica is more than just a block of ice. Beneath its frozen surface, water travels through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarcticas-hidden-ice-dynamics-will-redefine-sea-level-projections/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">channels</a> deep below the ice sheet. The subglacial water moves with a force that scientists have rarely factored into the usual models of sea-level change.



The researchers focused on the <a href="https://data.aad.gov.au/aadc/gaz/display_name.cfm?gaz_id=2505" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aurora Subglacial Basin</a> which, if fully melted, might push global sea levels up by about 13 feet (4 meters).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-flow-data-and-sea-level-predictions">Water flow data and sea-level predictions</h2>



Scientists already knew that warm ocean waters can melt floating ice shelves from below. However, the recent findings indicate that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sinking-land-will-intensify-the-effects-of-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water flow</a> at the base of the ice adds another layer of complexity to the story.



“It’s important that scientists who model ice sheets account for hydrology because it could reduce uncertainty in estimates of sea-level rise,” said Hayden.



The group noticed that underground rivers have shifted repeatedly, and have influenced how and where the ice might thin or break.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-impact-and-ice-shelf-melting">Ocean impact and ice shelf melting</h2>



The shape and path of these subglacial networks matter because they can channel <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-heat-of-2024-triggered-a-surge-in-sea-level-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fresh water</a> into the sea at sensitive spots. When cold, fresh water pours out at certain areas beneath ice shelves, it can disrupt the usual ocean patterns and speed up local <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1235798" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice thinning</a>.



Climate experts have often focused on air temperatures or large-scale currents in their models. Fresh water cycling under the ice is now emerging as a hidden factor that could make existing estimates of sea-level rise less certain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-call-for-global-awareness">A call for global awareness</h2>



“It’s critical that projections of sea-level rise include as much relevant information as possible so that the world can take appropriate measures to lessen the devastation to global coastal communities,” said Dr. Christine Dow, a professor at the University of Waterloo.



Dr. Dow pointed out that these findings underscore how fragile the balance really is under Antarctica’s frozen surface. Her team does not expect the ice sheet to give way overnight, but shifts under the glaciers can make them more prone to breaking off faster.



With coastal areas around the globe already facing erosion and higher flooding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/major-coastal-cities-around-the-world-could-disappear-under-rising-seas-by-2100/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">risks</a>, the science community sees this as a reminder that small tweaks in the environment can yield very large consequences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forecasts-need-subglacial-water-insights">Forecasts need subglacial water insights</h2>



Going forward, experts suggest that any attempts to forecast future sea levels take these long-buried waterways into account. Models that leave out the subglacial picture could be missing critical pieces of how glaciers might evolve as temperatures warm.



The researchers say further work is needed to track how the flow beneath the ice might accelerate or change direction in the next few decades. Understanding these rivers could help refine local and global strategies for coastal planning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-past-reveals-about-the-future">What the past reveals about the future</h2>



The study showed that subglacial drainage systems, which influence sea level, have never stayed in one configuration for long. As the climate shifted over millions of years, so did the routes and volumes of meltwater flowing beneath the ice.



During a period known as the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/eocene-oligocene-boundary" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eocene-Oligocene Boundary</a>, 34 million years ago, long underground rivers carried high volumes of water under thick ice. 



Surprisingly, the predicted drainage patterns for 2100 under extreme warming closely resemble those ancient conditions, even though they are derived from opposite climate extremes



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-57700-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Hidden rivers beneath Antarctic ice reshape sea-level predictions

Many people think of Antarctica as an unchanging mass of...

In the world of robotics, the dominant image has always been a machine filled with wires, chips, and rigid joints. Today, that image is being replaced by something more flexible - literally. 



Engineers at the Bioinspired Robotics Laboratory at the <a href="https://ucsd.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California San Diego</a> have developed a new kind of robot that can walk without electronics.



It doesn’t rely on electronics or rigid parts. It doesn’t even need to be assembled from multiple materials. You can print it in one go, using only one type of soft filament and a standard desktop 3D-printer. Add a simple cartridge of compressed gas, and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-smallest-robot-could-transform-minimally-invasive-surgery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">robot</a> walks.



This innovation represents a huge shift in how machines are built and imagined. For the first time, robots can be made quickly, cheaply, and almost anywhere. They can function where electronics fail and can be deployed in extreme environments, all without the need for metal skeletons or batteries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-3d-printed-robots-walk-on-air">3D-printed robots walk on air</h2>



The researchers behind this project deliberately avoided complexity. Instead of using expensive tools or rare materials, they used a desktop printer and a common printing filament. Their goal was to make walking robots as accessible as possible. The result? A complete, functioning robot for just $20.



“This is a completely different way of looking at <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robots-can-now-learn-like-humans-using-self-awareness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">building machines</a>,” said Michael Tolley, a professor in the UC San Diego Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering and the paper’s senior author.



The robot they developed doesn’t need circuits to walk. A cartridge of compressed gas feeds pressure into soft structures within the robot’s body. 



This air-driven motion replaces motors and wires. It’s a minimalistic approach that opens the door to robots in places where conventional electronics simply can’t go.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-a-soft-robot-matters">Why a soft robot matters</h2>



In many high-risk environments - like radioactive zones, disaster sites, or deep space - electronics often fail. They short out, overheat, or get damaged. That’s where these soft <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/squirrel-inspired-robot-masters-the-art-of-precision-landing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">robots</a> shine. Because they contain no metal parts or circuits, they resist extreme conditions naturally.



The UC San Diego team tested the robots both in the lab and outdoors. Indoors, the robots walked for three full days without stopping. The only requirement was a steady supply of compressed gas. 



Outside, the robot ran on a small gas cartridge and proved it could traverse rough terrain. It walked over sand, grass, and even underwater. Its flexible limbs adapted to different surfaces with ease.



This adaptability, combined with low production cost, makes these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robots-with-space-to-think-will-become-more-useful/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">robots</a> ideal for emergency response and exploration missions. They don’t break easily. They don’t rely on fragile parts. And they can be printed on demand.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-soft-robot-in-one-single-print">Soft robot in one single print</h2>



The material used to make these robots is nothing special - just regular 3D-printing filament.



What makes it special is how it's used. The team created a system where every part of the robot, including the muscles and controller, is made from the same soft material in one print. That means no assembly.



“These robots are not manufactured with any of the traditional, rigid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/goat-the-shape-shifting-robot-that-masters-any-terrain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">components</a> researchers typically use,” Tolley said.



Instead of motors, the robot has soft actuators. These are inflated and deflated using air pressure, giving the robot its walking motion. The engineers designed everything to work in harmony, using only softness and air.



This design breaks away from decades of engineering tradition. It's not just an experiment. It's a functioning machine that reimagines what robotics can be.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-robot-walks">How the robot walks </h2>



Walking might seem simple, but coordinating movement in a robot is complex. Without electronics, the UC San Diego team turned to pneumatics. They built a soft oscillating circuit that mimics the old-school steam engine.



To move the robot’s six legs, the circuit alternates air pressure between two sets of three legs. This rhythmic action creates forward movement. The legs move in four directions - up, down, forward, and backward - giving the robot balanced control. It can walk in a straight line, even on uneven ground.



“We have taken a giant leap forward with a robot that walks entirely on its own,” said Yichen Zhai, the lead postdoctoral scholar behind the build.



What sets this apart is that the entire control system is also soft. There’s no need for chips or code. The robot responds only to changes in air pressure, like a living system without a nervous system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pushing-toward-a-greener-future">Pushing toward a greener future</h2>



The team isn’t stopping at walking. Their next goal is to make the robots self-contained. That means finding a way to store the compressed gas inside the robot’s body. Doing so would make these robots fully untethered.



The experts are also exploring sustainable materials. Using recyclable or biodegradable filaments would reduce the robots' environmental impact. This makes them even more attractive for short-term use in hazardous areas, where retrieval may be impossible.



Another major step involves adding manipulators. Arms, grippers, and other tools would give the robots the ability to interact with their surroundings - pick up debris, press buttons, or even rescue objects or organisms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-lab-to-real-world-testing">From lab to real-world testing</h2>



Building this robot required partnerships. The team worked closely with BASF through their California Research Alliance (<a href="https://cara.berkeley.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CARA</a>). <a href="https://www.basf.com/in/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BASF</a> helped test different soft materials that could be printed using standard 3D-printers. 



Some of the more advanced materials aren’t yet available to the public, but the researchers successfully built working robots using common options as well.



Funding from the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Science Foundation</a> supported the project. That support helped push the team toward practical testing, real-world application, and wider dissemination.



Before publishing their findings, the team completed their first walking robot in 2022. They showcased it at the <a href="https://www.grc.org/robotics-conference/2024/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gordon Research Conference</a> on Robotics that same year. 



That early demonstration proved the technology could move beyond the lab and into broader discussions on the future of machine design.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-chapter-in-robotics">A new chapter in robotics </h2>



The quiet hum of a 3D-printer now builds machines that walk, explore, and survive without wires. 



The team at UC San Diego has shown that the future of robotics might not be harder, faster, or more complex. Instead, it might be softer, simpler, and more adaptable.



By printing machines that rely only on air and softness, they’ve introduced a new chapter in robotics. One where simplicity leads, and where machines don’t just look alive - but move like it too.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://advanced.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/aisy.202400876" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Advanced Intelligent Systems</a>.



Image Credit: David Baillot/University of California San Diego



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Walking robots can step right off the 3D-printer - powered by air

In the world of robotics, the dominant image has always...

A new long-term study indicates that children who spend more time on screens during their early years - particularly on phones and tablets - experience higher levels of stress and depressive symptoms once they enter adolescence.&nbsp;



The eight-year study offers fresh insights for parents deciding when and how to give their kids digital access, especially given the rising <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mental-health-crisis-half-of-the-worlds-population-will-be-affected-by-age-75/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mental health</a> challenges among the youth.



According to the experts, between one-quarter and one-third of adolescents worldwide experience mental health issues, with first symptoms usually appearing during the teenage years.&nbsp;



The researchers see their findings as additional evidence that parents might want to limit screen time and encourage active play, since cultivating certain habits early may serve as a buffer against future psychological distress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-screens-and-teen-health">Screens and teen health</h2>



Scientists drew data from the Physical Activity and Nutrition in Children (<a href="https://www.panicstudy.fi/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PANIC</a>) study, a project that tracked 187 Finnish children aged between 6 and 9 years until they were 15 to16. 



Over the course of eight years, the team monitored the participants’ <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fitness-focused-medicine-physical-activity-reduces-chronic-disease-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">physical activity</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/too-much-screen-time-is-making-teens-anxious/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">screen time</a>, sleep patterns, and eating behaviors. 



Then, as teenagers, those same participants were assessed for mental health using standardized measures of stress and depressive symptoms.



The findings revealed that teens who accumulated more total screen time, specifically on mobile devices, ended up showing significantly higher levels of stress and depression.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-physical-activity">The role of physical activity</h2>



Encouragingly, a high level of physical activity during childhood proved to have the opposite effect. 



Teens who remained active - particularly in structured or supervised settings - demonstrated stronger mental health outcomes, even after accounting for factors like body composition, puberty stage, and parents’ educational background.&nbsp;



This trend was more pronounced among boys, who seemed to derive a greater protective effect against stress from exercise than girls.



Meanwhile, diet quality and sleep duration did not show notable links to teen mental health in this research. 



While this does not rule out their importance for overall well-being, it suggests that daily movement and minimized screen time may have more pronounced effects when it comes to adolescent stress and depression levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-interventions-for-screen-habits">Early interventions for screen habits</h2>



For those wary of introducing personal devices too early, the study’s conclusion is clear: childhood screen behavior can echo into the teenage years, shaping emotional health. 



Researchers especially emphasize caution with mobile device use. 



Balanced approaches appear to matter most. Kids who paired more screen time with lower physical activity ended up with the worst mental health outcomes.&nbsp;



This highlights that focusing on just one of these factors - reducing screen time or encouraging regular exercise - may be less effective than addressing both simultaneously.



The authors also point out that supervised physical activities, such as team sports, can have particularly strong benefits. 



This could fuel arguments for policies that increase children’s access to organized athletics, either through schools or community programs. 



The study further indicates that mental health professionals should consider making routine inquiries about technology habits as part of early interventions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-shifting-technological-landscape">A shifting technological landscape</h2>



While the study results are not strictly causal, they highlight the power of everyday choices in shaping long-term psychological outcomes. 



Given how quickly technology evolves, the authors warn that this knowledge becomes more and more urgent. 



Social media platforms and mobile games continue to expand, and children are exposed to smartphones at younger ages, making it crucial to recognize how these patterns might affect their mental well-being.



Notably, the study concluded before the recent explosion in newer social media apps, so the current generation may see even more negative consequences of their digital consumption.&nbsp;



That said, the fundamental takeaway - that more screens plus less physical activity predicts a rougher mental health path - likely remains valid.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-research-limitations-and-future-directions">Research limitations and future directions</h2>



While the study’s eight-year timeframe offers valuable longitudinal data, the final sample of 187 adolescents is small. Many participants dropped out midway, so the final group may not be entirely representative.&nbsp;



Also, while the researchers tracked overall screen time, they did not distinguish between different types of screen exposure or social media content. Future studies might look at which specific apps or games pose the highest risks.



The research also measured sleep duration but not <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-quality-is-determined-by-daily-activities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep quality</a>, leaving open questions about how nighttime device use might undermine rest and, in turn, mental health.&nbsp;



Most notably, the authors highlight that the data cannot prove that one factor directly causes the other. It’s possible, for instance, that children already prone to stress or depression might gravitate more toward screen usage.



Still, as mental health difficulties among younger demographics continue to rise, these findings can guide parents and care providers. 



Ensuring kids stay active may mitigate some of those effects, but the broader message is that habits formed early can shape teens’ emotional landscapes in the years to come.



In essence, the authors advise parents to craft balanced digital environments, offering moderate device access and ample opportunities for physical activity and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-activity-may-delay-the-onset-of-dementia-by-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social engagement</a>.&nbsp;



Full details of the study were published in the <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2830233" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JAMA Network Open</a>.



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Children’s screen time shapes their mental health as teens

A new long-term study indicates that children who spend more...

In the vast savannas of Africa, elephant herds roam with a quiet grace that often hides the complexity behind their movements. From a distance, it may look like these giants simply wander in search of food and water. But new research reveals a different story - one of calculation, strategy, and energy balance.



African elephants, it turns out, don’t just walk aimlessly. They think before they move.



A recent study published in the Journal of Animal Ecology shows that elephants are highly efficient in how they meet their immense daily energy needs. The research brings together over two decades of data from 157 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-era-in-wildlife-conservation-how-ai-will-help-protect-elephants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elephants</a> in Northern Kenya.



With advanced tracking and modeling tools, scientists have uncovered how elephants choose their paths based on terrain, food availability, and energy cost. The insights have far-reaching implications for conservation, especially in the face of habitat loss and climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-elephants-save-energy-to-survive">Elephants save energy to survive</h2>



Being an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-an-elephants-teeth-can-help-us-track-animal-movements/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elephant</a> comes with some heavy burdens - literally. These massive herbivores, often weighing several tons, need to consume huge amounts of low-calorie vegetation every single day.



Their enormous size gives them strength, but it also demands constant refueling. Unlike predators that hunt calorie-dense prey, elephants must spend most of their day eating just to keep up.



But eating isn’t the only task that burns energy. Finding food in harsh, fragmented landscapes means walking long distances. Each step taken across uneven ground, up steep hills, or through dry plains carries a cost. 



For elephants, movement isn’t just a means of travel - it’s a calculation. The right decision can save hours of energy; the wrong one can drain their reserves.



That’s why understanding how elephants navigate their environment matters. Knowing the logic behind their paths helps scientists protect their habitats better and ensure that conservation strategies match their real-world needs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-elephants-for-22-years">Tracking elephants for 22 years</h2>



To uncover the patterns behind <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extinct-elephant-fossils-reveal-early-evidence-of-animal-butchery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elephant</a> movement, researchers from the University of Oxford, the German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (<a href="https://www.idiv.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iDiv</a>), and Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena worked with Save the Elephants, a UK-registered charity based in Kenya. 



Over 22 years - from 1998 to 2020 - they collected GPS data from 157 elephants moving across Northern Kenya.



This dataset provided a rare and rich look at how elephants respond to their environment. The patterns were clear. Most elephants consistently avoided areas that would require too much effort to cross. 



Rough terrain and steep slopes saw far fewer elephant visits. Instead, elephants selected flatter, smoother paths - even if those routes were longer. Energy saved, not distance shortened, seemed to be the deciding factor.



The study showed that 94% of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephant-movement-is-influenced-by-habitat-suitability/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elephants</a> avoided high-cost terrain. These weren't random decisions. Elephants appeared to actively weigh their options and pick the path that required the least energy, a strategy that may be essential for survival in unpredictable landscapes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-and-water-choices">Food and water choices</h2>



Terrain wasn’t the only factor in elephant decision-making. Vegetation quality also played a big role. Around 93% of elephants showed a preference for areas rich in plant productivity. 



These areas offered more reward for less walking - ideal for large herbivores who need to eat for hours each day. The link between green areas and elephant movement was strong and consistent across seasons.



Water, too, influenced their choices, but not in the way one might expect. Some elephants stayed close to rivers or waterholes. Others traveled far and wide. The researchers found that while water access is important, elephants make complex individual choices about how much they prioritize it.



This adds another layer of complexity to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-elephant-conflict-will-escalate-with-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elephant</a> behavior and shows that conservation plans need to leave room for variation among individuals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-speed-and-strategy-of-elephants">Speed and strategy of elephants</h2>



The study also uncovered a surprising detail: elephants are even more selective about terrain when moving at higher speeds. When walking slowly, 74% of elephants avoided difficult landscapes. 



But when moving at intermediate or fast speeds, those numbers climbed to 87% and 93% respectively. That means the faster they go, the more carefully they choose their route.



This strategy mirrors what scientists have seen in other species. Just like birds that ride thermal uplifts to glide with less effort, elephants appear to make conscious choices to preserve energy. These choices are not just about immediate survival. 



They shape long-term success, reproduction, and herd stability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-tools-to-understand-old-trails">New tools to understand old trails</h2>



To analyze the movement data, the researchers used a modeling method called ENERSCAPE. This system estimates how much energy it takes for an elephant to move across various types of terrain, based on the animal's body mass and the slope of the land.



When combined with satellite data on vegetation and water, the tool creates a detailed picture of the “energy landscape” each elephant navigates.



They also used step-selection functions, a statistical method that compares the places elephants actually visited with nearby places they could have visited but didn’t. By examining these choices, the researchers identified which environmental factors shaped elephant routes most.



This approach revealed more than just preference - it showed decision-making. Elephants don’t walk randomly. They make careful, context-aware choices that reflect an understanding of effort, reward, and terrain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-following-elephant-energy-logic">Following elephant energy logic</h2>



These findings aren’t just academic. They could change how conservation areas and migration corridors are planned. 



Many protected zones are created based on where elephants are seen most often. But this new research suggests that energy cost must be a key factor in design. A path that looks good on paper may be too steep or rugged for real elephant use.



Planning must also consider individual differences. Some elephants prefer staying near water. Others roam far. A rigid conservation plan that doesn’t account for these preferences may fall short. Flexibility and energy-efficiency need to be built into every project aimed at protecting these animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-disturbance-and-change">Climate, disturbance, and change</h2>



The environment is changing fast. As temperatures rise and rainfall patterns shift, food and water availability will also change. 



That could force elephants to alter their routes, raising the risk of human-elephant conflict. The study's authors believe their work can help predict how elephants might respond to these changes - and guide conservation efforts accordingly.



Future work will improve the ENERSCAPE model by adding seasonal data, human activity maps, and climate projections. These enhancements will give a fuller picture of how elephant behavior adapts to a world in flux.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-elephants-save-energy-whenever-possible">Elephants save energy whenever possible</h2>



“While more detailed research is needed to fully understand how an elephant uses its habitat, this study identifies a central decision-making factor for travelling elephants: save energy whenever possible,” noted co-author Professor Fritz Vollrath from the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a>.



“These new results have important implications for assessing and planning conservation and restoration measures, such as dispersal corridors, by explicitly accounting for the energy costs of moving,” added lead researcher Dr. Emilio Berti from the&nbsp;German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research&nbsp;and&nbsp;Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena.



Elephants, long admired for their memory and strength, now reveal another layer of intelligence - how they move with intention. In learning to think like elephants, we may find better ways to protect them.



The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652656" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Animal Ecology</a>. 



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Elephants choose their paths carefully to conserve energy

In the vast savannas of Africa, elephant herds roam with...

Across the United States, a quiet crisis is unfolding in forests, grasslands, and wetlands. Native plants, many of which have thrived in their home ecosystems for thousands of years, now face an impossible race. 



Climate change is shifting temperature zones and seasonal patterns faster than these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-future-climate-conditions-will-transform-plant-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> can naturally respond. Unlike animals, most plants cannot migrate quickly. Their slow dispersal, tied to seed movement and favorable growing conditions, means many will not survive unless we intervene.



Scientists and conservationists are grappling with a difficult question: Should we help these native species relocate? And if so, how do we do it responsibly?



The idea of helping plants move into nearby habitats, known as “managed relocation,” is gaining momentum. But moving plants is not without danger. 



Many invasive species, which now plague American ecosystems, arrived in similar ways - carried by humans, intentionally or not, into places they never belonged.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moving-native-plants-may-save-them">Moving native plants may save them</h2>



Managed relocation sounds like a solution, but it comes with serious risks. The ecological scars of past mistakes remain. Kudzu, once planted for erosion control, now chokes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-understanding-of-light-detection-in-plants-may-revolutionize-farming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forests</a>. 



Purple loosestrife clogs wetlands. Japanese honeysuckle overruns fields. All were introduced with good intentions. All became ecological threats.



Despite these examples, doing nothing could be worse. Climate projections show ecosystems changing rapidly, putting slow-moving native species at risk of extinction. Human-assisted movement might be their only shot.



Thomas Nuhfer is the lead author of a new study published in Global Change Biology and a graduate student in organismic and evolutionary biology at the <a href="https://www.umass.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Massachusetts Amherst</a>.



​“We know that, because of climate, native species need to move,” said Nuhfer. "But many of the people working to manage invasive plant species have real concerns about unwittingly contributing to the problem if we start moving native species around.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-assessing-native-plant-traits">Assessing native plant traits</h2>



To solve this challenge, researchers need to understand what makes some plants thrive in new places and others wreak havoc. 



This is where Nuhfer and his advisor, Professor Bethany Bradley, step in. Their new research examines how specific plant traits contribute to success (and potential risk) when relocating native species.



“We’ve made the mistake of introducing invasive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-may-stop-absorbing-carbon-if-temperatures-continue-to-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> so many times in the past and we don’t want to keep making that mistake. But in a changing climate, doing nothing might do even more harm," said Professor Bradley. 



The team in Bradley’s lab has already shown that controlling invasive species is one of the strongest tools local communities can use to prepare for climate change. The researchers have tracked how invasive species numbers are rising rapidly.



In many ecosystems, plants and animals need to shift their range by at least 3.25 kilometers per year just to keep pace with warming temperatures and shifting seasons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-good-candidates-for-relocation">Good candidates for relocation</h2>



The study was focused on the traits that determine whether a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/space-lettuce-nasas-plans-to-grow-nutritious-plants-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant</a> can successfully relocate - and whether it will become a problem after doing so.



Traits like rapid growth, long flowering periods, and seed dispersal by wind often help plants survive in new environments. But these same traits have also been used to flag invasive species.



“We often use specific plant characteristics - like how quickly a plant grows, how long it flowers or whether its seeds can be spread by the wind - to determine its risk of becoming invasive,” said Nuhfer. “But these are also traits that could help a native species to survive in a new environment.”



The study draws from a wide range of literature in both restoration and invasion ecology. The researchers also reviewed the risk assessment tools used by land managers. 



Their conclusion is that many traits promoting establishment are shared by both invasive and native species.



However, key differences emerge later - particularly when plants begin to spread. It’s in this phase that certain traits, such as size or toxicity, begin to distinguish potentially harmful species from those that simply need help surviving.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drawing-the-line-between-help-and-harm">Drawing the line between help and harm</h2>



Some traits, like a high metabolic rate, support a plant’s ability to establish itself in new surroundings. These traits apply to both native <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-absorb-31-more-co2-than-previously-estimated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> and invasive ones. But other traits, especially those linked to unchecked growth or ecosystem disruption, raise red flags.



Large size, for example, not only helps plants establish but also enables them to dominate landscapes. This can lead to overgrowth and displace local flora. 



Toxicity is another trait of concern. While it doesn’t help a plant settle in, it allows it to repel herbivores and spread aggressively - potentially harming native species that share the habitat.



This creates a dilemma. If we avoid all traits associated with invasive species, we may end up ruling out the very traits that could help a plant survive. On the other hand, ignoring the signs of future invasiveness could create a new wave of ecological damage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-the-way-we-measure-risk">Changing the way we measure risk</h2>



The solution, according to the study, is not to ban all plants with certain traits but to refine our risk assessments. 



Current tools used by land managers often take a one-size-fits-all approach. If a plant shares any trait with a known invasive, it may be excluded from relocation efforts. That overly cautious approach could undermine the entire strategy.



“Many of the current risk assessments that managers are using in the field are so risk-averse as to guarantee that managed relocation will fail,” said Professor Bradley.



“And if the relocation fails, then we’ve wasted all sorts of resources and haven’t helped native plants persist," noted Nuhfer.



Instead, the researchers suggest focusing on traits that are most likely to lead to ecological harm - such as toxicity or seed dispersal by water - rather than those that simply help a plant get established.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-path-forward-in-a-warming-world">A path forward in a warming world</h2>



This research, supported by the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.usgs.gov/programs/climate-adaptation-science-centers/northeast-casc" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Geological Survey Northeast Climate Adaptation Science Center</a>, marks a pivotal moment in conservation thinking.



As climate change accelerates, strategies that once seemed risky are now essential. Managed relocation, when guided by science and nuanced risk assessments, could help preserve the ecological heritage of countless regions.



By learning from past mistakes and using precise criteria, scientists and conservationists may strike a balance - helping native plants survive without repeating the errors that let invasive species flourish.



The stakes are high. But with thoughtful, evidence-based action, we can give native species a fighting chance in a changing world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.70145" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Change Biology</a>.



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Native plants can’t outrun climate change on their own

Across the United States, a quiet crisis is unfolding in...

Chewing gum may be doing more than just freshening your breath. According to a recent study, each piece of gum could be releasing hundreds - or even thousands - of microplastic particles into your mouth.



This means that, along with the minty taste, you might be getting a mouthful of plastic.



These findings come from scientists at the <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Los Angeles</a> (UCLA), who recently conducted a pilot study to test how much microplastic can be released during gum chewing. Their goal wasn’t to raise alarm but to shed light on an everyday source of plastic exposure that hasn’t been widely considered.



“Our goal is not to alarm anybody,” said Sanjay Mohanty, the project’s principal investigator and an engineering professor at UCLA.



“Scientists don’t know if microplastics are unsafe to us or not. There are no human trials. But we know we are exposed to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/4200-harmful-plastic-chemicals-hidden-in-everyday-objects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastics</a> in everyday life, and that’s what we wanted to examine here.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-plastic-than-you-think">More plastic than you think</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-pose-a-greater-threat-to-some-ocean-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microplastics</a> - tiny particles between 1 micrometer and 5 millimeters wide - are found in food, drinks, packaging, clothes, and even the air we breathe. But chewing gum, despite being so common, hasn't received much attention as a source.



Gum is typically made from a rubbery base, along with sweeteners and flavorings. Some gums use synthetic rubber made from petroleum-based plastics. Others use natural bases like tree sap.



The UCLA team wanted to see if chewing either kind would release microplastics.



“Our initial hypothesis was that the synthetic gums would have a lot more microplastics because the base is a type of plastic,” explained Lisa Lowe, a graduate student at UCLA and the study’s presenter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-tests-were-done">How the tests were done</h2>



The researchers picked ten different chewing gum brands - five synthetic and five natural. To limit variables, all seven samples of each gum brand were chewed by the same person.



In one test, the person chewed each piece for four minutes, pausing every 30 seconds to produce saliva samples. After that, a mouth rinse was added to the sample.



In another test, they collected saliva every few minutes for up to 20 minutes. The samples were examined under a microscope and through spectroscopy to detect and identify <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-particles-found-in-99-of-tested-seafood-samples/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastic particles</a>.



On average, each gram of gum released about 100 microplastic particles. Some pieces released as many as 600 particles per gram. 



Since most pieces of gum weigh between two and six grams, a large piece could release up to 3,000 microplastics while it is being chewed. And with the average person chewing 160 to 180 pieces per year, that could add up to around 30,000 ingested plastic particles annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-just-synthetic-gums">Not just synthetic gums</h2>



“Surprisingly, both synthetic and natural gums had similar amounts of microplastics released when we chewed them,” said Lowe.



Both types contained the same kinds of plastic - polyolefins, polyethylene terephthalates, polyacrylamides, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastics-can-be-passed-from-mothers-to-unborn-babies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polystyrene</a>. The most common of these were polyolefins, which include common plastics like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-found-in-the-human-blood-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polyethylene</a> and polypropylene.



Most of the microplastics were released during the first two minutes of chewing. But this wasn’t because of enzymes breaking things down. It was simply due to the abrasive motion of chewing.



“The plastic released into saliva is a small fraction of the plastic that’s in the gum,” says Mohanty.



In fact, by the eight-minute mark, 94% of the detectable plastic particles had already been released.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-can-you-do-about-it">What can you do about it?</h2>



While the study only tracked plastic particles 20 micrometers or larger due to equipment limits, it's possible that even smaller particles went undetected. These could include nano-sized plastics, which may be more easily absorbed by the body. 



More research will be needed to understand the presence and potential health impacts of the nanoparticles.



If you’re concerned, chewing a single piece of gum for longer rather than popping in several for a short chew may help reduce your exposure.



Aside from the potential health concerns, improperly discarded gum also adds to plastic pollution in the environment. “So, be mindful about the environment and don’t just throw it outside or stick it to a gum wall,” said Mohanty.



Next time you reach for a stick of gum, remember that how you chew it and how you dispose of it could matter more than you think.



Details of <a href="https://acs.digitellinc.com/p/s/chewing-gums-unintended-sources-of-ingested-microplastics-in-humans-618916">the study</a> will be presented at the spring meeting of the American Chemical Society.



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Your chewing gum may be full of microplastics

Chewing gum may be doing more than just freshening your...

Mejannes-le-clap,,Gard,,France,07,30,2013,,Incredible,Colors,Of,The

Deep underground, where sunlight never reaches, ancient minerals lie hidden within the rock - until illuminated by a black light. In that moment, once-drab walls blaze with color: pinks, blues, and greens glow from within.&nbsp;



For scientists studying how life survives in extreme environments, these fluorescent clues may offer critical insights - not only into Earth’s history, but also into the potential for life on other worlds, like Jupiter’s moon Europa.



At the Spring 2025 meeting of the American Chemical Society (<a href="https://www.acs.org/meetings/acs-meetings/spring.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS</a>), researchers led by astrobiologist Joshua Sebree from the <a href="https://uni.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Northern Iowa</a> are presenting new findings about the chemical makeup of cave systems and what it can teach us about life in places humans have yet to reach.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mineral-fingerprints-and-ancient-clues">Mineral fingerprints and ancient clues</h2>



Sebree and his students have explored caves across the U.S., including South Dakota’s Wind Cave and Minnesota’s Mystery Cave, mapping their twisting passages and hidden formations.&nbsp;



As they worked, the researchers also scanned the cave walls with ultraviolet light, uncovering brilliant displays of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-glow-in-the-dark-fluorescence-found-to-be-very-common-in-mammals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fluorescence</a> created by mineral impurities embedded in the rock over thousands of years.&nbsp;



These luminous patches often mark where water once flowed or pooled, leaving behind chemical traces. What looks like an ordinary stone wall under normal light is transformed under UV.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Fluorescent-caves_wind-cave_normal_UV-light_credit-Joshua-Sebree_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Fluorescent-caves_wind-cave_normal_UV-light_credit-Joshua-Sebree_1s.webp" alt="A section of South Dakota’s Wind Cave seen under normal white light (left image) transforms into something otherworldly when placed under UV light (right image). Credit: Joshua Sebree" class="wp-image-1963441"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A section of South Dakota’s Wind Cave seen under normal white light (left image) transforms into something otherworldly when placed under UV light (right image). Click to enlarge. Credit: Joshua Sebree</figcaption></figure>



“The walls just looked completely blank and devoid of anything interesting,” Sebree said. 



"But then, when we turned on the black lights, what used to be just a plain brown wall turned into a bright layer of fluorescent mineral that indicated where a pool of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-ancient-ocean-water-shaped-early-life-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water</a> used to be 10,000 or 20,000 years ago.”



The glowing hues provide more than visual drama. They reveal distinct chemical compositions that help scientists understand how the cave formed and how it may have supported life.&nbsp;



These “chemistry fossils” are collected not by breaking off rock samples, but through a non-destructive method: using a handheld spectrometer, the team gathers fluorescence spectra, essentially chemical fingerprints of the rock’s surface, right in the field.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-a-new-type-of-cave-map">Building a new type of cave map</h2>



Undergraduate student Anna Van Der Weide is building a public database of these spectral fingerprints, adding a new layer of chemical information to traditional cave maps. 



This work could help paint a clearer picture of a cave’s formation and environmental history.



Other students are contributing to the broader project as well. Jacqueline Heggen is studying the caves as models for astrobiological research on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extremophiles-and-the-quest-for-alien-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extremophiles</a> - organisms that live in extreme conditions.&nbsp;



Jordan Holloway is developing an autonomous spectrometer that could be used in future missions to planets or moons. 



Celia Langemo is researching biometric monitoring systems to help ensure the safety of scientists exploring harsh underground environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glowing-minerals-and-cave-development-nbsp">Glowing minerals and cave development&nbsp;</h2>



The work is far from easy. At just 48 degrees Fahrenheit (9°C), caves like Minnesota’s Mystery Cave require extra planning to keep instruments functioning. 



For instance, the experts had to bury the spectrometer’s batteries in hand-warmers to keep them from dying. 



Reaching areas of interest sometimes meant crawling through tunnels less than a foot wide for long distances or standing in freezing water while conducting measurements.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Fluorescent-caves_wind-cave_UV-light_credit-Joshua-Sebree_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Fluorescent-caves_wind-cave_UV-light_credit-Joshua-Sebree_1s.webp" alt="One of Sebree’s students, Jacqueline Heggen, showing off glowing formations within Wind Cave. Credit: Joshua Sebree" class="wp-image-1963443"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">One of Sebree’s students, Jacqueline Heggen, showing off glowing formations within Wind Cave. Click to enlarge. Credit: Joshua Sebree</figcaption></figure>



Despite these physical obstacles, the fieldwork has already revealed major insights. In Wind Cave, the team found that manganese-rich water had carved out the cave and created zebra-striped calcites - formations that glow pink under black light.&nbsp;



These formations appear to have contributed to cave expansion by fracturing weaker rock, suggesting a previously overlooked mechanism of cave development.



“It’s a very different cave forming mechanism than has previously been looked at before,” Sebree explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-glimpse-into-other-worlds">A glimpse into other worlds</h2>



The bigger picture, though, reaches far beyond Earth. Because the chemistry in caves like Wind Cave may resemble conditions on icy moons such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alien-life-on-europa-co2-discovery-by-webb-increases-the-odds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Europa</a>, Sebree’s research helps scientists imagine how life could survive in dark, isolated, mineral-rich environments far from the sun.



Looking ahead, Sebree hopes to confirm the accuracy of fluorescence mapping by comparing it to traditional, more invasive techniques. 



He also wants to explore why some cave waters glow under UV light, which might help explain how life from Earth’s surface could influence ecosystems far underground.



Ultimately, Sebree’s work is driven by a larger question: if life can thrive in the deepest, coldest corners of our planet, what’s stopping it from doing the same in the outer reaches of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spiral-structure-discovered-at-the-edge-of-our-solar-system-oort-cloud/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar system</a>?



“It was really cool to see how you can apply science out in the field and to learn how you function in those environments,” Van Der Weide said. 



That blend of fieldwork, curiosity, and science may one day help uncover life in places no human has ever gone.



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Fluorescent caves on Earth can teach us about extraterrestrial life

Deep underground, where sunlight never reaches, ancient minerals lie hidden...

In the fight against obesity and related health issues, attention is often focused on the nutritional content of meals or total calorie intake. Yet new research in Japan suggests that how we eat - particularly the pace at which we chew and swallow - could play a significant role in regulating food consumption and potentially combating obesity.&nbsp;



Led by professor Katsumi Iizuka from <a href="https://www.fujita-hu.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fujita Health University</a>, the team’s work sheds light on straightforward methods for slowing meal duration that might help people consume less food overall.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-eating-habits">Rethinking eating habits</h2>



Though numerous studies have underscored the link between slower eating and reduced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breaking-free-from-ultra-processed-foods-the-surprising-health-benefits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food intake</a>, Japan-specific evidence on how best to slow eating has been limited.&nbsp;



“While nutritional science is often concerned with food metabolism and absorption and dietary content, there’s limited evidence in Japan on dietary behavior that connects the two,” Iizuka said.



The researchers set out to explore factors influencing meal duration and eating behavior, from sex differences to chewing patterns and the potential impact of external rhythmic stimuli - namely, metronome beats or music that might prompt people to chew more slowly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-closer-look-at-meal-duration">A closer look at meal duration</h2>



The study involved 33 healthy adults between the ages of 20 and 65 who were asked to eat slices of pizza under a range of experimental scenarios.&nbsp;



The scientists recorded each participant’s meal duration, their number of chews and bites, and the speed at which they chewed. In some trials, participants listened to a slow metronome of about 40 beats per minute, while in others, they ate in silence.



When analyzing these data, several notable results emerged. First, the researchers found that there were sizable differences between men and women in how quickly they finished eating. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eating-habits-across-genders">Eating habits across genders </h2>



Women generally took longer on average to finish a slice (about 87 seconds) than men (about 63 seconds), and they tended to chew and bite more often (107 chews and 4.5 bites, compared with men’s 80 chews and 2.1 bites). However, both sexes had similar “chewing tempos” - that is, they chewed at roughly the same rate.



Once the researchers accounted for these sex-related differences, they observed that how long people took to finish a slice of pizza strongly correlated with how many chews and bites they performed. By contrast, body mass index (BMI) and chewing tempo had no direct tie to total meal duration.



Perhaps most striking, the team found that having participants listen to a slow metronome beat significantly increased their mealtime. This means that rhythmic cues could effectively encourage people to consume food more slowly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-switching-up-eating-habits">Switching up eating habits</h2>



From these results, the research team proposes several strategies for extending mealtime.&nbsp;



First, increasing the number of chews per bite can lengthen the period spent eating. Next, taking smaller bites can raise the overall count of bites and therefore slow down consumption.&nbsp;



Finally, introducing slow, rhythmic cues in the environment - like calm music or deliberate metronome beats - may further encourage diners to reduce their eating pace.



“These are easy, money-saving measures that can be started right away to help prevent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-is-obesity-difficult-to-reverse-it-starts-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">obesity</a>,” said Iizuka, emphasizing that these tactics do not require special technology or major expense.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-combating-obesity">Implications for combating obesity</h2>



Given the worrying rise in obesity worldwide, these findings may prove valuable for policymakers and public health practitioners.&nbsp;



The study demonstrates that practical, no-cost interventions focusing on how we eat might complement more conventional approaches, such as dieting and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evening-exercise-can-reduce-major-health-risks-of-obesity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exercise</a>. 



“Incorporating the proposed eating behavior into school lunches and other programs can lead to the prevention of future diseases related to obesity,” Iizuka noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-combining-exercise-and-slower-eating">Combining exercise and slower eating</h2>



While this particular experiment relied on pizza as the test food, future research will likely extend to different cuisines and contexts to see if the principle holds. 



If so, meal duration could join the ranks of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-almonds-can-help-you-cut-calories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">calorie</a> control and balanced diets as a key point of emphasis in anti-obesity campaigns.



Additionally, the findings suggest a certain synergy between higher physical activity and slower eating as well.&nbsp;



Though the study itself did not measure physical activity, prior research indicates that combining mindful eating habits with regular exercise can be more effective than tackling these issues separately.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



No single study can resolve all questions, and the researchers acknowledge that further investigation is needed. More work could explore the effect of different food textures on chew rates, how cultural eating norms shape mealtime pacing, and whether long-term interventions focusing on slow eating can achieve lasting behavioral change.



Though the study did not find that BMI directly affects meal duration, it provides significant evidence that how people eat might alter how much they ultimately consume.&nbsp;



By urging people to chew more thoroughly, take smaller bites, or dine with calm, slow rhythms in the background, we may be able to gently nudge better habits without relying on dramatic diets or expensive gadgets.



Ultimately, this research delivers promising clues that our daily routines - such as the bite-by-bite process of eating - can be leveraged in combating obesity. 



By helping people develop an increased awareness of their meal speed and offering simple environmental tweaks, we can hope to reduce unnecessary caloric intake and pave the way for a healthier population.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu17060962" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nutrients</a>.



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Simple eating habit may be key to weight management

In the fight against obesity and related health issues, attention...

Phosphorus, alongside nitrogen and carbon, is an essential element for life on Earth - integral to molecules like DNA, RNA, and ATP.&nbsp;



Yet despite its importance, phosphorus is relatively scarce at Earth’s surface, posing a long-standing question: how did living organisms first acquire enough phosphorus to jumpstart the biochemical processes necessary for life?



A new study, led by Craig Walton from <a href="https://ethz.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ETH Zurich</a>, offers a novel explanation. His work points to large, landlocked “soda lakes” as potential reservoirs that could have maintained sufficiently high concentrations of phosphorus to support prebiotic chemistry and eventually nurture early life. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-phosphorus-is-essential-yet-scarce">Why phosphorus is essential - yet scarce</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/phantom-nutrient-the-secret-force-that-fuels-plant-growth/">Phosphorus</a> shapes all life on Earth: it helps form the backbone of DNA and RNA, carries energy in cells through ATP, and is a key ingredient in many other biochemical reactions. However, unlike nitrogen and carbon, phosphorus is in limited supply.&nbsp;



Experiments in labs have shown that prebiotic chemistry - chemical reactions that likely preceded life - requires phosphorus levels roughly 10,000 times higher than what typically exists in natural waters.



This shortfall raises the question: how did Earth’s early environment ever manage to concentrate enough phosphorus for the formation of life?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-soda-lakes-as-phosphorus-hotspots">Soda lakes as phosphorus hotspots</h2>



Walton posits that large soda <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-on-earth-may-have-first-sparked-in-shallow-soda-lakes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lakes</a> - those without natural runoff - could have built and sustained extremely high concentrations of phosphorus.&nbsp;



Because water in these lakes escapes primarily via evaporation, phosphorus remains in the lake instead of being washed away by streams or rivers. Over time, the concentration of phosphorus can climb dramatically.



The concept of soda lakes as potential cradles of life is not entirely new; researchers at the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a> proposed something similar in 2020.&nbsp;



But Walton’s research adds detail to this hypothesis, suggesting that only relatively large soda lakes would have had the right conditions - namely, a steady and abundant supply of phosphorus via inflowing water, coupled with minimal outflow - to maintain levels high enough for both prebiotic chemistry and newly emerged life forms.



Smaller lakes, by contrast, might experience sudden drops in phosphorus as soon as life starts to consume it, thereby stifling chemical reactions and halting further biological development.&nbsp;



Large soda lakes, however, can absorb that consumption thanks to ongoing inputs from tributaries or other sources, keeping phosphorus concentrations robust over longer timeframes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-life-s-beginnings">Implications for life’s beginnings</h2>



One real-world illustration of a suitable soda lake is Mono Lake in California. About twice the size of Lake Zurich, Mono Lake consistently supports diverse life due to its high phosphorus concentration.&nbsp;



Walton’s findings suggest that a lake of comparable size on the early Earth, fed by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-disrupting-the-seasonal-flow-of-rivers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rivers</a> and left to evaporate, could have sustained similar or even higher phosphorus levels, driving the chemical processes integral to the formation of life.



Walton’s theory indicates that the origin of life might have been more likely in large bodies of water than in the “small warm pond” that Charles Darwin once imagined.&nbsp;



In the unique environment of a large soda lake, not only would the necessary phosphorus be plentiful, but geological and ecological dynamics would also remain favorable over extended periods. This would give emergent life enough breathing room to evolve without quickly depleting its essential resources.



“This new theory helps to solve another piece of the puzzle of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-clues-about-the-origins-of-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">origin of life</a> on Earth,” Walton said. Because soda lakes can trap water, minerals, and key elements like phosphorus more effectively than smaller ponds, they may have fostered the right balance of chemical conditions and resources that early life-forms needed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-soda-lakes-and-prebiotic-chemistry">Soda lakes and prebiotic chemistry </h2>



While many questions remain about how life first formed on Earth, Walton’s findings offer a compelling argument that large soda lakes, with their high phosphorus retention, could have provided an ideal setting for prebiotic chemistry.&nbsp;



If further research reinforces these conclusions, the longstanding puzzle about how Earth’s earliest life managed to obtain enough phosphorus for complex biochemical processes may take another step toward resolution.



By tying the early chemical environment to known geological settings, these insights open fresh avenues for investigating life’s origins - both on our planet and, potentially, on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alien-worlds-unraveling-the-mysteries-of-exoplanets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alien worlds</a> that might host similar lake conditions.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adq0027" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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How soda lakes may have sparked life on Earth

Phosphorus, alongside nitrogen and carbon, is an essential element for...

In a quiet home office in Durham, North Carolina, neuroscientist Richard Mooney pores over vivid brain scans of zebra finches. 



Each image captures moments in the life of a young bird learning to sing - dots of neural activity scattered across the brain like a pointillist painting, or bright squiggles marking chemical changes during a solo performance.



To Mooney, a professor at <a href="https://duke.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Duke University</a> who has spent four decades studying how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-adapt-their-survival-strategies-to-climate-change/">birds</a> learn to sing, these imperfect chirps and squeaks are the earliest signs of something much bigger. “Their songs don’t sound like much at first,” he said.



But, like a child learning to talk or a pianist learning scales, zebra finches must put in hours of practice - up to 10,000 renditions a day for an entire month - before they can produce their complex, courtship-ready melodies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-songbirds-reveal-secrets-of-learning">Songbirds reveal secrets of learning</h2>



Now, thanks to new research by Mooney and Duke neurobiology professor John Pearson, scientists are beginning to understand what fuels this relentless drive to improve - and what it reveals about the learning process in general.&nbsp;



The findings, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-08694-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>, offer new insight into how learning occurs without external rewards, and could deepen understanding of motor learning and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/household-chemicals-linked-to-neurological-disorders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurological disorders</a> in humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-the-learning-process">Tracking the learning process</h2>



In their experiments, the researchers placed male juvenile zebra finches - who are the only singers among their species - in soundproof chambers where they could practice at will. 



These birds learn their courtship songs early in life by first listening to their fathers and memorizing the melodies. 



Then, like human toddlers learning speech, they begin to babble, gradually shaping their squeaks into structured songs that match their mental template.



To monitor their progress, Pearson’s team developed a machine learning model capable of analyzing and scoring thousands of song renditions in real time. This allowed the researchers to track how each bird’s performance changed from moment to moment.



“Some tries were a little better, and some were a little worse,” Pearson said. “Generally the longer the birds worked at it, the better they got.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-songbirds-learning-for-the-joy-of-it">Songbirds learning for the joy of it</h2>



As the birds honed their songs, the team also monitored chemical signals in the basal ganglia, a brain region involved in learning new motor skills. 



Using fluorescent sensors engineered to light up in the presence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dopamine-helps-us-learn-from-positive-and-negative-experiences/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dopamine</a> - a key chemical messenger for reward and motivation - the researchers tracked its activity in real time.



What they discovered was surprising: each time a bird practiced, dopamine levels began to rise, regardless of how well the song was performed.&nbsp;



Whether the bird hit the right notes or not, simply making the effort triggered activity in the brain’s reward system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-brain-wired-to-learn">A brain wired to learn</h2>



The dopamine signal increased even more when a bird sang better than expected for its developmental stage, and dipped slightly when performance regressed.&nbsp;



These shifts suggest that the birds’ brains were reinforcing improvement and gently correcting missteps - all without any external feedback.



“Nobody’s telling the bird if he’s an honor student or going to be sent to detention,” Mooney said. “The birds were alone during their practice sessions, singing away in a soundproof room.”



Instead, the study shows that dopamine acts as an internal guide - a kind of neurological compass - helping the birds adjust and improve over time. This system of intrinsic motivation may explain how learning continues even in the absence of rewards or punishments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dopamine-provides-a-motivational-boost">Dopamine provides a motivational boost</h2>



The researchers also identified another player in the process: acetylcholine, a neurochemical known to influence attention and learning.&nbsp;



Qi, the study’s first author, demonstrated that acetylcholine could stimulate dopamine release when the birds sang, providing an extra motivational boost.



When the team blocked dopamine or acetylcholine in the basal ganglia, the results were dramatic.



“Learning basically comes to a halt,” Mooney explained. “The bird still sings a lot, but he doesn't seem to be able to learn from it.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-human-learning">Implications for human learning</h2>



While the experiments were conducted in zebra finches, the implications go far beyond avian neuroscience. The basal ganglia, dopamine, and acetylcholine systems involved in the birds' learning are shared across vertebrates - including humans.



“These findings translate across species,” Pearson said. “Essentially every animal with a backbone shares these brain systems.”



Understanding how these internal motivation systems function may shed light on how humans acquire complex skills like speaking, playing an instrument, or juggling. 



In this sense, Mooney said, “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-songs-human-speech-common-vocal-genetic-origin-syrinx/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birdsong</a> learning is very similar to what children do when they spontaneously acquire these remarkable skills.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-songbirds-as-a-model-for-learning">Songbirds as a model for learning</h2>



The research could also help explain what happens when those systems break down. Dopamine dysfunction in the basal ganglia is associated with neurological disorders such as Parkinson’s disease and schizophrenia. 



By studying learning in songbirds, researchers can explore the underlying principles in a simpler system.



“It’s really important that we understand these regions, and the bird is a means of getting at those principles,” Pearson noted.



For Mooney, the significance is both scientific and deeply human.



“Of all the scientific frontiers that remain, the brain is probably the most poorly understood. And it’s fundamental to being human,” he concluded.



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Dopamine fuels learning in young songbirds

In a quiet home office in Durham, North Carolina, neuroscientist...

The story of early human migration into South America has stirred debate. Researchers have long argued about when these first travelers arrived, how they adapted, and which paths they followed. 



Evidence has surfaced in many forms, from stone tools and butchered bone fragments to entire campfire sites once littered with animal remains. 



Although these clues have fueled lively conversations, scholars have faced frustrations when old assumptions were challenged and new findings seemed sparse.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-in-the-pampas">Humans in the Pampas</h2>



The Pampas, known for its expansive plains and iconic landscapes, saw much of its early buzz dwindle in the mid-1900s. Yet the puzzle of who first roamed there has never truly gone away.



Now, according to research by Mariano Del Papa of <a href="https://unlp.edu.ar/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National University of La Plata</a>, Argentina and colleagues, modern technology and updated theories are breathing fresh life into these investigations. 



Refined carbon dating, advances in ancient DNA methods, and broader approaches to human-environment interactions have sparked new interest in how and when humans walked across these southern lands.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-bones-and-cut-marks">Animal bones and cut marks</h2>



Scientists have long wondered if humans and extinct giant animals, sometimes called <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-were-likely-the-leading-cause-of-megafauna-extinctions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">megafauna</a>, overlapped in time or even shared close encounters. The debate has centered on physical associations and behavioral associations.



The former refers to animal bones and tools found in direct contact, while the latter involves traces of human activity on the bones themselves. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-europeans-practiced-cannibalism-eating-both-enemies-and-loved-ones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cut marks</a> are among the strongest signs of human interaction, yet they require careful analysis to rule out accidental scratches, weathering, or other natural wear.



In the Pampas, confident identification of these marks has been sporadic, with just a handful of sites showing possible evidence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-had-surprising-diets-3-5-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early humans</a> and large mammals coexisting. 



Many previous finds lacked direct proof of who caused the damage or how these animals ended up with unusual grooves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-reconquista-river-discovery">The Reconquista River discovery</h2>



One significant lead emerged along the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconquista_River" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Reconquista River</a> in northern Buenos Aires, where researchers uncovered the fossilized remains of an extinct armored animal called Neosclerocalyptus, which resembled giant armadillos.



Scientists inspected the shell and tail bones, seeking patterns that might confirm human involvement. 



Radiocarbon dating placed these remains at around 21,000 years old, suggesting human presence in this area well ahead of many earlier estimates.



Further microscopic analysis revealed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eat-like-neanderthal-unpacking-ancient-cooking-methods-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cut marks</a> on parts of the pelvis, tail, and body armor. Statistical work compared these traces with known examples from butchered remains. 



The marks aligned with what stone tools commonly produce, and their location matched spots where hunters might have targeted meat-rich areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neosclerocalyptus-giant-armadillos">Neosclerocalyptus - giant armadillos</h2>



Neosclerocalyptus was one of those prehistoric oddballs you wouldn’t want to bump into on a walk through ancient South America. 



It looked kind of like an armadillo on steroids - covered in a thick, bumpy shell and sporting a short, stubby snout. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full is-resized"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/first-humans_south-america_Neosclerocalyptus-skeleton_giant-armadillo_credit-Del-Papa_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/first-humans_south-america_Neosclerocalyptus-skeleton_giant-armadillo_credit-Del-Papa_1s.webp" alt="Drawing of a Neosclerocalyptus skeleton highlighting cut-marked skeletal elements in light blue found at the CRS-10 specimen. Credit: Del Papa et al., 2024, PLOS ONE" class="wp-image-1963422" style="width:300px;height:auto"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Drawing of a Neosclerocalyptus skeleton highlighting cut-marked skeletal elements in light blue found at the CRS-10 specimen. Credit: Del Papa et al., 2024, PLOS ONE</figcaption></figure>



This guy belonged to the glyptodont family, which were basically giant armored mammals related to modern armadillos. 



Neosclerocalyptus roamed the open plains during the Pleistocene epoch, which means it shared the landscape with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smilodon-fatalis-young-saber-toothed-cats-had-double-fangs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">saber-toothed cats</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-in-america-coexisted-with-giant-sloths-and-mastodons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">giant ground sloths</a>, and early humans. It wasn’t exactly speedy, but its tank-like body made up for it in defense.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-timeline-of-humans-in-south-america">Timeline of humans in South America</h2>



The dating results place this evidence roughly 6,000 years before most recognized archaeological sites in southern South America. 



Researchers note that a small but growing body of recent findings across the Americas indicates humans may have been around even earlier than 20,000 years ago. 



These outcomes resonate with discoveries elsewhere suggesting that people reached the continent sooner than older textbooks stated.



While the giant armadillo discovery in northeastern Argentina stands out, it parallels similar points of interest in other regions. 



Scientists working elsewhere have seen indications of human activity dating beyond the once-accepted timeline of 13,000 to 16,000 years ago. 



These glimpses could fill voids in the historical record, showing that different groups explored diverse landscapes, from coastal zones to inland stretches.



Clear behavioral associations remain challenging to confirm. Bones alone can be scattered by rivers or shifting sediments, and random fractures sometimes mimic cut marks. 



In this case, careful examination of the site’s layers helped rule out normal taphonomic processes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



Investigations like this may steer attention to under-sampled areas where layers from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-age-data-analysis-reshapes-climate-future-lowers-warming-estimates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Last Glacial Maximum</a> remain intact. 



If additional fossils with similar markings appear nearby, the evidence for a broader human footprint dating back more than 20,000 years will become tougher to dispute. 



Radiocarbon dating and ancient DNA techniques could then piece together the connections between these early populations and later groups spread across South America.



Experts agree that ongoing exploration is essential. Early settlement patterns in the Pampas might reflect unique strategies for finding resources and adapting to shifting climates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-south-america-and-giant-armadillos">Humans, South America, and giant armadillos</h2>



From a set of fossils on the Reconquista River to the possibility of unearthing more traces in the surrounding region, every fresh clue adds depth to an ancient tale. 



These findings echo other recent data suggesting humans reached the Americas well before longstanding theories indicated. 



The weight of this evidence challenges traditional timelines and inspires experts to reexamine historical assumptions.



For now, this glyptodont discovery seems to indicate that South America’s early human narrative might stretch back further than once believed.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0304956" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>.



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First humans in South America survived by eating giant armadillos

The story of early human migration into South America has...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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