Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

While dogs may be man's best friend, poultry is often his favorite meal. From backyard coops to commercial farms, poultry farming has shaped human civilization and food culture. National Poultry Day, celebrated every year on March 19, is a tribute to the industry, the farmers, and, of course, the birds themselves. 



Whether you enjoy a hearty chicken dinner or prefer eggs at breakfast, this day highlights the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-flu-outbreak-has-killed-20-million-chickens-in-the-u-s/">role of poultry</a> in daily life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-origins-and-importance-of-poultry">Origins and importance of poultry</h2>



Poultry farming has deep historical roots, dating back thousands of years. Chickens are believed to have originated from wild jungle fowl in Southeast Asia and were domesticated over 8,000 years ago. 



Early civilizations, including the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, recognized the value of these birds for their meat and eggs. As trade routes expanded, poultry spread across the globe, becoming a crucial food source in many cultures.



In the United States, poultry farming began with European settlers in the 16th century. Chickens, turkeys, and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-americans-dont-know-the-dangers-of-raw-milk-and-bird-flu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> were raised in small flocks to provide eggs and meat for families. 



During World War II, poultry became even more significant as beef and pork were rationed, leading to an increase in chicken consumption. 



Over time, poultry farming evolved from small backyard operations to a massive industry that feeds millions of people worldwide. Today, poultry remains a primary source of affordable, high-protein food, with the U.S. producing nearly nine billion chickens annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-day-to-celebrate-poultry-in-every-form">A day to celebrate poultry in every form</h2>



National Poultry Day is the perfect occasion to enjoy a variety of poultry dishes. Breakfast can start with eggs, omelets, or turkey bacon. Lunchtime offers opportunities to indulge in chicken sandwiches, grilled turkey, or duck salads. 



By dinnertime, options expand to roast chicken, fried chicken, or even a flavorful pheasant stew. Poultry is one of the most versatile meats, prepared in countless ways, including grilling, roasting, frying, sautéing, steaming, and baking.



Beyond its culinary appeal, poultry is also a healthier alternative to red meat. Chicken and turkey, in particular, are lower in fat and cholesterol, making them excellent choices for those looking to maintain a balanced diet. 



The high protein content supports muscle growth, while essential nutrients like B vitamins, iron, and zinc contribute to overall health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fun-facts-about-poultry">Fun facts about poultry </h2>



Poultry is more than just food - it’s a world of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natural-preservation-method-slows-down-bacterial-growth-in-meat-products/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fascinating creatures</a> with unique traits. Chickens may not be known for their flying abilities, but they can take short, low flights to escape predators. 



Ducks, on the other hand, are built for water, with waterproof feathers coated in a special waxy oil. This natural adaptation allows them to stay dry even while floating for hours.



Male and female poultry also have distinct names. A male duck is called a drake, while a female is a hen. Similarly, a male chicken is a rooster, and a female is a hen. 



Groups of birds have unique collective names as well. A group of chickens is known as a brood or peep, while a group of ducks in the water is called a paddling.



If ducks take flight, they form a flock, and once they land on the ground, they may be referred to as a brace or badling.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-to-celebrate-national-poultry-day">How to celebrate National Poultry Day</h2>



People celebrate National Poultry Day in various ways, depending on their love for these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chick-emotions-shed-new-light-on-animal-welfare/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a>. Some take the opportunity to cook their favorite poultry dishes, while others use the day to try new recipes. 



Traditional meals like herb-roasted turkey, chicken enchiladas, and turkey pot pie gain popularity as people experiment with flavors. Those interested in sustainable living might consider visiting a local poultry farm to see firsthand how these birds are raised.



Restaurants and food establishments also join the celebrations, offering special poultry-themed menus. Some communities organize events where people can learn about poultry farming, nutrition, and even backyard chicken keeping. 



On social media, food lovers share their best poultry meals with the hashtag #NationalPoultryDay, showcasing creative ways to prepare chicken, duck, and turkey.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legendary-poultry-festival">A legendary poultry festival</h2>



One of the biggest National Poultry Day celebrations happens in Versailles, Ohio. 



This small town has hosted a Poultry Festival since 1951, transforming what began as a local event into a nationally recognized celebration. Originally a one-day gathering, the festival expanded into a weekend-long event by 1962.



Each year, thousands of visitors flock to Versailles to indulge in delicious poultry dishes, enjoy live music, and participate in fun activities. 



One of the festival’s highlights is the world's largest omelet cook-off, where chefs prepare an enormous omelet using hundreds of eggs. The event also features barbecue pits, beer tents, and poultry-themed contests.



Beyond the festivities, the <a href="https://www.versaillespoultrydays.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Versailles Poultry</a> Festival plays an important role in the local community. The event generates funds for maintaining Heritage Park, a 40-acre space with sports fields, ponds, and shelter houses. 



Over the past decade, the festival has donated more than $700,000 to various charities, making it a celebration that gives back.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-national-poultry-day-matters">Why National Poultry Day matters</h2>



National Poultry Day is more than just an excuse to enjoy a good meal. It is a day to recognize the farmers who dedicate their lives to raising poultry, ensuring a steady supply of eggs and meat for people around the world. 



It also highlights the importance of sustainable farming practices, humane animal care, and the nutritional benefits of poultry consumption.



As the global population continues to grow, poultry farming will remain a crucial part of food security. The efficiency of poultry production compared to other livestock makes it a vital source of protein for millions of people. 



So, on March 19, take a moment to savor your favorite poultry dish, share your love for chicken, turkey, or duck, and celebrate the birds that have been feeding humanity for centuries.



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National Poultry Day 2025: Honoring the birds that feed the world

While dogs may be man's best friend, poultry is often...

Earth’s polar regions often see odd bursts of energy raining down from above. These bursts come from charged particles that slip through special entry points where Earth's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-magnetic-field-has-a-dent-and-nasa-is-watching-closely/">magnetic</a> field lines bend towards the ground.



Jasper S. Halekas is a professor in the Department of Physics and Astronomy at the <a href="https://uiowa.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Iowa</a>. He noted that scientists have spent years trying to understand the zones over the Earth's polar caps - known as magnetospheric cusps.



These zones allow certain solar wind particles to stream straight into Earth's atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-charged-particles-and-the-magnetic-field">Charged particles and the magnetic field</h2>



Regions near the cusp can light up with auroras and create bursts of energy that ripple back and forth. 



These phenomena are more commonly known as the northern lights (in the northern hemisphere) and the southern lights.



For researchers, a cusp is a treasure trove of data about magnetic reconnection and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strong-magnetic-fields-leave-marks-on-nuclear-matter/">electromagnetic effects</a>. 



There’s a constant dance between incoming charged particles and Earth’s protective magnetic layers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gathering-data-in-low-earth-orbit">Gathering data in low-Earth orbit</h2>



The <a href="https://tracers.physics.uiowa.edu/ace" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Analyzer for Cusp Electrons</a> (ACE) is designed to measure higher-energy electrons that zip in both downward and upward directions in the region of the northern magnetospheric cusp. 



NASA selected it for the TRACERS mission, which is set to gather data in a low Earth orbit. 



Special orbits can pass straight through the cusp, and that gives the instrument a shot at picking up valuable details about the activity of these dynamic electrons. 



Engineers fit this sensor with electrostatic optics and a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/expanding-our-view-of-the-universe-with-faint-gravitational-waves/">detector system</a> that can capture short-lived events, even those lasting mere milliseconds. 



That speed is suitable for the active nature of the cusp, where changes happen at a very brisk pace.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapid-sampling-of-electron-activity">Rapid sampling of electron activity</h2>



Some phenomena in the cusp can form complicated patterns in the electron population. 



One <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2000JA000322" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> concluded that wave-generated fields can create bursts of electrons with energies of a few hundred electron volts. The ACE system takes quick snapshots of these electrons before they zip away.



Rapid sampling is a major advantage in these conditions. Observations can track how electrons come in, reflect, and sometimes spread back out into space. 



Understanding those short-lived events might be the key to cracking how magnetic fields and electric fields steer particles around.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observing-incoming-electrons">Observing incoming electrons</h2>



Because the spacecraft orbits so close to our planet, it must position its sensors with care. 



When the orbit lines up with Earth’s magnetic field, ACE can see the pitch angles of incoming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shape-of-electrons-revealed-first-time-through-big-advance-in-quantum-physics/">electrons</a> from nearly every direction in a single sweep. This coverage improves the odds of catching rare changes in the flow.



Avoiding stray interference is also important. The spacecraft design team placed ACE to keep its view mostly free of shadows from the spacecraft's main structure. 



This ensures the sensor won’t miss critical angles where electrons might carry new details about cusp physics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-insights-on-cusp-boundaries">New insights on cusp boundaries</h2>



Edges of the cusp sometimes look like shifting borders. One minute, a layer of hot plasma sweeps by; the next minute, it’s calm. ACE aims to pinpoint where these boundaries form and how fast they move.



Researchers suspect that the cusp’s edges may hold clues about how the entire magnetosphere stays balanced under the sun’s continuous bombardment. 



Timing data from ACE should help untangle whether each shift depends on the sun’s changing behavior or if it’s tied to short bursts inside Earth’s magnetic system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detecting-surges-in-electron-activity">Detecting surges in electron activity </h2>



Ace doesn’t work alone. A full suite of instruments on the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/tracers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">TRACERS</a> satellites is set to measure fields, waves, and other charged particles. 



By combining multiple viewpoints, scientists hope to see how different ingredients merge to cause the energy surges in the cusp.



Teamwork among multiple sensors brings out nuances that a single instrument might miss. Each data set fills in a piece of the puzzle, which helps in drawing a bigger picture of what shapes our planet’s near-space environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-does-electron-activity-have-a-ripple-effect">Does electron activity have a ripple effect?</h2>



Finding a hot spot in near-Earth space is always exciting, but there’s a direct effect here on our atmosphere too. 



When <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/watching-electrons-move-1-quintillionth-of-second-attoseconds-attomicroscopy/">electrons</a> with moderate to high energies drop into that zone, they can pump heat into the ionosphere below. 



Some changes may even ripple further, nudging global currents and triggering auroral activity that can shift weather in subtle ways.



Scientists want to see if these electron events might set off chain reactions. These processes could matter for satellite orbits, radio communications, and even some lines of research into climate. 



The more we know about the cusp, the better we can judge its role in bigger planetary processes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-better-understanding-of-space-weather">A better understanding of space weather</h2>



Once ACE collects a steady flow of data, the team hopes to compare real-time spikes against solar wind records. 



That step might help distinguish local events from those triggered by sudden gusts of charged particles from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/suns-fury-secrets-of-solar-energy-storms/">Sun</a>.



In either case, the electron signals from this area can be windows into how the magnetosphere handles constant solar influences.



Nobody expects the cusp to give up its secrets without a challenge. Still, the first glimpses from ACE and its partner instruments could carry over into a deeper understanding of how space weather shapes our planet.



The study is published in <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11214-025-01147-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Space Science Reviews</a>.



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Electron activity in auroras will help us understand space weather

Earth’s polar regions often see odd bursts of energy raining...

The Triassic Period was an era of fundamental significance in the Earth's history. It began around 252 million years ago after a devastating mass extinction killed off an estimated 90 percent of all living species.



Gradually, over millions of years, plant and animal life became re-established and many new forms evolved. 



During the early Triassic, mammal-like reptiles diversified and adapted to many different ecosystems. There were also other vertebrates, including dinosaurs, that came to dominate towards the end of the Triassic.



Fossil evidence has helped scientists to reconstruct how life staged a comeback after the devastating mass extinction, and how new forms subsequently evolved. Central Europe is a hotspot for Triassic research as it has well-preserved rock layers that are dated to this early period.



A special concentration of fossils is located in the southwest of Germany, and these have helped scientists to expand the knowledge of ancient species and environments that were present during this time. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reconstructing-triassic-life">Reconstructing Triassic life</h2>



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.naturkundemuseum-bw.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">State Museum of Natural History in Stuttgart</a> have compiled a detailed analysis of Triassic terrestrial tetrapods (four-limbed vertebrates) in the Central European Basin. The study is the first to combine fossilized skeletal remains and footprints into a single comprehensive review.



The research includes specimens from the museum’s extensive collections, many of which have been crucial in shaping modern paleontological studies.



The findings, published in the journal Earth-Science Reviews, reconstruct the Triassic terrestrial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/we-know-far-less-about-four-footed-animals-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tetrapod</a> communities, their environments, and their ecological roles. 



By mapping out how different species coexisted and adapted, the study provides a clearer picture of early life on land during the Triassic Period.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-triassic-ecosystems-in-central-europe">Triassic ecosystems in Central Europe</h2>



The Triassic period lasted from 252 to 201 million years ago. During this time, the land that is now Baden-Württemberg was part of the Central European Basin. The region’s fossil-rich deposits make it an ideal location for studying ancient life.



"The Triassic is an important window into the past for understanding evolutionary patterns, adaptations and the emergence of ecological niches," said Dr. Mujal, a paleontologist at the State Museum of Natural History in Stuttgart and first author of the study. 



"Terrestrial tetrapod communities are particularly fascinating. The rise of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-did-dinosaurs-come-from-missing-fossils-hold-the-secret/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> began in the Triassic. There were already predecessors of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-did-not-hold-modern-mammals-back-from-evolving/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modern mammals</a>, and predatory crocodile relatives encountered giant amphibians. Research into the environment and animal communities is extremely exciting for us."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-biodiversity-and-evolution">Climate, biodiversity, and evolution</h2>



The Triassic was a period of immense biological change. It set the stage for the development of complex ecosystems and the eventual dominance of dinosaurs. 



By using a combination of fossil evidence and environmental data, researchers are uncovering how biodiversity changed in response to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-climate-shift-sheds-light-on-future-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate shifts</a>.



"We have correlated all the fossil finds with their paleoenvironments. This has allowed us to understand how Triassic tetrapod communities evolved in their environment and how they responded to climate change, for example," explained Mujal. 



"Our results can also serve as a model for present-day ecosystems. A comprehensive overview of a geological period, like the Triassic, can also help us to assess the long-term consequences of climate change and biodiversity loss today." 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-foundation-for-future-research">A foundation for future research</h2>



The fossil collections housed at the State Museum of Natural History Stuttgart are among the most significant in the world. They provide an essential reference for studying Triassic life and offer a foundation for future discoveries. 



The recent review was made possible through a collaborative effort involving specialists working on different tetrapod groups and geological aspects of the Triassic.



"Our team has analyzed all the relevant fossils and geological strata of the Triassic in southern Germany and other parts of Europe for this important project, combining different research approaches." said Professor Schoch, head of paleontology at the State Museum of Natural History Stuttgart and senior author of the study.



"At the same time, a comprehensive literature review was carried out. Overall, the publication makes an important contribution to our understanding of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/megastructure-ancient-buried-seafloor-dinosaur-age-found-under-pacific-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">history of the Earth</a> and the evolution of its organisms."



The study not only enhances our knowledge of the Triassic but also provides a model for understanding long-term ecological changes. By studying the past, scientists can better anticipate how modern ecosystems might respond to future environmental shifts.



As more discoveries emerge from the fossil-rich lands of Central Europe, the story of life’s resilience and transformation continues to unfold.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0012825225000467" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth-Science Reviews</a>.



Image Credit: SMNS, E. Mujal



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Triassic fossils shed new light on ancient ecosystems

The Triassic Period was an era of fundamental significance in...

Sapphire has dazzled for centuries, with its deep colors and unmatched hardness. Jewelers treasure it; scientists respect it.



Imagine a phone <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-ai-designed-material-is-light-as-foam-tough-as-steel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">screen</a> that never scratches, glasses that eliminate glare, or windshields that stay spotless no matter the weather. Thanks to recent advances in nanotechnology, these possibilities are closer to reality than ever before.



Researchers at <a href="https://www.utexas.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The University of Texas at Austin</a> have developed remarkable techniques to enhance sapphire and transform it into something even more valuable, that is able to resist fog, repel dust, and maintain clarity in the harshest of environments.



The new techniques could reshape industries ranging from consumer electronics to space exploration, proving that sapphire is much more than just a gemstone.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sapphire-s-hidden-potential">Sapphire’s hidden potential</h2>



Sapphire has long been known for its strength, making it an essential <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/graphene-wonder-material-changing-the-world-is-officially-declared-safe-for-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">material</a> in defense, high-end watches, and scientific instruments. 



Its ability to resist scratches makes it an excellent choice for screens and protective coatings. However, its extreme hardness also presents a challenge. Manufacturing sapphire on a small scale has proven difficult, which has limited its widespread use in everyday products.



"Sapphire is such a high-value material because of its hardness and many other favorable properties," said Chih-Hao Chang, associate professor in the <a href="https://www.me.utexas.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Walker Department of Mechanical Engineering</a> and leader of the research. 



"But the same properties that make it attractive also make it difficult to manufacture at small scales."



To overcome this challenge, Chang and his team have created sapphire-based nanostructures that maintain the material’s remarkable properties while simultaneously introducing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/superconductivity-achieved-at-room-temperature-with-new-materials/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new features</a>.



These structures offer the highest aspect ratio ever recorded for sapphire, thus enhancing its functionality without compromising its durability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-nanostructures-to-super-materials">From nanostructures to super-materials</h2>



The new form of sapphire behaves differently from traditional bulk sapphire.



While it is not quite as scratch-resistant as its unmodified counterpart, it still compares favorably to tungsten and traditional glass. However, its real breakthrough lies in its ability to repel fog, dust, and glare while retaining its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-future-of-plastic-biodegradable-durable-and-even-edible/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">structural integrity</a>.



"This is very exciting since nanostructures are traditionally seen as being fragile, but making them in sapphire can solve this problem," said Kun-Chieh Chien, a recent Ph.D. graduate from Chang’s lab and one of the lead authors.



The creation of these sapphire nanostructures opens the door to a new generation of materials that are both resilient and multifunctional. Their self-cleaning capabilities make them particularly useful for environments where maintenance is difficult or impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-s-influence-on-innovation">Nature’s influence on innovation</h2>



The researchers took inspiration from nature to develop these new properties. 



Researchers looked at moth eyes and found tiny structures that help the insects see in the dark by reducing glare. Inspired by this, they designed sapphire nanostructures that make surfaces clearer and easier to see through.



But the benefits don’t stop there. These nanostructures also prevent fog. Their special design stops moisture from forming, keeping lenses and windows crystal clear.



They can even be adjusted to repel water completely. Like lotus leaves, they make droplets bead up and roll off, keeping surfaces dry and clean without effort.



"Our sapphire nanostructures are not only multifunctional but also mechanically robust, making them ideal for applications where durability and performance are critical," stated Mehmet Kepenekci, a graduate student in Chang’s lab and one of the lead authors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-everyday-life">Improving everyday life </h2>



This technology could change <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-crack-resistant-cement-material-inspired-by-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">everyday life</a> in surprising ways. Picture a phone screen that never gets scratched and stays clear, even under harsh sunlight.



Glasses that don’t fog up? Possible. Car windows that stay clear no matter the humidity? Also possible. Cameras and other lenses could work better, without annoying glare. Even windshields might stop collecting dust, meaning less cleaning and more visibility.



But it’s not just about convenience. Industries that need perfect clarity - like medical imaging, aviation, and military optics - could also see major improvements. Sapphire nanostructures might help create stronger, more reliable equipment that lasts longer and performs better in critical situations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-game-changer-for-space-exploration">A game-changer for space exploration</h2>



While these innovations have clear benefits on Earth, they could also play a crucial role in space missions. Dust accumulation is a major issue for spacecraft and planetary landers. 



Equipment sent to the Moon or Mars often gets coated in dust, reducing its efficiency and lifespan. Traditional cleaning methods are not feasible in space, making self-cleaning surfaces a valuable asset for future missions.



"Our self-cleaning sapphire surfaces can maintain 98.7% dust-free area using gravity alone," said Andrew Tunell, the student who conducted the dust adhesion experiments. 



"This is a significant improvement over existing dust-mitigation technologies and is particularly beneficial for applications in space, where water is not readily available for cleaning."



By incorporating sapphire nanostructures into space equipment, researchers could help ensure that crucial instruments remain operational for longer periods, improving the success rate of missions beyond Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-next-level-of-sapphire-innovation">The next level of sapphire innovation</h2>



The researchers are not stopping here. Their next step is to scale up production and explore even more real-world applications. They aim to fabricate these nanostructures over larger surfaces, further refine their mechanical and chemical properties, and expand their potential uses.



Sapphire is already tough, but the scientists are pushing its limits. With their work, it could become one of the most important materials of the future. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/mh/d4mh01844c" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Materials Horizons</a>.



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'Super' sapphire can create unbreakable screens and anti-glare glasses

Sapphire has dazzled for centuries, with its deep colors and...

Nematodes are microscopic roundworms that are found in diverse environments all over the world. They have long been considered to show fixed behavioral patterns, for example feeding on a diet of bacteria and other microbes.



However, new research has revealed that they switch to predatory behavior if suitable prey (such as other nematode worms) are available in the environment. This indicates that their behavior is far more adaptable than previously thought.



Over multiple generations, these tiny organisms demonstrated a striking ability to shift entirely to a predatory lifestyle, based on environmental exposure to suitable prey.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nematodes-develop-predatory-instincts">Nematodes develop predatory instincts</h2>



Scientists at the <a href="https://www.bio.mpg.de/2923/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Biology Tübingen</a> conducted an experiment spanning 101 generations of nematode worm lineages in which the worms were exposed to alternative food sources.



The dietary shift led to a complete transformation in their behavior, with all test lines adopting 100% predatory tendencies, and demonstrating an unprecedented level of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quick-species-adaptability-shapes-long-term-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adaptability</a>. Interestingly, the change in diet was also accompanied by a change in the form of the mouth, with a wider mouth being associated with a predatory diet.



The rapid and consistent response contradicts the idea that predatory traits are fixed and highlights the profound role of environmental influence in shaping behavior and evolutionary pathways over extended periods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nematodes-pass-down-predatory-traits">Nematodes pass down predatory traits</h2>



The study also explored how nematodes retain behavioral changes across generations. Researchers found that at least five generations of exposure were required to establish lasting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/did-early-animal-evolution-start-with-predatory-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predatory behavior</a>. 



This suggests that organisms can inherit environmental responses, which could have implications in other species beyond nematodes. It potentially reshapes perspectives on adaptation and the plasticity of behavioral traits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-micrornas-and-adaptation">MicroRNAs and adaptation</h2>



A deeper look into the genetic mechanisms behind this shift revealed the involvement of microRNAs. The miR-35 family, in particular, played a key role in passing down behavioral traits by interacting with the EBAX-1 gene. 



This discovery links genetic regulation to behavioral shifts, and offers a new perspective on how species adapt and evolve over time.



“This research opens new avenues in the understanding of behavioural plasticity,” said Shiela Quiobe, doctoral researcher and first author of the study.



“This discovery was completely unexpected, and now it’s exciting as we’re just scratching the surface in understanding the microRNAs' mechanisms.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-beyond-the-individual">Evolution beyond the individual</h2>



The implications of these findings extend beyond nematodes. Dr. Ralf Sommer, Director of the Department of Integrative Evolutionary Biology and lead author of the study, highlights the study's significance.



“The long-term environmental induction experiment is a novel approach in the context of phenotypic plasticity to show that environmental responses can be important for longer evolutionary periods.” 



“The fact that we see a phenomenon where you really need multi-generational exposure to induce such memory indicates that there might be more crosstalk between ecology and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/missing-law-of-nature-explains-the-evolution-of-everything-that-exists-in-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a>,” he added.



These results challenge traditional views on evolution and predatory strategies, emphasizing the importance of ecological factors in shaping genetic adaptations. 



They suggest that environmental pressures play a more active role in guiding evolution than previously recognized.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lasting-impact-of-environmental-changes">Lasting impact of environmental changes</h2>



The study raises intriguing questions about the mechanisms behind this inherited predatory behavior. 



Scientists plan to conduct follow-up research to investigate the molecular targets of microRNAs and identify the bacterial agents responsible for triggering this adaptation. 



Understanding these processes could provide new insights into the long-term impact of environmental changes on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nematodes-use-chemistry-to-survive-and-communicate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species survival</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-evolutionary-theory">Implications for evolutionary theory</h2>



The findings from this study challenge long-held assumptions about evolution, particularly the balance between genetic determinism and environmental influence. 



Traditionally, evolutionary changes have been viewed as slow, being driven by random mutations and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lifes-rules-natural-selection-change-significantly-often-daphnia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural selection</a> over thousands or millions of years. However, this research suggests that behavioral shifts can emerge much more rapidly when organisms experience sustained environmental pressure.



The discovery that nematodes require multiple generations of exposure before fully adopting a predatory lifestyle highlights the role of epigenetics in shaping evolutionary paths. 



It also raises the question of how other species might exhibit similar inherited behavioral adaptations in response to environmental changes. Could this mechanism explain shifts in feeding behaviors, migration patterns, or survival strategies in larger organisms?



Understanding how microRNAs contribute to behavioral plasticity could also have applications in biotechnology and medicine.



 If similar regulatory pathways exist in other species, scientists may be able to manipulate gene expression to influence adaptive traits, potentially aiding in conservation efforts or even addressing neurodevelopmental disorders linked to gene regulation.



This study paves the way for future research into the interplay between environment, genetics, and behavior, and offers new perspectives on how organisms evolve in response to their surroundings.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adu0875">Science Advances</a>.



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Nematodes can rapidly shift to predatory behavior for survival

Nematodes are microscopic roundworms that are found in diverse environments...

Skin cells can be transformed into other types of cells, but the process is complex. 



Traditionally, scientists have used induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) as an intermediate step to reprogram skin cells into neurons, which are nerve cells. However, this method is time-consuming and inefficient, requiring several weeks for full transformation.



In recent research, however, scientists have developed a new technique that bypasses the stem cell stage, and succeeds in converting skin cells directly into neurons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-transforming-skin-cells-into-neurons">Transforming skin cells into neurons</h2>



Scientists at <a href="https://web.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a> have devised a streamlined process that significantly increases the efficiency of this delicate process. Using mouse cells, the team achieved a conversion rate where a single skin cell can generate more than ten <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-find-a-way-to-regenerate-old-neurons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurons</a>.



If successfully replicated in human cells, this technique could be a game-changer for treating spinal cord injuries and motor neuron diseases.



Study co-author Katie Galloway is the W. M. Keck Career Development Professor in Biomedical Engineering and Chemical Engineering at MIT.



“We were able to get to yields where we could ask questions about whether these cells can be viable candidates for the cell replacement therapies, which we hope they could be," said Professor Galloway. "That’s where these types of reprogramming technologies can take us,” she stated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-direct-conversion-of-skin-cells">Direct conversion of skin cells</h2>



Nearly two decades ago, scientists discovered that delivering four transcription factors to skin cells could turn them into iPSCs, which were then capable of differentiating into other cell types. While effective, this process takes several weeks and is often inefficient.



“Oftentimes, one of the challenges in reprogramming is that cells can get stuck in intermediate states. So, we’re using direct conversion where, instead of going through an iPSC intermediate, we’re going directly from a somatic cell to a motor neuron," explained Professor Galloway.



Previous attempts at direct conversion had low efficiencies, with yields of less than one percent. Earlier work required six transcription factors and two additional proteins, delivered separately using multiple viral vectors. This made it complex, and difficult to control <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/personality-has-a-profound-influence-on-gene-expression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gene expression</a> levels.



The team optimized the process by identifying a minimal combination of three transcription factors - NGN2, ISL1, and LHX3 - that efficiently convert skin cells into neurons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-promoting-rapid-cell-division">Promoting rapid cell division</h2>



The experts also included two genes that promote rapid cell division, thus dramatically increasing the yield. By using a single modified virus to deliver all three factors, they ensured precise gene expression in each cell.



Furthermore, the researchers introduced p53DD and a mutated HRAS gene to stimulate cell division before the conversion process began. This enhancement led to a yield increase of over 1,000 percent.



“If you were to express the transcription factors at really high levels in nonproliferative cells, the reprogramming rates would be really low, but hyperproliferative cells are more receptive. It’s like they’ve been potentiated for conversion, and then they become much more receptive to the levels of the transcription factors,” noted Professor Galloway.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-with-human-skin-cells">Testing with human skin cells</h2>



The team also adapted the process for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-cells-communicate-with-each-other-through-rna/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human cells</a>. While efficiency rates ranged between 10 and 30 percent, the direct conversion method took about five weeks, which was still slightly faster than traditional iPSC-based approaches.



Once the researchers refined their conversion process, they focused on the best methods for gene delivery. They tested three different viruses and found that a retrovirus provided the highest conversion efficiency. Adjusting cell density during growth also improved neuron yield. 



In mouse cells, the optimized method produced over 1,000 percent more neurons in just two weeks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implanting-the-neurons">Implanting the neurons</h2>



Collaborating with Boston University, the team then examined whether these lab-grown neurons could integrate into living tissue. They implanted the cells into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-brain-region-that-motivates-us-may-also-help-us-avoid-punishment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">striatum</a>, a brain region involved in motor control. Two weeks later, many of the neurons had survived and begun forming connections with existing brain cells.



 When grown in a dish, these neurons exhibited electrical activity and calcium signaling, indicating their ability to communicate with other neurons.



The next step involves exploring the potential for implanting these neurons into the spinal cord, which could open the door to new treatments for neurodegenerative diseases and injuries affecting motor control.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-treating-neurological-diseases">Treating neurological diseases</h2>



The team aims to refine their method for human cells to increase efficiency even further. If successful, this approach could enable large-scale production of neurons, which would offer new possibilities for treating conditions like ALS and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neurons-in-the-spinal-cord-coordinate-walking/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spinal cord</a> injuries.



Currently, clinical trials using iPSC-derived neurons to treat ALS are underway. However, increasing the number of available cells through direct conversion could accelerate research and make therapies more widely accessible.



As scientists continue to advance this technology, the hope is that direct cell conversion will become a key tool in regenerative medicine, potentially transforming how neurological diseases and injuries are treated.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2405471225000389" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell Systems</a>.



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Skin cells can now be directly converted into neurons

Skin cells can be transformed into other types of cells,...

At the center of most large galaxies, including the Milky Way, resides a supermassive black hole. Periodically, this cosmic entity accumulates interstellar gas, switching into an active galactic nucleus (AGN), a state in which it releases intense radiation throughout the galaxy.&nbsp;



Given that environment, one would not expect any life-form to thrive under such intense energy bombardment.&nbsp;



Yet a new study published in <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/adac5d" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal</a> proposes that AGN radiation may paradoxically offer life a boost, supporting certain conditions that encourage organisms to flourish instead of perish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-effects-of-black-hole-radiation-nbsp">Effects of black hole radiation&nbsp;</h2>



In this joint effort by <a href="https://home.dartmouth.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dartmouth College</a> and the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Exeter</a>, researchers used computer models to evaluate how ultraviolet (UV) light from AGNs changes the atmospheres of Earth-like planets.&nbsp;



Their findings demonstrate that although black hole radiation can be catastrophic in some cases, it may assist life once sufficient oxygen has accumulated in the planet’s atmosphere.



“Once life exists, and has oxygenated the atmosphere, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/understanding-x-ray-radiation-that-spews-out-of-black-holes-surroundings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">radiation</a> becomes less devastating and possibly even a good thing,” said Kendall Sippy, the lead author of the paper. “Once that bridge is crossed, the planet becomes more resilient to UV radiation and protected from potential extinction events.”



These simulations encompassed scenarios in which an Earth-like planet experiences the ultraviolet output from an AGN. If the atmosphere is high in oxygen, the radiation triggers chemical processes leading to a denser ozone layer. This thicker ozone layer, in turn, shields the surface from harmful UV rays.&nbsp;



Such phenomena mirror what occurred on Earth roughly two billion years ago when the first microbes began generating oxygen, eventually fueling a feedback cycle that improved environmental habitability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-supporting-the-conditions-for-life">Supporting the conditions for life</h2>



In line with earlier research on how solar radiation shaped the early Earth, this study’s results confirm that the effect of radiation relies heavily on the planet’s distance from its source and whether life is already in progress.&nbsp;



On a planet devoid of oxygen, black hole radiation would be devastating. But with oxygen in the atmosphere, new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-ozone-layer-took-more-than-two-billion-years-to-stabilize/">ozone</a> creation would mitigate the radiation’s most harmful effects.



“If life can quickly oxygenate a planet’s atmosphere, ozone can help regulate the atmosphere to favor the conditions life needs to grow,” said co-author Jake Eager-Nash, a postdoctoral researcher at the <a href="https://www.uvic.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Victoria</a>. “Without a climate-regulating feedback mechanism, life may die out fast.”



The rapid building of an ozone layer under AGN-type conditions was unexpected. “With modern oxygen levels, this would take a few days, which would hopefully mean that life could survive,” Eager-Nash says. “We were surprised by how quickly ozone levels would respond.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evaluating-various-galactic-settings">Evaluating various galactic settings</h2>



In reality, the Milky Way’s central black hole, known as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stars-orbiting-sagittarius-a-appear-rejuvenated-after-stellar-collisions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sagittarius A*</a>, has a negligible effect on Earth. Yet, the researchers wished to explore a hypothetical situation in which Earth is located much nearer an active black hole, experiencing billions of times more intense radiation.&nbsp;



With no initial oxygen present (similar to Earth’s distant past), this would all but preclude life from beginning. But as the atmosphere gradually oxygenated, an ozone shield would form, stabilizing conditions sufficiently for living organisms.



They also examined different galactic types, including “red nugget relic” galaxies where stars are clustered more tightly together, making the AGN’s influence lethal to potentially habitable planets. Larger elliptical galaxies like Messier-87, or a spiral galaxy like ours, more thinly scatter their stars, lowering the potential for dangerous AGN interference.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-black-hole-radiation-studies-nbsp">Black hole radiation studies&nbsp;</h2>



The project’s origin was, in part, serendipitous. Ryan Hickox, a professor at Dartmouth, went on a sabbatical trip aboard the Queen Mary 2 with his dog and met Nathan Mayne from the University of Exeter.&nbsp;



Their conversation revealed overlapping research interests, and they soon realized Mayne’s PALEO software for modeling exoplanet atmospheres could be repurposed for black hole radiation studies.



This collaboration enabled Sippy to work together with Eager-Nash, previously a graduate student in Mayne’s lab.&nbsp;



“It models every chemical reaction that could take place,” Sippy said. “It returns plots of how much radiation is hitting the surface at different wavelengths, and the concentration of each gas in your model atmosphere, at different points in time.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-accreting-neutron-star-research">Accreting neutron star research</h2>



McKinley Brumback, a Dartmouth-trained astrophysicist and assistant professor at <a href="https://www.middlebury.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Middlebury College</a>, also contributed her expertise on X-ray binaries - systems in which matter falls from a regular star onto a neutron star, producing X-rays.&nbsp;



While AGNs switch between active and dormant over millions of years, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neutron-star-collisions-push-the-limits-of-extreme-physics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neutron star</a> binaries do so in mere days or months, allowing researchers to scrutinize similar physical mechanisms at much shorter timescales.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-galactic-habitability">Rethinking galactic habitability</h2>



Overall, the researchers’ findings prompt a fundamental reassessment of how extragalactic radiation could shape planetary environments. An AGN’s energy might not be purely destructive: under suitable conditions, it could encourage the buildup of an ozone layer, safeguarding evolving lifeforms.&nbsp;



Moreover, the scenario in which Earth receives billions of times more radiation than it does today lends new perspectives on the range of possible planetary evolutions across the universe.



Thus, cosmic forces - once presumed purely detrimental - can become catalysts for ecological and biological complexity, as long as certain life-critical thresholds, like oxygenation, have already been reached.



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Black hole radiation may actually be a catalyst for life

At the center of most large galaxies, including the Milky...

The thawing of Arctic permafrost endangers the livelihoods, security, health, and food stability of the populations residing in these northern regions, according to an international team of scientists.&nbsp;



In a wide-ranging study, the researchers compared four distinct Arctic regions - in Russia, Canada, Norway, and Greenland - to pinpoint and evaluate the main risks posed by the ongoing melting of permafrost.



They discovered that, due to the loss of ice in the soil, these four areas experience crumbling infrastructure, interruptions to mobility and supply routes, a decline in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-at-risk-climate-change-is-diminishing-global-water-quality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water quality</a>, difficulties with food availability, and higher chances of encountering diseases and contaminants. 



“Since our study areas represent perspectives from a range of human and natural Arctic permafrost settings, the framework and risk assessment we present here are applicable to other (continuous) permafrost regions experiencing similar hazards and impacts, thereby supporting the development of overarching adaptation and mitigation strategies.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-at-permafrost-thaw-worldwide-nbsp">Looking at permafrost thaw worldwide&nbsp;</h2>



Unlike typical single-region analyses, this project adopted a comparative approach across multiple fields of study, integrating both environmental and societal perspectives.&nbsp;



The scientists factored in a variety of risk perceptions while synthesizing their findings, producing an assessment applicable to continuous permafrost zones worldwide.&nbsp;



Reinforcing the weight of their conclusions is the fact that the research came about through a consortium-based collaboration spanning major global institutions involved in climate studies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consequences-of-melting-permafrost-nbsp">Consequences of melting permafrost&nbsp;</h2>



Climate change has been held responsible for the erratic and long-term shifts in Earth’s climate and weather, with a notable acceleration in global warming over recent decades.&nbsp;



The ensuing rise in temperatures is responsible for permafrost thaw in the Arctic - a phenomenon meaning that ice long locked in frozen soil has begun to melt. Such <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/abrupt-permafrost-thaw-releases-more-co2-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">thaw</a> can lead to dire effects on local ecosystems, physical infrastructure, and residents.



“Climate change is accelerating Arctic permafrost thaw, posing significant risks to both the environment and human communities,” said co-author Khaled Abbas, an associate professor in environmental health sciences at the <a href="https://www.sharjah.ac.ae/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sharjah</a>. “This research examines these threats, focusing on the growing concerns associated with permafrost degradation and human activity.”



With a model that integrates environmental and community-based viewpoints, the study conveys important insights into how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-warming-permafrost-melt-devastating-role-accelerating-global-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> drives the degradation of permafrost and sparks a domino effect in Arctic communities. At the same time, it advocates strategies for both mitigation and adaptation to bolster resilience in the affected areas.



“The research underscores the critical role of interdisciplinary collaboration in tackling these complex challenges. By bringing together experts from environmental science, public health, engineering, and policy, the study offers a comprehensive understanding of how permafrost thaw impacts not only Arctic communities but also global populations,” Abbas said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-broad-impact-beyond-the-arctic">A broad impact beyond the Arctic</h2>



Although the focus is on high-latitude landscapes, the authors emphasize that the effects of permafrost thaw are a global concern with ramifications stretching far beyond local boundaries.&nbsp;



“Permafrost thaw poses diverse risks to Arctic environments and livelihoods. Understanding the effects of permafrost thaw is vital for informed policymaking and adaptation efforts,” Abass explained.&nbsp;



“Our findings show that permafrost thaw is not only an environmental issue but also a direct challenge to the safety, health, and well-being of Arctic communities.”



Through an inter- and transdisciplinary method that relies on knowledge exchanges and network analysis, the team underscores how crucial permafrost is within Arctic ecosystems and details the primary dangers connected to its susceptibility to climate change.&nbsp;



The experts assessed risks in their four case-study regions “by characterizing the relationships between the physical processes, key hazards, and societal consequences on life domains via thematic network analysis and how each of these relationships was perceived across the four case studies.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-five-principal-hazards">Five principal hazards</h2>



In describing the hazards of permafrost thaw across the four regions, the authors identify five key problem areas:



<ol class="wp-block-list">
<li>Infrastructure breakdown: Soils losing their frozen structure leads to economic burdens and heightened threats to planning, safety, and well-being.</li>



<li>Interruptions of mobility and supplies: Ground instability and erosion reduce people’s access to resources and hamper day-to-day life, impacting costs and opportunities for recreation.</li>



<li>Growing soil weakness: As ice melts, the ground becomes less stable, posing a direct threat to health, welfare, and economic stability.</li>



<li>Changing flora, fauna, and hydrological and biochemical cycles: Food security suffers, coupled with ramifications for local economics, cultural practices, and languages.</li>



<li>Heightened health and safety concerns: With permafrost no longer locked in place, communities are exposed to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-infectious-disease-landscape-is-changing-and-we-must-prepare/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">disease</a> vectors and contaminants formerly trapped in icy soil.</li>
</ol>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-information-on-permafrost-thaw-nbsp">Critical information on permafrost thaw&nbsp;</h2>



According to Abbas, the study is a stark reminder that climate-driven permafrost thaw is wreaking havoc on Arctic life.&nbsp;



“This research underscores the urgent need for improved planning and adaptation strategies to help Arctic communities navigate these growing threats. As the frozen ground warms, roads, houses, and infrastructure are collapsing, disrupting transportation and access to essential supplies,” said Abbas.



In parallel, water sources risk contamination, and shifting habitats undermine traditional food availability for Arctic populations. The exposure of formerly frozen pollutants and pathogens could herald emergent health risks for both humans and local fauna.



Given these concerns, the findings hold particular relevance for policymakers, environmental organizations, and industries overseeing infrastructure and resource management.&nbsp;



“This study provides critical information for governments and policymakers to develop climate adaptation strategies in Arctic regions and beyond. It emphasizes the need for improved urban planning, infrastructure reinforcement, and sustainable resource management. The research also highlights the urgency of preparing for permafrost thaw’s consequences on ecosystems and human livelihoods,” Abbas said.



Taken together, these findings paint a clearer picture of how climate change is fueling permafrost thaw and underlines the need to move decisively, addressing vulnerabilities and safeguarding both Arctic and global communities against the mounting dangers lurking in once-icy ground.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s43247-024-01883-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications: Earth and Environment</a>.



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Permafrost thaw is a rising threat to Arctic communities

The thawing of Arctic permafrost endangers the livelihoods, security, health,...

Scientists have studied starlight for ages, yet there is more to learn about the photosphere, the outermost layer of the Sun where light is emitted. Getting accurate data on which elements exist in the Sun, and in what amounts, is no simple feat.



According to Dr. Katharina Lodders, a researcher at <a href="https://artsci.washu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington University in St. Louis</a>, matching the Sun’s element abundances with materials found in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/physics-and-astronomy/carbonaceous-chondrite" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CI-chondrites</a> (a rare type of stony, carbonaceous meteorite) has opened fresh avenues for discussing where our planetary building blocks come from.&nbsp;



Dr. Lodders' detailed investigation highlights that these peculiar meteorites, which carry water-rich signatures, share an elemental similarity with the Sun’s composition, once the most volatile elements are accounted for.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-elements-of-the-solar-system">Elements of the solar system</h2>



Elements underpin the chemistry behind planetary bodies, stars, and the vast swaths of interstellar material. When scientists discuss solar “<a href="https://icc.dur.ac.uk/~tt/Lectures/Galaxies/TeX/lec/node27.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">metallicity</a>,” they are referring to every element heavier than hydrogen and helium, the two most abundant gases in the Sun.



Our star’s chemical makeup sets the tone for how planets form, why certain materials accumulate, and what life’s essential ingredients might be. 



Understanding these elements in the Sun also sheds light on the processes that occurred billions of years ago, back when the <a href="https://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1993prpl.conf..921T" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">proto-solar nebula</a> took shape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connecting-the-sun-with-meteorites">Connecting the Sun with meteorites </h2>



Researchers recognized long ago that meteorites reflect early solar system material. But CI-chondrites stand out for closely resembling the solar photosphere’s elemental profile, especially for less volatile elements.



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/he-thought-it-was-gold-but-inside-this-4-6-billion-year-old-meteorite-he-found-something-even-stranger/">meteorites</a> are so rare that only a handful have ever been retrieves. Their compositions hint at how minerals like silicates and oxides came together in the young solar nebula before larger bodies - like asteroids and planets - formed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solar-data-challenges">Solar data challenges</h2>



Studying the Sun’s chemical makeup is tricky. Temperatures and gas dynamics just beneath the photosphere create spectral lines, and scientists must correct for processes like convection and radiative transfer when interpreting the data.



Advances in computing have enabled three-dimensional models that simulate how gases behave in the solar atmosphere. Recent studies also try <a href="https://www.spiedigitallibrary.org/conference-proceedings-of-spie/10768/2321717/NLTERAD-Non-local-thermodynamic-equilibrium-radiance-Model/10.1117/12.2321717.short" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">non-local thermodynamic equilibrium (NLTE)</a> approaches in an attempt to reduce previous errors caused by oversimplified assumptions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-helium-hydrogen-and-metals">Helium, hydrogen, and metals</h2>



Most of the Sun consists of hydrogen. Next comes helium, with a small but vital sliver of heavier elements, such as oxygen and iron.



Over billions of years, heavier particles in the solar envelope can drift inward, making the photosphere slightly poorer in these “metals.” This phenomenon is called element settling, and many analyses now correct for it when estimating the original, or proto-solar, abundance of elements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-matching-the-puzzle-pieces">Matching the puzzle pieces</h2>



Scientists look at CI-chondrites for clues about planetary material that was around in the earliest days. Yet some elements, like sulfur or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mercury-bomb-is-waiting-to-explode-in-the-arctic/">mercury</a>, move around over time in water-rich conditions, which complicates the data.



For more reliable results, researchers compare stable element ratios, such as zirconium to hafnium, across different meteorite groups. This ratio-based approach has revealed that certain metals remain unaffected by water or heat and thus preserve their original proportions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peering-into-the-sun-s-core">Peering into the Sun's core</h2>



Neutrino experiments, like Borexino, peer into the Sun’s core by measuring particles generated through fusion reactions. They offer an indirect check on core abundances of carbon and nitrogen because these elements drive fusion in deeper layers.



Meanwhile, <a href="https://www.stat.berkeley.edu/~stark/Seminars/Aaas/helio.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">helioseismology</a>, the study of pressure waves in the Sun, uncovers details about its interior density and temperature. The interplay of these findings provides an extra layer of validation for updated solar models.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-refining-models-of-planet-formation">Refining models of planet formation</h2>



The Earth and other planets formed from leftover solar system material. By tracking how elements are partitioned between the photosphere and meteorites, researchers are able to refine models of planet formation and the distribution of key ingredients for life.



Even subtle differences in iron or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/magnesium-threonate-is-best-supplement-for-improving-brain-health-says-neurologist/">magnesium</a> abundances can change how scientists interpret early solar nebula processes. 



More precision means better insight into how Earth got its water, or why the gas giants differ in composition from the rocky planets that are closer to the Sun.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-meteorites-and-the-sun">Comparing meteorites and the Sun</h2>



As instrumentation becomes more refined, additional comparisons between meteorites and the Sun’s photosphere will clarify whether certain elements have been under- or overestimated in models. 



Researchers also anticipate new data from sample-return missions that will target asteroids akin in composition to known CI-chondrites.



Planned solar probes will improve measurements of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/silent-storms-experts-identify-the-mysterious-source-of-solar-wind/">solar wind</a> particles. These samples, combined with thorough lab tests, might close gaps in knowledge about noble gases and more volatile elements that are hard to assess through classical spectroscopy.



The study is published in <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11214-025-01146-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Space Science Reviews</a>.



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Rare meteorites provide a window into the early solar system

Scientists have studied starlight for ages, yet there is more...

At first glance, the Cuban blue-headed quail dove appears ordinary. It has brown feathers, a slender beak, and a characteristic strut like other doves. 



Compared to Cuba’s colorful parrots, it might seem unremarkable. However, this bird has long puzzled biologists. Scientists have struggled to determine its origins, how it arrived on the island, or what <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-americas-birds-scientists-declare-a-full-on-emergency-in-the-us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> it is related to.



For the first time, researchers have sequenced the bird’s DNA to uncover its history. Instead of clear answers, they found more confusion.



“This species has been an ornithological enigma for a very long time,” said Jessica Oswald, a Florida Museum of Natural History consultant staff affiliate and lead author of the study. 



“We focused on this dove species because we were anticipating an odd result that may help us understand the complex biogeography of the Caribbean. We did not anticipate it being so unique from an evolutionary perspective relative to anything else.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-unique-evolutionary-lineage">A unique evolutionary lineage</h2>



Scientists once believed the blue-headed quail dove was related to doves and pigeons from Central and South America. Some features, however, seemed more similar to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-undisturbed-forests-support-greater-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> from Australasia. Recent genetic analysis has disproved both theories.



The study shows that this dove is not closely related to species in Australia or the Americas. Instead, it stands apart from all known doves and pigeons.



“This species is even more evolutionarily distinct than the dodo was,” Oswald said. The dodo, also a type of dove, had at least one close relative, the Rodrigues solitaire, before both went extinct.



DNA evidence, along with fossil analysis, suggests that the blue-headed quail dove’s lineage may be as old as 50 million years. In comparison, humans and chimpanzees diverged just 5 to 6 million years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-history-of-caribbean-extinctions">The history of Caribbean extinctions</h2>



Oswald conducted this research as part of a broader <a href="https://www.nsf.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Science Foundation</a> initiative to understand bird extinctions in the Caribbean.



About 12% of all Caribbean <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/half-of-the-worlds-heliconia-species-are-at-risk-of-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird species</a> have disappeared since humans arrived. These include a nearly four-foot-tall giant owl, over a dozen parrot species, a raptor larger than a bald eagle, a flightless ibis that fought with its wings, and a condor with a powerful bite.



Scientists have struggled to determine how these extinct birds relate to modern species. Oswald developed new methods to extract and sequence DNA from fossils, helping connect extinct and living birds.



Early tests on a Caribbean cave rail fossil revealed a previously unknown evolutionary link to birds in Africa, New Guinea, and New Zealand. A later study showed that a parrot, now restricted to Hispaniola, once lived across the Caribbean before human activity reduced its range.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cuban-dove-is-nearing-extinction">Cuban dove is nearing extinction</h2>



Though not extinct, the blue-headed quail dove faces serious threats.



“There are 1,000 mature individuals of this species left in Cuba. It is threatened by overhunting by people, habitat loss and invasive species like cats. It’s very much on the brink,” Oswald said.



Due to its rarity, no one had sequenced its DNA before. Most specimens in North American museums were collected decades ago, making DNA extraction difficult. 



Oswald used a technique she developed for fossils, applying it to a toe pad from a specimen collected in 1958, and anxiously awaited the DNA results.



“She called me up and said, ‘Are you sitting down?’ I thought she was going to tell me they didn’t get any good sequencing and had no data, but it was just the opposite,” said study co-author David Steadman, former curator of ornithology at the Florida Museum.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-value-of-museum-specimens">Value of museum specimens</h2>



Steadman spent decades witnessing advancements in DNA technology. He sees this study as proof that museum collections remain vital for modern research.



“It’s another instance of the importance of museums and the long-term maintenance of specimens. As ancient DNA techniques have improved, we find that fossils, historical and modern specimens are even more useful than before.”



Oswald and Steadman were surprised by the results. Other Caribbean doves have known origins, with ancestors from North, Central, or South America. The blue-headed quail dove, however, remains a mystery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cuban-dove-may-be-the-last-of-its-kind">Cuban dove may be the last of its kind</h2>



“It’s a relictual species and has probably been in the Caribbean for a long time. Cuba is an old island,” Steadman said.



The dove's origins remain uncertain. It may be the last survivor of an ancient lineage, as genetic evidence suggests, or an isolated offshoot of another dove species stranded in Cuba long ago.



Despite its preference for ground living, its ancestors likely had the strong flight ability that allows doves and pigeons to spread across vast distances.



“There are some groups of birds that are spectacular dispersers, one being pigeons and doves. They just get up and go,” Oswald said. “Many are particularly good dispersers because they eat a lot of fruit and sometimes have to move large distances to look for fruiting trees.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-the-cuban-dove">The future of the Cuban dove</h2>



The blue-headed quail dove remains an evolutionary puzzle. While its origins are uncertain, its future is even more precarious. 



With its population dwindling, conservation efforts may be the only way to prevent it from following the dodo into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eel-trade-is-pushing-another-species-to-the-brink/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extinction</a>.



Researchers from multiple institutions contributed to this study, including Bret Boyd from&nbsp;<a href="https://lifesciences.vcu.edu/directory/boyd.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Virginia Commonwealth University</a>, Avery Szewczak and Julie Allen from&nbsp;<a href="https://www.biol.vt.edu/People/Faculty.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Virginia Tech</a>, Michelle LeFebvre and Rob Guralnick from the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida Museum of Natural History</a>, and Brian Stucky from the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Florida</a>.​



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2024.0464" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology Letters</a>.



Image Credit: Florida Museum photo by Kristen Grace.



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Rare dove is not related to any other birds we know today

At first glance, the Cuban blue-headed quail dove appears ordinary....

For years, scientists believed gorillas were less self-aware than chimpanzees, the most self-aware of the great apes. However, new research suggests that gorillas may possess similar levels of self-awareness, even though they typically fail the well-known mirror test.



A team of researchers from <a href="https://www.uu.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Utrecht University</a>, the University of Vienna, and the University of Amsterdam studied chimpanzees and gorillas at Burgers' Zoo in Arnhem.



The study indicates that gorillas are able to identify their own bodies as barriers, similar to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-and-gorillas-can-form-lasting-relationships/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimpanzees</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-the-mirror-test">Rethinking the mirror test</h2>



One of the most common ways scientists measure <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-baboons-fail-to-recognize-themselves-in-mirrors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">self-awareness</a> is through the mirror test. In this test, an animal receives a small mark on its body that it can only see by looking in a mirror. If the animal touches or tries to remove the mark, it suggests they recognize their reflection.



"The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-baboons-fail-to-recognize-themselves-in-mirrors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mirror test</a> works well, but it's not suitable for all animals," said study co-author Jorg Massen. "Some animals don't rely much on vision and may dislike looking at faces. These species might fail the mirror test even if they are self-aware."



Gorillas are one such species. They usually score poorly on the mirror test, possibly because they tend to avoid direct eye contact. 



Looking in a mirror may feel unnatural or uncomfortable for them. But does this mean they lack self-awareness? Massen and his team decided to find out.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gorillas-seem-to-be-self-aware">Gorillas seem to be self-aware</h2>



To explore body awareness in gorillas, the researchers designed a new test. In the experiment, both gorillas and chimpanzees had to open a box lid to retrieve food.



However, in some cases, the box was placed on a pole, forcing the animal to sit on the lid itself. To get to the food, they had to realize their own body was blocking access.



"This is a basic form of body awareness. In humans, this develops at around 1.5 years old," explained Massen.



The results were striking. Both gorillas and chimpanzees figured out the task equally well. "What stood out was that both species quickly realized they needed to move off the box to open it," said Massen.



"This shows they were aware of their own bodies as an obstacle. So the fact that gorillas usually perform poorly in mirror tests doesn't mean they lack self-awareness."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-self-aware-gorillas">Significance of self-aware gorillas </h2>



Massen and his team argue that scientists should expand their approach to studying self-awareness in animals. 



"Thanks to this body awareness test, we now know more about the inner life of gorillas, which may be richer than we previously thought, or at least had scientific evidence for," said Massen.



Using different types of tests could also shed light on how self-awareness evolved. Some scientists believe self-awareness emerged early in the common ancestors of humans and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-apes-will-suffer-through-frequent-and-extreme-climate-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">great apes</a>. 



Others think it may have developed separately in different ape species. Ongoing studies aim to determine whether chimpanzees, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orangutans-have-the-cognitive-ability-to-make-and-use-stone-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orangutans</a>, and other primates share the same kind of self-awareness.



"It's possible that apes have a similar type of self-awareness, but it could also be quite different. By combining different tests, we can better understand these differences," noted Massen.



This study also challenges how we define self-awareness. "Animals we often consider 'less intelligent' may actually have more complex thoughts than we imagine," Massen added.



By looking beyond the mirror test, scientists may uncover deeper insights into how animals understand themselves - and, ultimately, how human self-awareness evolved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-self-awareness-in-apes">Evolution of self-awareness in apes</h2>



The results of this research generate new questions regarding the development of self-awareness in great apes.



If gorillas are able to exhibit body awareness comparable to chimpanzees, yet fail mirror tests, then it may be that various species present self-awareness in different ways. This questions the long-standing theory that mirror recognition is the absolute indicator of an animal’s self-awareness.



Some experts propose that self-awareness is a spectrum, not an all-or-nothing personality. While chimpanzees might be expert visual self-recognizers, gorillas may be more dependent on spatial and physical self-awareness, which would just be as crucial for survival in their native habitats.



By expanding the ways that research is conducted, scientists can get a better idea of how various species perceive themselves and their environment.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ajp.70010" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Journal of Primatolog</a>.



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Are gorillas self-aware? New research challenges old assumptions

For years, scientists believed gorillas were less self-aware than chimpanzees,...

Koalas in a population north of the Brisbane River are showing a surprising genetic resistance to a virus that has weakened their species for generations. 



Scientists have discovered that some of these koalas have developed a unique genomic immunity to the retrovirus that suppresses their immune system and makes them more vulnerable to infections like chlamydia and even <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/koalas-are-infected-with-a-virus-that-causes-cancer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancer</a>.



Researchers from <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The University of Queensland</a> and UMass Chan Medical School made the discovery while studying koala populations in different regions. 



The findings, published in the journal Cell, could be a key step in efforts to protect one of Australia’s most iconic animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-koalas-hidden-immunity">Koalas’ hidden immunity</h2>



Koalas infected with the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-retroviruses-have-been-found-in-koalas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">retrovirus</a> are at a higher risk of chlamydia, which has devastated populations in Queensland and New South Wales. 



The virus has also been linked to lymphomas that have caused significant mortality in captive koalas. 



However, scientists found that about 30% of koalas in the Sunshine Coast hinterland have a genetic adaptation that suppresses the virus.



“What we found is that there is a single genetic switch that has been activated in about 30% of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/koalas-are-now-officially-listed-as-endangered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">koala population</a> in the Sunshine Coast hinterland, suppressing the retrovirus,” said Professor Keith Chappell, a virologist at the Australian Institute of Bioengineering and Nanotechnology. 



“This is in contrast to what we found in the population on the Gold Coast, where this adaptation is almost completely absent.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-natural-defense-spreading-over-time">A natural defense spreading over time</h2>



The study, led by research fellow Dr. Michaela Blyton, suggests that this adaptive genomic immunity functions similarly to how an immune system strengthens after exposure to pathogens. 



“Because this 'genomic immunity' can be inherited, the discovery suggests koalas with the trait could be used in breeding programs to reduce the susceptibility of other populations to the retrovirus, like on the Gold Coast,” said Dr. Blyton.



The researchers also found evidence that this adaptation is spreading through the northern koala population, though it will take generations to fully establish itself across the region.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-rare-opportunity-to-study-evolution">A rare opportunity to study evolution </h2>



Professor Chappell explained that retroviruses can alter the genetic code of a species over time. In humans, about 8% of DNA comes from retroviral infections that occurred over millions of years.



In contrast, the koala retrovirus only entered the marsupial’s genome a few thousand years ago, which is considered very recent in evolutionary terms.



“Out of all the species on the planet, this is the only one where we can see a genetic response to a retrovirus in real time, rather than looking at responses to things that got into the genome millions of years ago,” said Professor Chappell.



“This allows the researchers to study exactly how these iconic critters are responding - it’s actually a pretty amazing situation.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-adaptations-of-koalas">Genetic adaptations of koalas</h2>



At the University of Massachusetts, Professor William Theurkauf had spent decades studying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-on-treadmills-video-shows-how-insects-walk-and-balance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fruit flies</a> and their genetic responses to genome invaders. 



When he learned about the koala research, Professor Theurkauf saw clear parallels with his work and an opportunity for collaboration.



Despite the vast differences between fruit flies and marsupials, both studies shed light on how species develop genetic defenses against viral threats.



This trans-Pacific partnership has helped scientists gain deeper insight into how koalas are adapting at the genetic level.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-stronger-koala-populations">Building stronger koala populations</h2>



The researchers caution that while the retrovirus is not the most immediate threat to koalas, understanding this genetic adaptation could improve conservation efforts. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/koalas-face-critical-threats-from-disease-and-habitat-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Habitat destruction</a> and climate change remain the biggest dangers to koala populations.



By identifying populations with a natural resistance to the retrovirus, conservationists can develop targeted strategies to enhance the species' resilience against disease.



Koalas with this trait may be better suited for repopulation efforts in areas where disease has significantly reduced their numbers.



This discovery could lead to breeding programs that prioritize koalas with this genetic resistance, helping to build stronger populations that are less vulnerable to disease. 



Scientists are now eager to explore whether similar adaptations exist in other koala populations across Australia, potentially opening new doors for conservation strategies in the years to come.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0092867425001916" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell</a>.



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Koalas in Queensland show signs of immunity to deadly retrovirus

Koalas in a population north of the Brisbane River are...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



-----



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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