Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

A planet’s orbit defines its movement around a star. Earth follows a nearly circular orbit, but exoplanets often take different paths. Some have very elongated orbits, while others resemble Earth’s circular pattern. 



UCLA astrophysicists have now measured the orbits of exoplanets, from Jupiter-sized to Mars-sized, and found an interesting trend. 



Smaller planets tend to have nearly circular orbits, while larger planets follow more elliptical paths. This suggests that large and small <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stunning-images-of-baby-planets-reveal-surprising-growth-spurts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planets</a> may form in different ways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bigger-planets-with-different-orbits">Bigger planets with different orbits</h2>



“What we found is that right around the size of Neptune, planets go from being almost always on circular orbits to very often having elliptical orbits,” said <a href="https://www.ucla.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCLA</a> postdoctoral researcher Gregory Gilbert, who led the study.



The research team analyzed data from NASA’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/kepler/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kepler telescope</a>. This telescope observed 150,000 stars and detected exoplanets by measuring dips in brightness as they passed in front of their stars. 



These brightness patterns, called light curves, revealed new details about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/four-planets-will-align-this-week-during-a-rare-nighttime-spectacle-heres-how-to-see-them/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planetary orbits</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-challenge-of-measuring-planet-orbits">The challenge of measuring planet orbits </h2>



One of the biggest hurdles was ensuring accurate modeling for all 1,600 light curves.



"If stars behaved like boring light bulbs, this project would have been 10 times easier," said Erik Petigura, a UCLA professor of physics and astronomy. 



"But the fact is that each star and its collection of planets has its own individual quirks, and it was only after we got eyes on each one of these light curves that we trusted our results."



This is where UCLA undergraduate Paige Entrican played a crucial role. She developed a specialized visualization tool and manually inspected every light curve.



"Reviewing the data was a meticulous process that required careful inspection of all data products to ensure the validity of our results," said Entrican.



"Several times during this project, I identified failure modes that only affected 1% of all our stars. But we needed to update our analysis to be robust to these issues and go back and reprocess the entire data set."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-processes-of-planets">Formation processes of planets</h2>



The divide between circular and elliptical orbits aligns with other known patterns in exoplanet studies. Gilbert noted that small planets are more common than giant planets.



"Large planets need metal-rich stars in order to form; small planets do not. Small planets have low eccentricities, and large planets have large eccentricities," said Gilbert. 



The connection between planet size, orbit shape, and star composition suggests two different formation processes for planets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-planets-take-shape">How planets take shape</h2>



Scientists believe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-finds-a-hidden-planet-in-kepler-51-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planets</a> start as small space rocks that collide and merge over time. 



If a growing planet reaches a certain size, it can capture large amounts of hydrogen and helium, turning into a gas giant like Jupiter or Saturn. However, planets larger than Neptune are rare. 



The growth of a giant planet requires a process called runaway accretion, where gas accumulation accelerates dramatically. This can only happen around stars with high levels of elements heavier than helium.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planets-with-elliptical-orbits">Planets with elliptical orbits</h2>



Larger planets with elliptical orbits indicate a more chaotic formation history. These planets likely experienced strong gravitational interactions that disrupted their paths. 



Eccentric giant planets may have also influenced their neighbors, triggering major impacts like the one that formed Earth’s moon. In exoplanet systems, such collisions could involve planets much larger than Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tribute-to-kepler">A tribute to Kepler</h2>



“It's remarkable what we've been able to learn about the orbits of planets around other stars using the Kepler Space Telescope,” said Petigura.



“The telescope was named after Johannes Kepler, who, four centuries ago, was the first scientist to appreciate that the planets in our solar system move on slightly elliptical rather than circular orbits. 



“His discovery was an important moment in human history because it showed that the sun, rather than the Earth, was at the center of the solar system. I’m sure Kepler, the man, would be delighted to learn that a telescope named in his honor measured the subtle shapes of orbits of Earth-size planets around other stars.”



This study marks a significant step in understanding how planets form and evolve. The differences in orbit shape between small and large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-identified-85-new-exoplanets-that-could-harbor-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exoplanets</a> provide new clues about their origins. 



With ongoing research and advanced telescopes, scientists will continue uncovering the mysteries of planetary formation.



The study is published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.



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Planets seem to have hidden patterns in their solar orbits, according to a new study

A planet’s orbit defines its movement around a star. Earth...

Earth has experienced numerous powerful space events that have changed its surface. Some of the most significant were meteorite crashes, which may have played a key role in shaping the planet and potentially supporting early life. 



Scientists know that Earth was hit by many meteorites, but most impact craters disappeared over time.



A team of scientists from Curtin University has found the oldest known meteorite impact crater in Western Australia’s Pilbara region. 



This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-insight-mro-spacecraft-teamed-up-with-ai-to-find-a-fresh-impact-crater/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crater</a> is over a billion years older than any other confirmed impact site. The discovery helps us understand what Earth was like billions of years ago and raises new questions about how meteorite crashes might have helped create the right conditions for life to begin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-oldest-impact-crater">Earth’s oldest impact crater</h2>



Scientists studied the rocks in the area and found special patterns called shatter cones. These cone-shaped marks only form when a huge meteorite crashes into the ground, creating intense pressure. Because of this, shatter cones are considered to be solid evidence of a meteorite impact.



The site is located about 40 kilometers (25 miles) west of Marble Bar in Western Australia. The evidence suggests that a giant meteorite hit this spot at a speed of around 36,000 kilometers per hour (22,400 miles per hour). 



This impact would have created a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nadir-crater-second-massive-asteroid-impact-discovered-dinosaur-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crater</a> more than 100 kilometers (62 miles) wide and thrown debris across the planet.



Professor Tim Johnson from <a href="https://www.curtin.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Curtin University</a> emphasized the significance of the discovery.



“Before our discovery, the oldest impact crater was 2.2 billion years old, so this is by far the oldest known crater ever found on Earth,” said Professor Johnson.



Scientists have been puzzled by the lack of very old impact craters on Earth, while the Moon still has many. This study helps connect the missing pieces, showing how these meteorite crashes may have shaped Earth’s early history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meteorites-and-early-microbial-life">Meteorites and early microbial life</h2>



Meteorite impacts may have played a role in the origins of life by creating environments suitable for microbial activity. The intense heat and geological disruption could have led to the formation of hydrothermal pools, similar to those known to support early microbial life.



Professor Chris Kirkland explained how this discovery deepens our knowledge of Earth’s past.



“Uncovering this impact and finding more from the same time period could explain a lot about how life may have got started, as impact craters created environments friendly to microbial life such as hot water pools,” said Professor Kirkland.



The meteorite crash may have helped form some of Earth’s first solid land. The impact released an enormous amount of energy, which could have caused parts of the Earth’s crust to move. 



This might have pushed some areas down and forced hot, melted rock from deep inside the Earth to rise to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-impact-carved-massive-canyons-on-the-moon-in-minutes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surface</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-search-for-hidden-impact-craters">The search for hidden impact craters</h2>



Scientists have wondered why no craters older than 2.2 billion years were found. Natural forces like erosion and earthquakes may have erased them. 



But this discovery shows that some ancient craters might still exist in areas where rocks have stayed well-preserved.



The North Pole Dome is one of the few places where Earth's ancient crust remains mostly unchanged. Studying it gives scientists a rare look at what the planet was like billions of years ago. Finding this impact crater may inspire more research in other similar areas around the world.



Professor Johnson highlighted how this finding changes our perspective on Earth’s impact history.



“This study provides a crucial piece of the puzzle of Earth's impact history and suggests there may be many other ancient craters that could be discovered over time.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-violent-history">Earth’s violent history</h2>



The study challenges previous assumptions about Earth’s early development. The impact may have played a role in forming cratons - large, stable landmasses that became the foundation of today’s continents.



If more impact craters from this period are identified, they could refine theories about early Earth’s geological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-mars-rocks-contain-signs-of-life-scientists-call-to-bring-them-back-to-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a>.



This discovery shows that Earth’s early history was more violent than we once thought. Meteorite crashes didn’t just change the land - they may have also affected the planet’s interior and helped create conditions for life.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-57558-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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World's oldest impact crater may be linked to the origins of life

Earth has experienced numerous powerful space events that have changed...

Earthquakes can cause widespread loss of life and property, so reliable forecasts remain a global priority. Heat-related factors might influence seismic activity, making accurate predictions crucial for timely evacuations. Yet, many aspects of earthquake behavior remain puzzling.



Shifts in <a href="https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/plate-tectonics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tectonic plates</a> and the buildup of strain energy typically drive these events. However, some researchers believe solar heat might also play a part in the bigger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earthquakes-linked-to-nearby-oil-extraction-fracking-sites/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seismic picture</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-can-solar-heat-influence-earthquakes">Can solar heat influence earthquakes?</h2>



These ideas have gained attention thanks to new work by Matheus Henrique Junqueira Saldanha from the <a href="https://www.tsukuba.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tsukuba</a> and the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (<a href="https://www.aist.go.jp/index_en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AIST</a>) in Japan.



In a recent project, Saldanha and collaborators looked at how fluctuations in <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/world-of-change/Solar" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar activity</a> could alter Earth’s surface temperature in ways that influence crustal conditions.



Temperature swings are thought to affect the brittleness of rocks, especially in upper layers. Changes in brittleness may not singlehandedly trigger large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earthquake-activity-will-increase-due-to-glacial-retreat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">earthquakes</a>, but heat fluctuations could add subtle strain in locations that are already under stress.



Scientists suspect that water infiltration can shift local pressures as well. Rainfall, snowmelt, and other seasonal factors might raise or lower tension around fault lines, contributing to how cracks form or expand near the surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heat-changes-may-trigger-earthquakes">Heat changes may trigger earthquakes</h2>



Atmospheric temperature can modify underground water circulation. This movement can add or reduce stress on faults, which could be important when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-detect-major-earthquakes-months-in-advance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quakes</a> are near the upper crust.



Certain <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1103961" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> have explored connections between the sun, moon, and Earth’s internal processes. Tidal forces and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1674862X20300203" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electromagnetic fluctuations</a> often steal the spotlight, yet solar heating is a different angle that brings seasonal and regional temperature changes into the conversation.



Experts note that any effect of temperature might be minor compared to major tectonic shifts. Even so, small contributions can accumulate over <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/geologic-time" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">geologic timescales</a>. Many quakes happen without a single “smoking gun,” so every factor is worth examining.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-closer-look-at-subtle-signals">A closer look at subtle signals</h2>



Hidden correlations between heat and can be difficult to detect. Small quakes often go unnoticed, but they offer useful data about how the Earth’s crust responds to environmental changes.



A magnitude 9.0 event, like the 2011 <a href="https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/official20110311054624120_30" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tōhoku earthquake</a>, caused catastrophic impacts and showed the limits of current forecasting methods. Even if solar heating only provides a slight improvement in forecast models, that could make a difference for vulnerable areas.



Detecting these small influences involves gathering data from different regions and comparing it with solar records. Scientists look for consistent patterns over time, checking if heat variations and temperature fluctuations align with changes in earthquake frequency.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-earthquake-forecasting">Improving earthquake forecasting</h2>



<a href="https://scienceexchange.caltech.edu/topics/earthquakes/earthquakes-probabilities" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forecasting</a> improvements often start with a close look at fault mechanics and strain buildup, as well as historical quake records. Some regions have more detailed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-map-shows-75-percent-of-the-u-s-at-risk-of-damaging-earthquakes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seismic histories</a> than others, which helps refine mathematical models.



Adding solar-based temperature inputs could sharpen the accuracy of those models. Subtle spikes in heat might signal shifts in rock stability, especially for shallow earthquakes that depend more on heat-related conditions in the top layers of Earth.



A more precise forecast would not mean pinpointing the exact day of a quake. Instead, it might reduce uncertainty for the next few weeks or months, giving local authorities another tool to weigh when organizing preparedness plans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solar-heat-and-seismic-activity">Solar heat and seismic activity</h2>



“Solar heat drives atmospheric temperature changes, which in turn can affect things like rock properties and underground water movement,” said Saldanha. Solar heating alone is not a dominant driver of seismic systems, yet it may still tip the balance.&nbsp;



These fluctuations can change how rocks fracture, especially if faults are already close to slipping. Even tiny changes in pressure might determine whether stored energy is released over days or years.



“It’s an exciting direction, and we hope our study sheds some light on the bigger picture of what triggers earthquakes,” said Saldanha. Incorporating solar data could reveal patterns that slip through the cracks in purely plate-based analyses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-wider-view-of-seismic-risk">A wider view of seismic risk</h2>



A multidisciplinary approach to earthquake forecasting considers water, temperature, and stress accumulation. Combining these elements can highlight new signals that standard tectonic models might overlook, potentially linking heat variations to earthquake <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-earthquake-changed-the-course-of-the-ganges-river/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity</a>.



Greater collaboration with climatologists and hydrologists could strengthen quake forecasts. Areas prone to shifts in rainfall or snowmelt might see extra stress on faults, which ties into the temperature-driven processes that Saldanha’s team is studying.



Some experts remain cautious, emphasizing that tectonic motion will always be the main culprit behind earthquakes. Yet they also acknowledge that no single factor explains every quake, so exploring the effects of temperature could add clarity.



Communities near active faults may benefit from any step forward in forecast precision. Even a rough timetable for probable activity can inform local decisions on infrastructure and emergency readiness.



Solar signals might give more insight into shallow <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-seismic-zone-or-seismic-hazard-zone" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seismic zones</a>, where changes in rock integrity can speed up or slow down quake cycles. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.aip.org/aip/cha/article-abstract/35/3/033107/3338203/The-role-of-solar-heat-in-earthquake-activity" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chaos</a>.



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Solar heat and earthquake activity: Is there a connection?

Earthquakes can cause widespread loss of life and property, so...

For centuries, archaeologists have pieced together the story of early humans - one artifact at a time. Stone tools, with their sharp edges and deliberate craftsmanship, have offered the clearest window into the minds of our ancient ancestors. But now, the discovery of bone <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-tools-ever-made-on-earth-hominins-3-million-years-ago-cradle-of-humankind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tools</a> has challenged this long-held narrative.



A new study from UCL and the CSIC-Spanish National Research Council reveals something astonishing: early humans were capable of advanced reasoning a million years earlier than previously believed. And the proof? Bone tools - some of the oldest ever found.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oldest-bone-tools">Oldest bone tools </h2>



The study describes 27 fossilized bones that were shaped into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tool-flint-discovery-challenges-theory-of-human-cultural-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tools</a> approximately 1.5 million years ago. This collection marks the earliest known instance of systematically produced bone tools, pushing back the timeline of advanced tool use.



Early human ancestors, called hominins, had been making stone tools for at least a million years. But until now, scientists believed that the regular use of bone tools only started around 500,000 years ago.



The recent discovery challenges this understanding, showing that these ancient ancestors were skilled in working with multiple materials.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bone-tools-prove-advanced-thinking">Bone tools prove advanced thinking</h2>



The newly found bone <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tool-discovery-challenges-entire-theory-of-human-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tools</a> were shaped using a technique similar to stone knapping. Hominins chipped away small flakes to create sharp edges, demonstrating an ability to adapt and transfer skills between different materials. 



This suggests that early humans possessed a greater cognitive capacity than previously assumed.



“The tools show evidence that their creators carefully worked the bones, chipping off flakes to create useful shapes. We were excited to find these bone tools from such an early timeframe,” noted Dr. Renata F. Peters from <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/archaeology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCL Archaeology</a>.



”It means that human ancestors were capable of transferring skills from stone to bone, a level of complex cognition that we haven’t seen elsewhere for another million years.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-humans-used-more-than-just-stone">Early humans used more than just stone</h2>



“This discovery leads us to assume that early humans significantly expanded their technological options, which until then were limited to the production of stone tools and now allowed new raw materials to be incorporated into the repertoire of potential artifacts,” noted lead researcher Dr. Ignacio de la Torre (<a href="http://www.csic.es/en/csic" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CSIC</a>-Spanish National Research Council).



The shift to making tools shows that early humans were smart enough to use their stone-making skills on other materials. This was a big step forward in how they created and used <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/400000-year-old-stone-tools-show-technological-adaptations-of-prehistoric-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tools</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovery-at-olduvai-gorge">Discovery at Olduvai Gorge</h2>



The tools were found in Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, a famous place where many important discoveries about early humans have been made. The experts uncovered 27 bone tools, mostly from big animals like elephants and hippos.



These tools were made from the strongest parts of the animals - the thick bones in their legs - showing that early humans carefully chose the best material.



The bone <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-lived-in-rainforests-80000-years-earlier-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tools</a> come from a time when early human ancestors were improving how they made tools. 



Before this, during the Oldowan age (which lasted from about 2.7 million to 1.5 million years ago), they mainly used simple stone tools by chipping off small pieces to create sharp edges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-shift-in-toolmaking">A shift in toolmaking</h2>



The Acheulean age began about 1.7 million years ago. At this time, early humans started making more advanced stone tools.



The discovery of shaped bone tools suggests early humans used their skills on more than just stone.



Before this discovery, bone tools were rare and found only in isolated cases. There was no proof that early humans were making them regularly. But these new findings show that hominins may have been using bone tools much earlier and more widely than scientists previously thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mystery-of-bone-tools">Mystery of bone tools</h2>



The exact purpose of these bone tools remains uncertain. Their shape, size, and sharp edges suggest they may have been used to process animal carcasses for food. However, no direct evidence confirms their specific function.



It is also unclear which hominin species crafted these tools. No fossilized remains were found alongside the collection. At the time, Homo erectus and Paranthropus boisei were known to inhabit the region, making them the likely candidates.



Since finding these bone tools was so surprising, scientists hope their discovery will encourage archaeologists to look back at old excavation sites. There’s a chance that other similar tools were found before but not recognized as important.



This research was funded by the European Research Council (ERC) to help scientists learn more about how early humans developed their thinking and technology.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08652-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



Image Credits: CSIC



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Oldest bone tools suggest early humans were smarter than we thought

For centuries, archaeologists have pieced together the story of early...

In the vast, arid landscapes where water is scarce, only the toughest plants survive. Among them, the agave plant stands out - not only for its role in tequila production but also for its remarkable ability to store and retain water.



Scientists have long studied how desert plants adapt to extreme conditions. Now, a study using advanced imaging techniques has uncovered deeper insights into the agave’s survival mechanisms.



The researchers used special imaging technology to see how agave plants store and use water. They found that these plants keep moisture at both the leaf and tiny molecular levels. This discovery could help create <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-earths-most-endangered-plants-from-extinction-proving-difficult-botanic-gardens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crops</a> that need less water and improve how processed foods stay fresh.



The results not only highlight the resilience of agave plants but also point to potential solutions for global food security in the face of climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-analyzing-agave-hydration-levels">Analyzing agave hydration levels</h2>



The scientists used terahertz spectroscopy, a non-invasive technique that falls between microwave and mid-infrared technologies, to analyze the hydration levels of agave <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-may-stop-absorbing-carbon-if-temperatures-continue-to-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a>.



This method allows researchers to map water distribution within plant tissues and observe how fructans, a type of sugar, help retain moisture at the molecular level.



“Understanding how plants adapt to dry conditions could lead to better farming practices and be used to develop crops that require less water,” said Monica Ortiz-Martinez from the Centro de Investigaciones en Optica (<a href="https://www.cio.mx/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CIO</a>) in Mexico.



“This could lead to higher crop yields with lower water consumption, benefiting farmers, food production and global food security.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-plant-hydration-levels">Measuring plant hydration levels</h2>



Terahertz waves, which exist between microwaves and the mid-infrared spectrum, have unique interactions with water. 



Since water strongly absorbs terahertz radiation, the researchers used this property to measure hydration levels within agave tissues. The technique allowed them to visualize water distribution and examine how fructans function at the molecular level.



The study, published in Applied Optics, demonstrates that terahertz spectroscopy is a non-invasive tool for plant analysis. 



The researchers found that agave plants survive harsh conditions by storing water in specialized leaf structures. Additionally, fructans act as molecular sponges, ensuring that moisture remains available even in extreme drought.



“In the food industry, our findings on agave fructans and their exceptional water-binding properties could be used to develop new food ingredients that improve moisture retention, texture and shelf life, especially in dried or processed foods,” said Enrique Castro-Camus from CIO. 



“This could lead to healthier, longer-lasting food products with fewer artificial preservatives.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intersection-of-biology-and-food-science">Intersection of biology and food science</h2>



The study began as a collaboration between CIO’s Applied Terahertz Science group and June Simpson at Centro de Investigaciones Avanzadas (<a href="https://www.cinvestav.mx/irapuato/investigacion/directorio-de-investigacion/June-Kilpatrick-Simpson-Williamson" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CINVESTAV</a>). Their focus was on water distribution in agave leaves and the role of fructans in hydration. 



Around the same time, CIO researchers partnered with Socorro Villanueva from Centro de Investigación y Asistencia en Tecnología y Diseño del Estado de Jalisco (<a href="https://ciatej.mx" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CIATEJ</a>) to explore how fructans protect frozen foods from damage. These projects merged to provide a comprehensive understanding of agave’s survival mechanisms.



For their analysis, the researchers used a time-domain terahertz spectrometer with a femtosecond fiber laser and sub-millimeter pixel resolution.



Thin leaf slices were placed between a terahertz emitter and detector, enabling hydration mapping through water absorption measurements. The spectrometer was later reconfigured to analyze fructan solutions in greater detail.



“Our research introduces several key innovations in the study of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predicting-how-climate-change-will-alter-plant-growth-cycles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant</a> hydration using terahertz technology,” said Ortiz-Martinez.



“One of the most significant advancements is non-invasive water detection - unlike traditional methods that require cutting, drying and weighing plant samples, terahertz imaging enables real-time hydration analysis without damaging the plant.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-agave-plants-retain-water">How agave plants retain water</h2>



The study revealed that agave leaves have a unique water storage system. Their inner core remains hydrated, while the outer layer acts as a barrier to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-understanding-of-light-detection-in-plants-may-revolutionize-farming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">minimize water loss</a>. 



Fructans play a critical role in this process by forming porous structures that trap and retain water molecules. This water retention capability is stronger than that of other sugars, making fructans vital for agave survival.



By combining tissue-level storage with molecular water retention, agaves have evolved into one of the most drought-resistant plants. These findings could have significant implications for crop cultivation in water-scarce regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-non-invasive-plant-monitoring">Expanding non-invasive plant monitoring</h2>



Researchers now aim to expand terahertz spectroscopy applications to study drought-resistant mechanisms in agave and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-bacteria-help-plants-stay-calm-and-keep-growing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant species</a>. The goal is to understand how different crops manage hydration, particularly those essential for food security.



Future developments may lead to a portable terahertz system for use in fields and greenhouses. Machine learning algorithms could further enhance this technology by analyzing terahertz images in real-time, enabling the detection of drought stress before visible signs appear.



The study highlights the importance of collaboration among experts in optics, plant physiology and food science. Researchers believe that integrating these disciplines will lead to practical applications for agriculture and food production.



“By advancing non-invasive plant monitoring methods, our research lays the foundation for smarter, more sustainable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warming-climates-force-plants-to-compete-with-each-other/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">agricultural practices</a>, ultimately benefiting both farmers and consumers while helping to conserve natural resources for future generations,” said Castro-Camus.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://opg.optica.org/ao/abstract.cfm?uri=ao-64-8-2057" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Applied Optics</a>.



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Agave plants: Nature’s answer to water conservation

In the vast, arid landscapes where water is scarce, only...

It's long been recognized that carbon dioxide concentrations in our atmosphere are continuously on the rise. This increase is a byproduct of human activity and an agent of climate change.



However, a less explored but puzzling trend is the growing gap between the highest and lowest annual carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere.



This widening gap between the peaks and troughs of carbon dioxide concentration was previously attributed to rising temperatures and increased atmospheric carbon dioxide. However, a recent study explores another possible factor: agriculture.



The unexpected findings revise our concept of the carbon cycle and hold important implications for future climate change mitigation efforts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-agriculture-shifts-carbon-dioxide">How agriculture shifts carbon dioxide</h2>



The researchers found that, contrary to previous beliefs, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-plants-produce-their-own-nitrogen-fertilizer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nitrogen fertilizer</a> used in agriculture is the chief contributor to the yearly ebb and flow of the carbon cycle. This highlights the impact of our actions and land management decisions on Earth system processes.



Study lead author Danica Lombardozzi is an assistant professor of ecosystem science and sustainability at <a href="https://www.colostate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Colorado State University</a>.



“These findings are important because we have undervalued the role of agriculture in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-carbon-cycle-trends-of-the-past-50-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon cycle</a> fluxes," said Lombardozzi.



"A lot of people recognize that agriculture can help mitigate climate change, but because it's not represented in most Earth system models, it's not considered in climate change projections the way it should be."



So, how does this all work? As plants sprout in the spring, they absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to support the new growth. Once crops are harvested and other plants become dormant in the fall, less carbon dioxide is needed by plants and so the level in the atmosphere rises again.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nitrogen-was-plentiful-for-early-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nitrogen</a>, a common ingredient in fertilizer, is essential for plant growth and thus contributes to increased carbon absorption from the atmosphere during the growing season.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-dioxide-by-the-numbers">Carbon dioxide by the numbers</h2>



The study reveals that agricultural nitrogen contributes 45% to the rise in annual carbon cycle fluctuations.



Increased atmospheric carbon dioxide and warmer temperatures also contribute to the difference between high and low carbon dioxide levels within a year, but not to the extent that nitrogen fertilizers do. 



Interestingly, this carbon cycle fluctuation caused by crop growth doesn't directly affect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-farming-practices-boost-soil-carbon-storage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon storage</a>. This is because crops are harvested annually and the absorbed carbon returns to the atmosphere. 



However, the study adds an exciting dimension: modifying agricultural practices can enhance long-term carbon storage in the soil, which is a potential weapon against climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-agricultural-practices-and-carbon-fluxes">Agricultural practices and carbon fluxes</h2>



Gretchen Keppel-Aleks, a co-author of the study from the University of Michigan, emphasized the implications of these findings.



“Agricultural management practices are very important to shaping the world we live in," she said Keppel-Aleks.



"At a time when many people feel like climate change has had profound and negative impacts on their lives through wildfire, flooding or droughts, we can use the fact that this study shows that agricultural management has a profound impact on carbon fluxes to think about how we can use agricultural management to our advantage.”



In line with this, many farmers are turning to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/farmers-adopt-regenerative-agriculture-better-soil-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">regenerative agriculture</a> - agricultural practices designed to improve soil health and crop yield while combating climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-updating-earth-system-models">Updating Earth system models</h2>



Despite evidence showing the crucial role of agriculture in carbon cycle fluctuations, it has been largely overlooked in the past because traditional Earth system models did not include agricultural processes. 



The researchers used the Community Earth System Model, a tool developed by the National Center for Atmospheric Research and other institutions, to pinpoint the causes of fluctuation increase. Unsurprisingly, agricultural nitrogen emerged as the key player.



Accounting for agriculture, specifically agricultural nitrogen, in Earth system models is essential for a comprehensive understanding of the carbon cycle. Yet, the majority of the models do not take it into account.



“It is really hard to represent human decisions in an Earth system model, but we need to tackle it,” Lombardozzi said.



The research paints an empowering picture of agriculture's role in climate change, along with its potential for significant impact on mitigation strategies.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-56730-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Agriculture plays a surprising role in carbon dioxide fluctuations

It's long been recognized that carbon dioxide concentrations in our...

For the first time, researchers have used satellite collar data alongside specialized cameras to observe maternal denning in polar bears. This stage, when mothers give birth and remain in dens with their cubs, has long remained a mystery.



Studies have shown that the length of time mothers spend in dens impacts cub survival. However, scientists had little understanding of why they stay so long or what they do during that period. Until now, tracking devices had not been tested against direct observations of the bears.



Study lead author Louise Archer is a postdoctoral researcher at the <a href="https://www.utsc.utoronto.ca/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Toronto Scarborough</a>.



“The Arctic's warming two to four times faster than the rest of the world, humans are expanding into areas that might be important for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-bear-cubs-are-emerging-earlier-from-dens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polar bear</a> denning, and we know they're sensitive to disturbance during this time,” said Archer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-denning-in-polar-bear-survival">Role of denning in polar bear survival</h2>



Denning begins when pregnant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-polar-bear-day-keeping-moms-and-cubs-safe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polar bears</a> dig out snow dens to give birth. Cubs are born tiny and vulnerable, and the den shields them from the harsh Arctic cold as they nurse and grow rapidly. 



During this time, mothers lose nearly half their body weight. Even after emerging, they do not immediately return to hunting. Instead, they stay near the den for several weeks, engaging in activities that seem more critical than eating.



Historically, researchers observed denning through binoculars, then remote cameras, and now satellite collars. Each method has its limitations. Satellite collars, which track location, activity, and ambient temperature, have become more common. 



However, most collars only record data every few hours, making it difficult to capture short-term behaviors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-polar-bears-for-six-years">Tracking polar bears for six years</h2>



In a six-year study, Archer and her colleagues tracked 13 polar bears from the Barents Sea subpopulation. They placed cameras outside of nine dens in Svalbard, Norway, while also using satellite collars.



Comparing the two methods revealed differences of several days to over a week in estimating key denning stages.



Each time the experts collected collar data, they matched it with corresponding camera images to confirm bear activities. 



The team then built three statistical models. These allow researchers to use collar data to predict not just what the bears are doing, but what they will likely do. The models forecast breakout times, den emergence patterns, and final polar bear departures.



One model also considers how temperature changes affect the behavior of mothers and cubs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-temperature-and-den-emergence-patterns">Temperature and den emergence patterns</h2>



“Collars do a good job at picking out these broader <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-doesnt-stick-to-polar-bear-fur-but-why/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behaviors</a>, like when the bears first come out of the den and when they depart. We found they corresponded pretty well to what we were seeing on camera,” said Archer. "But it was difficult to tease out the finer scale behaviors we saw on camera.”



Bears almost always emerged during daylight, with trips averaging 27 minutes. Some lasted under a minute, while others extended to nearly eight hours. Mothers brought their cubs outside about half the time, usually staying within 40 meters of the den. 



Warmer temperatures increased the likelihood of polar bears leaving the den and prolonged their outdoor stays. The longer it had been since their first breakout, the more frequently they emerged.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-denning-for-cubs">Importance of denning for cubs</h2>



The data suggests that this period near the den helps cubs adapt to the outside world. Other research has found that a faster departure after breaking out reduces cub survival rates. If cubs do not spend enough time near the den, their chances of survival decrease.



“The Arctic is a really fast-changing area. We've got a lot of sea ice being lost, so seeing what polar bears are doing and how they're responding to these changes gives us an insight into what we might expect in other parts of the Arctic down the line,” said Archer.



She recently completed a study linking a decline in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-bear-conservation-leaps-forward-with-new-tracking-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polar bear populations</a> to shrinking sea ice caused by climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-polar-bear-research">Future of polar bear research</h2>



This study involved researchers from <a href="https://polarbearsinternational.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Polar Bears International</a>, <a href="https://sandiegozoowildlifealliance.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance</a>, and the <a href="https://www.npolar.no/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Norwegian Polar Institute</a>. 



By improving tracking methods, scientists hope to gain a clearer picture of polar bear behavior in and around dens and the challenges they face.



Continued monitoring will provide valuable insights into how these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> adapt to their rapidly changing environment.



The study is published in the <a href="https://wildlife.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jwmg.22725" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Wildlife Management</a>. 



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Polar bear cub survival depends on this little-known den behavior

For the first time, researchers have used satellite collar data...

Conventional wisdom has long held that iron oxides merely trap phosphorus in the environment. Yet new research has uncovered a more dynamic role for these minerals in driving the conversion of organic phosphorus into the inorganic form that plants require for growth. 



A new study led by <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northwestern University</a> reveals that this activity can occur at rates on par with biological enzymes, overturning assumptions about how phosphorus becomes available in soils and sediments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-fate-of-phosphorus">The fate of phosphorus </h2>



Study senior author Ludmilla Aristilde is an associate professor of environmental engineering at Northwestern.&nbsp;



“Phosphorus is essential to all forms of life. The backbone of DNA contains phosphate. So, all life on Earth, including humans, depends on phosphorus to thrive,” said Aristilde.



“That’s why we need <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-plants-produce-their-own-nitrogen-fertilizer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fertilizers</a> to increase phosphorus in soils. Otherwise, the crops we need to feed our planet will not grow. There is a profound interest in understanding the fate of phosphorus in the environment.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-availability-of-inorganic-phosphorus">Availability of inorganic phosphorus</h2>



Most soil phosphorus exists in organic form, bound to carbon atoms in plant, animal, or microbial remains. Plants, however, need inorganic phosphorus - the sort found in common fertilizers - for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-plants-grow-more-branches-and-become-bushy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">growth</a> and survival. 



Traditional thinking held that microbial and plant enzymes alone could break down organic phosphorus, releasing the inorganic portion.



Prior work by Aristilde’s group demonstrated that iron oxides, which are abundant in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-soil-day-2024-protecting-our-planets-lifeline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soils</a> and sediments, can likewise facilitate this transformation. 



In the new study, lead author and PhD student Jade Basinski, along with other members of Aristilde’s lab, sought to determine just how much phosphorus these minerals could release and how efficiently they function in various scenarios.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-iron-oxides">The role of iron oxides</h2>



To investigate, the researchers examined three frequently occurring iron oxides: goethite, hematite, and ferrihydrite. They exposed these minerals to different ribonucleotides, the building blocks of RNA, which contain phosphorus in organic bonds.&nbsp;



By measuring the appearance of inorganic phosphorus both in the surrounding solution and on the mineral surfaces, the team assessed the extent of the reaction and how quickly it proceeded. 



The researchers also varied reaction times and the concentration of ribonucleotides to observe how these conditions influenced the process.



The findings showed that iron oxides are capable of driving the conversion of organic phosphorus to inorganic phosphorus at rates comparable to enzymes.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-iron-oxides-as-catalytic-traps">Iron oxides as ‘catalytic traps’</h2>



Moreover, the researchers uncovered a particular twist: some minerals can hold on to the newly released inorganic phosphorus, effectively sequestering it on their surfaces.&nbsp;



“We concluded that iron oxides are ‘catalytic traps’ because they catalyze the reaction to remove phosphate from organic compounds but trap the phosphate product on the mineral surface,” Aristilde said.&nbsp;



“Enzymes don’t trap the product; they make everything available. We found goethite was the only mineral that didn’t trap all the phosphorus after the reaction.”



While ferrihydrite and hematite tended to keep the cleaved phosphorus locked in place, goethite proved more inclined to release it back into the surrounding medium.&nbsp;



Hematite was notably effective at processing ribonucleotides containing one phosphorus, whereas goethite showed heightened performance with those containing three. 



These differences may reflect each mineral’s specific surface chemistry or structural characteristics, though the precise reasons remain unknown.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-crops-and-plant-growth">Implications for crops and plant growth</h2>



This discovery has far-reaching implications for agricultural practices. Farmers worldwide have long relied on adding phosphorus to fields to promote plant growth, yet phosphorus is a finite resource sourced primarily from phosphate rock in places such as the United States, Morocco, and China. 



As supply concerns grow, identifying alternative means to free up naturally occurring organic phosphorus could help maintain affordable food production.



Aristilde’s group believes that a deeper understanding of why goethite more readily releases inorganic phosphorus might guide the design of synthetic catalysts or soil amendments.&nbsp;



“Our work is providing a steppingstone for designing and engineering a synthetic catalyst as a way to recycle phosphorus,” Aristilde said.&nbsp;



“We uncovered a reaction that’s happening naturally. The dream will be to leverage our findings as a way to make catalysts to contribute to the production of fertilizers for our food security.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



The next step will be to discover precisely how different mineral compositions drive these catalytic reactions. 



Researchers initially hypothesized that the shape or structure of the phosphorus compounds themselves might determine the release rates, but the data did not support that idea. 



Now, attention is turning to the internal chemistry of each mineral, with the hope that clarifying these fine-scale details may point to new pathways for managing soil phosphorus.



In revealing that iron oxides can act as powerful catalysts for phosphorus release, the Northwestern study challenges the notion of these minerals as inert storage sites. Instead, they emerge as dynamic participants in a process vital to crop growth and, ultimately, the global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/futuristic-food-supply-transforming-co2-into-protein/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food supply</a>. 



Understanding this process better could help scientists and farmers find sustainable solutions for using phosphorus more wisely, ensuring this critical nutrient remains within reach for future generations.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.4c12049" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Science &amp; Technology</a>.&nbsp;



Image Credit: Ludmilla Aristilde/Northwestern University



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Phantom nutrient: The secret force that fuels plant growth

Conventional wisdom has long held that iron oxides merely trap...

Rainbow,Trout,Caught,And,Released,In,The,Boise,River,In

Farmed fish are often viewed with suspicion, while wild-caught varieties are more likely to be perceived as healthy and pure. Seafood shoppers everywhere debate the differences and weigh their options carefully.



A fresh scientific review points to an unexpected conclusion. Various pollutants can accumulate in fish, and wild-caught individuals appear to experience greater exposure to these. 



This perspective is shared by <a href="https://orcid.org/0009-0001-6007-8622" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Isabel  Casanova-Martínez</a>, a scientist who works under the auspices of several Spanish research institutions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-heavy-metals">Understanding heavy metals</h2>



Many people recognize that <a href="https://medlineplus.gov/lab-tests/heavy-metal-blood-test/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heavy metals</a> pose a threat for food safety. 



These substances include elements like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elevated-mercury-levels-discovered-in-dolphins/">mercury</a>, <a href="https://periodic-table.rsc.org/element/33/arsenic" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arsenic</a>, lead and others that can build up in tissue (bioaccumulate) over time. Certain types can be risky to humans if present in large amounts.



Researchers found that wild-caught fish carried an average mercury concentration of 0.06 micrograms per gram, while farmed fish had about half that, at 0.038 micrograms per gram. 



They also found arsenic levels of 3.26 micrograms per gram in wild fish, compared with 1.23 micrograms per gram in farmed varieties.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ddt-and-other-pollutants">DDT and other pollutants</h2>



A lesser-known concern is <a href="https://www.epa.gov/ingredients-used-pesticide-products/ddt-brief-history-and-status" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DDT</a>, which was once a widely used pesticide. Even though it was banned in many places years ago, traces can still linger. These residues can find their way into aquatic environments and accumulate in fish.



The review indicates around 196.48 nanograms per gram of DDT in wild-caught samples, whereas farmed fish had about 44.64 nanograms per gram. 



The findings suggest differences in how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-small-fish-whole-reduces-cancer-risk-in-women/">fish</a> come into contact with old pesticide deposits, possibly due to habitat or feeding patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-some-fish-fare-better">Why some fish fare better</h2>



Fish produced through aquaculture may face stricter oversight in terms of feed and water conditions. 



Organizations like the <a href="https://www.fao.org/publications/fao-flagship-publications/the-state-of-world-fisheries-and-aquaculture/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Food and Agriculture Organization</a> note that this method continues to expand faster than other food sectors. Many producers track feeds and test water more regularly than ever.



Heavy metals can be introduced through industrial pollution, runoff, or other sources in natural waters. 



Filtered tanks or closely monitored pens could mean fewer contaminants find their way into farmed species, although no method removes the risks entirely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-real-world-risks-and-caution">Real-world risks and caution</h2>



The <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mercury-and-health" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">World Health Organization</a> has identified mercury as being among the top chemicals of concern for public health, especially for expectant mothers and small children. 



High concentrations have been <a href="https://www.epa.gov/mercury/health-effects-exposures-mercury">tied</a> to neurological issues and developmental problems in infants.



Safe daily or weekly seafood intake is still possible, but guidelines vary depending on a person’s overall health. 



Experts often urge pregnant women to be particularly careful about the consumption of large, predatory fish as they are known to harbor elevated mercury levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-nutrition-and-contaminants">Balancing nutrition and contaminants</h2>



Eating fish brings many benefits. It offers protein, omega-3 fatty acids, and important minerals. 



<a href="https://www.fishwatch.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NOAA Fisheries</a> underscores that fish are a valuable food, but also acknowledges that consumers should stay informed about possible contaminants.



Some nutrients, like <a href="https://www.lenntech.com/periodic/elements/se.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">selenium</a> and <a href="https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Zinc-HealthProfessional/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">zinc</a>, vary based on the fish’s environment and diet. 



Farmed diets often include formulated feeds that are designed to control final nutrient profiles. Wild species gain nutrients from ecosystems that are less predictable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-leading-author-s-viewpoint">Leading author’s viewpoint</h2>



"Rather than pitting wild fishing against aquaculture, our review demonstrates that both sectors can coexist and help meet the world’s seafood needs safely," concluded Dr. Casanova-Martínez, lead author of the study.



"Still, ongoing research and improvements in feed and environmental monitoring are essential for safeguarding public health." 



These observations reflect the broader consensus that both systems are vital for feeding populations. Each approach has benefits and drawbacks that require further attention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-regulation-matters">Why regulation matters</h2>



Regulatory bodies set maximum allowed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nearly-100-million-americans-exposed-to-contaminated-drinking-water/">contaminant levels</a> to keep consumers safe. Many fish samples in both categories fall within established safety margins. 



Continuous oversight helps the public gain confidence in what ends up on their plates.



Authorities also caution special populations. Small children and pregnant individuals may need more careful advice about portion sizes, fish types, and heavy meal frequency. 



Public health agencies need to adjust recommendations when new evidence emerges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-consumers">What’s next for consumers</h2>



Aquaculture often employs best practices to reduce pollutants, yet wild-caught products remain popular for taste and tradition. 



People can choose a balanced approach, selecting a mix of fish sources and staying updated on guidelines for safer consumption.



Additional studies on feed technology and water filtration are ongoing. Research may reveal improved methods to cut contaminants and maintain fish quality in coming years.



Concerns about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heavy-metal-pollution-threatens-marine-life-and-human-health/">heavy metals</a> and legacy pesticides should not overshadow the nutritional value of fish. 



Instead, consumers should be making informed choices by identifying reputable suppliers and following health advisories to ensure they reduce the intake of unwanted substances.



Individuals looking for more detail can consult government websites or speak with healthcare providers for tailored advice. Monitoring official recommendations about fish intake can also safer meal planning.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0956713525000891" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Food Control</a>.



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Why eating farmed fish may be safer than eating fish caught in the wild

Farmed fish are often viewed with suspicion, while wild-caught varieties...

Colorful,Chrysanthemum,Flower,Macro,Shot.,Chrysanthemum,Rainbow,Flower,Background.

Fractals are curious designs that show up when patterns repeat themselves at different scales. They can be spotted in everyday settings such as ferns and snowflakes, yet they rarely appear in certain areas of physics. 



That rarity makes them a favorite topic for those who study unusual behavior in matter.



Scientists have theorized for decades that electrons in special environments might display such repeating structures. 



Reports hinted at possible sightings, but nobody had directly measured the electron energies in a real crystal to confirm this fractal. It looked like a problem best left to speculation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observing-a-decades-old-prediction">Observing a decades-old prediction</h2>



Now, however, a brand-new observation in quantum materials has left researchers excited. They have found an intricate energy pattern that matches a famous prediction from the 1970s.



<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/carbon-atom" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ali Yazdani</a>, James S. McDonnell Distinguished University Professor at <a href="https://www.princeton.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Princeton</a>, led the group that made this unexpected observation.



He and his colleagues captured direct evidence of the fractal pattern in a new type of material that was created by stacking and twisting sheets of carbon atoms, and which produced a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0097849300000431" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moiré design</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fractal-energy-pattern-in-quantum-material">Fractal energy pattern in quantum material</h2>



Scientists have long been fascinated by <a href="https://lab.semi.ac.cn/library/upload/files/2019/1/412557940.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fractals</a>, which are self-repeating patterns seen at many scales. 



The research team measured the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-atomic-collisions-unleash-unexpected-energy-bursts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">energies</a> of electrons in these twisted sheets and found a sequence that matched the pattern known as Hofstadter's butterfly.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Hofstadters-butterfly_fractal-pattern_observed-lab_credit-Yazdani-group_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Hofstadters-butterfly_fractal-pattern_observed-lab_credit-Yazdani-group_1s.webp" alt="A quantum version of a fractal pattern, known as &quot;Hofstadter's butterfly,&quot; which has long been predicted, but the new study marks the first time it has been directly observed experimentally in a real material. Credit: Yazdani group" class="wp-image-1961641"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A quantum version of a fractal pattern, known as "Hofstadter's butterfly," which has long been predicted, but the new study marks the first time it has been directly observed experimentally in a real material. Credit: Yazdani group</figcaption></figure>



Hofstadter first named this spectral pattern in his Ph.D. work in 1976, and it is one of the early examples of modern scientific data visualization.&nbsp;



“<a href="https://www.mathematik.com/Hofstadter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hofstadter's butterfly</a> is also a rare example of a problem that is solved exactly in quantum mechanics, without any approximations,” explained <a href="https://physics.mit.edu/research/pappalardo-fellowships-in-physics/kevin-nuckolls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kevin Nuckolls</a>, the co-lead author of the paper. He explained that until now, no one had observed this energy pattern directly in a real <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/poorly-understood-force-helps-keep-atomic-nuclei-stable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">material</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-accidental-clues">Accidental clues</h2>



“Our discovery was basically an accident,” commented Nuckolls. He revealed that they originally set out to examine superconductivity in twisted bilayer graphene but ended up with a moiré arrangement that opened the door to the butterfly pattern.



A team at MIT had shown in 2018 that <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-023-41068-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moiré crystals</a> can become <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature26160" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">superconducting</a> under special conditions.



The samples did not meet the magic angle for superconductivity, but they produced a clear view of the fractal spectrum. That unexpected twist confirmed the calculations from decades ago in a direct and visual way.



“Sometimes nature is kind to you,” said Nuckolls. He mentioned that they nearly missed this hidden butterfly and only caught on after studying the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-atoms-in-your-body-took-a-400000-light-year-journey-through-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electron</a> energies in more detail.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detailed-electron-energy-patterns">Detailed electron energy patterns</h2>



The team applied a <a href="https://www.nanoscience.com/techniques/scanning-tunneling-microscopy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scanning tunneling microscope</a>, which probes surfaces at an atomic scale by allowing electrons to tunnel from a sharp tip. This method captured the energy structure in exquisite detail.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Hofstadters-butterfly_fractal-pattern_lab-results_credit-Yazdani-group_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Hofstadters-butterfly_fractal-pattern_lab-results_credit-Yazdani-group_1s.webp" alt="Finding Hofstadter's butterfly. Credit: Yazdani group" class="wp-image-1961639"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Finding Hofstadter's butterfly. Credit: Yazdani group</figcaption></figure>



“The STM is a direct energy probe,” said <a href="https://www.thegraphenecouncil.org/blogpost/1501180/Graphene-News-and-Updates?tag=Myungchul+Oh" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Myungchul Oh</a>, a postdoctoral research associate and co-lead author of the paper. He emphasized that this made it possible to verify the fractal pattern in ways that electrical resistance tests could not match.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-theories-on-quantum-fractals">Shifting theories on quantum fractals</h2>



The data suggests that <a href="https://lightcolourvision.org/dictionary/definition/electron-electron-interaction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electron-electron interactions</a> play a role in shaping the fractal arrangement. These interactions were not part of the original model that was proposed in the 1970s.



Theoretical efforts by <a href="https://phy.princeton.edu/people/biao-lian" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Biao Lian</a> and his students helped interpret these extra features. Their calculations matched the experimental findings, once they added the impact of strong correlations among <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seeking-the-origins-of-the-molecule-that-made-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electrons</a>.



“The Hofstadter regime is a rich and vibrant spectrum of topological states,” said <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=Wf1aRMYAAAAJ&amp;hl=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Michael Scheer</a>, a graduate student in physics at Princeton and one of the paper's co-lead authors. 



He believes these images could unlock new insights into some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nuclear-fission-what-exactly-happens-when-the-nucleus-of-an-atom-splits-in-two/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum</a> behaviors that remain poorly understood.



These findings hint at new possibilities for exploring unusual phases in two-dimensional materials. Researchers see this study as one step toward richer frameworks in quantum physics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-fractal-pattern-surprises">More fractal pattern surprises</h2>



Many experts wonder if other twisted structures might show similar surprises. Each new angle or stacking pattern can shift electrons into exotic behaviors.



Some might ask how such fractal features could connect to next-generation devices. While no immediate inventions are guaranteed, curiosity in this area is growing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-bigger-story">The bigger story</h2>



Beyond the fractal butterfly, other puzzles lie in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nmat5012" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">topological states</a> and quantum conductivity. Physicists hope that sharper imaging techniques might map out more hidden patterns.



“These moiré crystals provided an ideal setting,” stressed Ali Yazdani. He said that the carefully arranged <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/carbon/articles/10.3389/frcrb.2023.1305515/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon lattices</a> allowed electrons to move in a periodic environment that revealed the structure that Hofstadter predicted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-studies-on-fractal-patterns">Future studies on fractal patterns</h2>



Investigators plan to measure how these fractals shift as conditions like temperature or magnetic field change. Each variation might introduce a new shape to the electronic spectrum.



There is also excitement about combining this fractal observation with further research on superconductivity. 



Small tweaks in the angle or doping level could reveal how electrons organize themselves in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41563-021-00923-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flat moiré bands</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-do-quantum-fractals-matter">Why do quantum fractals matter?</h2>



Understanding correlated states remains a priority for many labs. Some suspect that quantum fractals might show up in other materials with carefully designed patterns.



New theories will be tested against actual data, which was scarce until now. The hope is that each discovery will spark more questions about how electrons behave at tiny scales.



This long-sought fractal pattern emerged through patient work and a little bit of luck. Observers see it as a striking example of how surprising quantum materials can be when viewed up close.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08550-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Quantum fractal pattern predicted 50 years ago observed in the lab

Fractals are curious designs that show up when patterns repeat...

Birth,Of,A,Solar,Sytem,-,Protoplanetary,Disk

Long-standing investigations into the birth and formation of stars, planets, and galaxies have given rise to many exciting revelations. One such fascinating area of research is the study of planet-forming disks - the cosmic nurseries that assist in the generation of new planets.



Traditionally, researchers believed that these disks existed for only a brief period in a star’s life. Most estimates suggested that within 10 million years, they would dissipate, leaving behind either fully formed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-planets-form-its-much-more-complicated-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planets</a> or barren remnants. 



However, new research is challenging this assumption, and has revealed that some disks can last far longer under specific conditions. 



This unexpected discovery opens up fresh possibilities for understanding how planets form and whether long-lived disks might increase the chances that life exists beyond Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmic-discovery-defies-expectations">Cosmic discovery defies expectations</h2>



A team of researchers at the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a> has discovered that planet-forming disks can persist for much longer than previously believed. Their study focused on stars with a mass of one-tenth of the sun or less. 



The findings suggest that under these conditions, disks can survive for as long as 30 million years - three times longer than earlier estimates.



This breakthrough was made possible by NASA’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Webb Space Telescope</a>, which allowed researchers to conduct a detailed chemical analysis of an unusually long-lived disk. 



Their study, published in Astrophysical Letters, sheds new light on the timeline of planet formation. The longer a disk survives, the more time it provides for planets to form, which could significantly impact the development of planetary systems.



"In a sense, protoplanetary disks provide us with baby pictures of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-finds-largest-amount-of-carbon-ever-seen-in-a-planet-forming-disk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planetary systems</a>, including a glimpse of what our solar system may have looked like in its infancy," explained Feng Long, the lead author of the study and a Sagan Fellow at the <a href="https://www.lpl.arizona.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lunar and Planetary Laboratory</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-star-that-changed-the-timeline">The star that changed the timeline</h2>



The research focused on a star designated WISE J044634.16–262756.1B, which is more conveniently known as J0446B. 



This star, located in the constellation Columba and about 267 light-years from Earth, has managed to hold onto its disk far longer than expected.



Most young stars lose their planet-forming disks within 10 to 20 million years. Yet, J0446B has retained its disk for about 30 million years, making it an anomaly in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-giant-planets-form/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planetary science</a>. 



The team’s analysis suggests that small stars like J0446B might be capable of maintaining their disks for extended periods, allowing planets more time to form and develop stable orbits.



"Because materials in the disk provide the raw materials for planets, the disk's lifespan determines how much time the system has to form planets," explained Long.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stable-environment-for-planet-formation">Stable environment for planet formation</h2>



A key finding of this study is that even though these disks last longer, their chemistry stays mostly the same.



The team observed that the gases and dust in the disk remain relatively stable, providing a consistent environment in which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planet-formation-new-insights-mechanics-physics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planets</a> may form. 



This stability is crucial, as it ensures that planets forming around small stars have the necessary materials for an extended period.



By analyzing the gas content in J0446B’s disk, the researchers ruled out the possibility that it was a debris disk. 



Unlike protoplanetary disks, debris disks are made of second-generation material formed by asteroid collisions, and do not support the formation of new planets. The presence of primordial gas confirmed that J0446B’s disk was still in its original state.



"We detected gases like hydrogen and neon, which tells us that there is still primordial gas left in the disk around J0446B," said Chengyan Xie, a doctoral student at the <a href="https://www.lpl.arizona.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lunar and Planetary Laboratory</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-life-beyond-earth">Implications for life beyond Earth</h2>



The discovery of long-lived planet-forming disks has profound implications for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-planets-formed-in-the-harsh-early-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planetary systems</a> outside our own. 



One of the most intriguing planetary systems for researchers is TRAPPIST-1, which lies 40 light-years from Earth. This system features a red dwarf star surrounded by seven planets similar in size to Earth. 



Three of these planets exist in the habitable zone, where conditions could allow for liquid water and, potentially, for life.



The star in the TRAPPIST-1 system is similar in size to J0446B. Scientists think long-lasting disks help shape planets around small stars. The extra gas in these disks might affect how planets move and settle into their orbits.



"To make the specific arrangement of orbits we see with TRAPPIST-1, planets need to migrate inside the disk, a process that requires the presence of gas," explained Ilaria Pascucci, a professor of planetary sciences at the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory.



"The long presence of gas we find in those disks might be the reason behind TRAPPIST-1's unique arrangement."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-our-solar-system-evolved-differently">Why our solar system evolved differently</h2>



The sun and bigger stars lose their disks faster. They change quickly, giving planets less time to form. This might be why our solar system looks different from ones around smaller stars.



Even though these stars are different, studying long-lasting disks helps us learn more about processes that take place in space. 



Small stars are much more common than larger stars like the sun, so they might help scientists discover how planets form and whether they can support life.



"Developing a better understanding of how low-mass star systems evolve and getting snapshots of long-lived disks might help pave the way to filling out the blanks in the photo album of the universe," Long said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-perspective-on-planet-formation">New perspective on planet formation</h2>



Since planets need time and the right conditions to in order to develop, the discovery that planet-forming discs may last longer raises new questions. 



If small stars hold onto their planet-forming materials for longer, they might have a better chance of creating planets where life could exist.



With powerful telescopes, scientists hope to learn even more about these long-lasting disks. This discovery could completely change how we understand the requirements for planets to form and survive.



Researchers will continue studying these cosmic nurseries to learn more about how planets form and whether any of them could be home to life beyond Earth.



The study is published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/ad99d2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal Letters</a>.



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Planet-forming disks surrounding stars often last much longer than expected

Long-standing investigations into the birth and formation of stars, planets,...

A recent study offers a clearer picture of which amphibians and habitats face the greatest threat from rising temperatures.&nbsp;



Amphibians are notably fragile in a warming world due to their dependence on external sources to regulate body heat, with more than 40% of species already classified as endangered. As entire populations vanish, the ripple effects throughout ecosystems could be devastating.



“We wanted to better understand the risk climate change poses to amphibians, and so put together the most comprehensive compilation of heat tolerance limits to date,” said lead author Patrice Pottier, a postdoctoral fellow at <a href="https://www.unsw.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNSW</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heat-tolerance-limits-of-amphibians-nbsp">Heat tolerance limits of amphibians&nbsp;</h2>



Amphibians, being ectotherms, cannot generate enough internal heat on their own and therefore depend on the environment to maintain suitable body temperatures.&nbsp;



Given how little data existed on their ability to endure higher heat levels, the UNSW team aggregated thousands of measurements, representing hundreds of species.



“Heat tolerance limits are the maximum temperature amphibians can tolerate before their physiological systems fail,” Pottier said.



The experts applied a statistical method called data imputation to estimate values for species that have not been directly studied.



“In this case, it predicts heat tolerance limits for species we do not have data for by looking at how heat tolerance is linked to factors like habitat type, environmental temperature, and evolutionary history,” Pottier explained.



By doing so, the scientists developed a comprehensive catalog of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-temperature-threshold-can-the-human-body-handle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heat thresholds</a> covering about 60% of all known amphibian species. This overview highlights where warming poses the greatest risk and which animals might be most vulnerable to local extinctions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-amphibians-are-already-under-strain">Amphibians are already under strain</h2>



The research team examined the environmental conditions amphibians encounter in different microhabitats - on land, in trees, or in water - and then compared these conditions to each species’ calculated heat tolerance limits.&nbsp;



“We found that 104 out of 5,203 species - 2% - are already exposed to overheating in shaded terrestrial conditions. And a 4°C global temperature increase could push 7.5% of species beyond their physiological limits,” Pottier said.



The experts also discovered that the areas most at risk do not necessarily line up with latitude alone, a finding that revises earlier assumptions.



“It has previously been often assumed that species closer to the equator are at greater risk from overheating due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-draining-nutrients-from-the-oceans-surface/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> than those in temperate regions. However, our study found that tropical species in the Southern Hemisphere are the most impacted by overheating events, while non-tropical species are more impacted in the Northern Hemisphere,” Pottier explained.



As a result, relying on a one-size-fits-all pattern like latitude to assess threats may overlook specific places and species already pushing against their tolerable heat boundaries.



“Assuming that all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/over-half-of-the-worlds-vertebrates-reside-in-the-tropics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tropical species</a> are more vulnerable than temperate species can be misleading. What matters is assessing if the area is going to experience extreme heat events relative to the species' heat tolerance. This requires stepping away from general trends, and identifying specific areas and species at risk,” Pottier added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-escalating-impacts-with-greater-warming-nbsp">Escalating impacts with greater warming&nbsp;</h2>



The scientists modeled how conditions might worsen under different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/over-40-of-amphibians-face-extinction-due-to-escalating-climate-threats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global warming</a> scenarios. Even at 2°C above pre-industrial levels, more amphibians are likely to face critical heat exposure. But surpassing that threshold would be especially dangerous.



“Impacts escalate under different climate warming scenarios. There is an increase in impact between the current climate and +2C of warming; but impacts increase disproportionally under +4C of warming. This step-change impact severity shows that going above +2C of global warming can be a tipping point where we may see a lot of local extinctions,” Pottier noted.



Local disappearances carry additional risks: losing these frogs, salamanders, and toads can disrupt food webs, hamper insect control, and reduce overall <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterflys-rapid-expansion-led-to-lower-genetic-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic diversity</a> in local ecosystems.



“Some amphibian populations may undergo range shifts to more hospitable habitats, but opportunities for this are likely limited due to low dispersal rates and reliance on water bodies,” Pottier added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-and-cultural-significance">Ecological and cultural significance </h2>



Amphibians are not just vital for pest management and as a food source for predators; they are also intertwined with human cultures around the globe.



Pottier pointed out that amphibians are an important part of the ecosystem. For example, the loss of an amphibian population would likely lead to an increase in insect population with carry-over effects on plants and animals, he noted.



“They are prey for many animals and their loss would have knock-on effects on many other species. Besides ecosystem impacts, amphibians are deeply rooted in human cultures and it would be a shame to lose such beautiful and emblematic species.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mitigating-heat-impacts-on-amphibians-nbsp">Mitigating heat impacts on amphibians&nbsp;</h2>



The findings emphasize the importance of microhabitats that moderate temperature extremes. Places with plenty of foliage and accessible water sources can help amphibians survive short-term heat spikes by letting them cool off and keep their skin moist.



“Our analyses made it clear that vegetation and water bodies are critical in buffering amphibians during heat waves. We found that if you provide amphibians with enough water and enough shade, a lot of them can survive extreme heat events. We must protect and restore the environments that allow them to regulate their body temperature,” Pottier stressed.



Because the study assumed best-case scenarios for shade and moisture, actual threats could exceed even these concerning estimates.



“We used very conservative estimates in this study assuming access to cool shaded environments. Therefore, the impacts of global warming will likely exceed our projections. So all efforts to limit global warming are needed to protect the world’s amphibians,” he concluded.



Overall, this large-scale analysis highlights both the fragility of amphibian populations under climate stress and the steps that can help them cope - namely, curbing global temperatures and safeguarding vital habitats with adequate cover and water.



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Amphibians are being pushed beyond their heat limits

A recent study offers a clearer picture of which amphibians...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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