Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Glaciers hold vast amounts of fresh water that are essential for people and the environment. Recent findings show that these ice bodies have been shrinking faster than many expected, sparking serious concerns among experts.



Such large-scale <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/glacier-melting-threatens-global-water-supplies-and-coastal-communities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice loss</a> has been tied to rising temperatures in various regions. An international research team recently tracked changes in nearly 275,000 glaciers since the early 2000s. 



The analysis indicates that these glaciers have lost around five percent of their total volume, a development that few anticipated at this scale.



“We compiled 233 estimates of regional glacier mass changes from about 450 data contributors organised in 35 research teams,” explained Michael Zemp, who led the study. 



The goal of this extensive analysis was to create a more reliable view of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astonishing-glacier-retreat-in-the-arctic-signals-climate-disaster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glacial decline</a> worldwide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-the-worldwide-impact">Measuring the worldwide impact</h2>



Researchers have linked melting glaciers to a rise in sea level of 18 millimeters. The infusion of meltwater is ranked as the second biggest contributor to rising seas, following the thermal expansion of warming ocean waters.



While the loss of Antarctic ice remains a concern, the combined melt from these glaciers outpaces that of the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets individually. This places glacier <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-are-reshaping-landscapes-and-national-borders-around-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">retreat</a> at the forefront of sea-level change discussions.



Certain glaciers, particularly those at low elevations, face greater risk due to mild winters and warmer summers. Others are tiny in size, making them more prone to rapid melting because they lack a buffering effect on local climates.



Tobias Bolch from the Institute of Geodesy at Graz University of Technology noted that space-based data has fueled a sharper perspective on these shrinking masses.



“The data from ESA Earth observation satellites, as well as from other international space organizations, is particularly important for our research,” stated Bolch. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glacier-loss-threatens-drinking-water-nbsp">Glacier loss threatens drinking water&nbsp;</h2>



As glaciers diminish, the amount of meltwater they release shifts over time. While the water flows initially increase, they eventually dwindle. This pattern is concerning for communities that rely on meltwater for hydropower, irrigation, and drinking supply.



Scientists warn that once the maximum outflow from glacier-fed rivers is reached, water availability may drop sharply. For regions already struggling with drought conditions, this diminishing resource could aggravate existing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/over-half-of-the-worlds-glaciers-could-disappear-by-2100/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">challenges</a>.



Signs indicate that the big Alpine ice fields have already passed their peak meltwater discharge. The region’s glaciers have also declined by about 39 percent in volume since 2000, leaving valleys and waterways more vulnerable to hot spells.



Bolch noted that this lower ice coverage can reduce melt-driven flows during parched summers. He pointed out that small glaciers cannot provide the consistent water supply they once did, which adds more stress to local water systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consequences-of-glacier-retreat">Consequences of glacier retreat </h2>



Not all glacier regions show the same rate of loss, with sub-Antarctic islands losing around 1.5 percent of their mass. Even so, the broad trend of glacier decline is unmistakable and likely to intensify if temperatures continue rising.



In other parts of the planet, such as the Himalayas and the Andes, glacier retreat may have major consequences for weather patterns and agriculture. These ice masses regulate local climate conditions and support ecosystems that hinge on cold, stable streams.



Scientists plan to keep refining measurements and models, aiming to improve predictions of future glacier <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctica-has-a-bizarre-dark-red-waterfall-nicknamed-the-blood-falls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">changes</a>. More precise data can help policymakers anticipate problems like sea-level rise and shifts in water availability.



Experts also look at how different carbon emission pathways could alter the fate of key glaciers. They hope that swift climate action might delay the disappearance of some ice formations, offering communities valuable time to adapt.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-glacier-melting-is-unavoidable">Some glacier melting is unavoidable </h2>



Even if global temperatures stabilize, lingering impacts from past emissions will keep chipping away at vulnerable glaciers. This means that some degree of continued melting is locked in, forcing a rethinking of water use and land management.



Efforts to reduce greenhouse gases, protect watersheds, and switch to alternative energy sources are key steps to mitigate glacial decline. While these moves might not halt every glacier’s decline, they could slow the process enough for communities to brace for changes.



Scientists continue to call for more vigilant monitoring of the remaining ice bodies and stronger policies to minimize damage. The retreat of glaciers is a global issue, affecting everything from local water supplies in mountain towns to major coastal cities that face creeping tides.



By acting now, countries can reduce the worst outcomes and sustain vital ice resources for years to come. With dedicated planning and comprehensive data, there is a chance to soften the blow of glacier shrinkage.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08545-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Melting glaciers threaten global water security

Glaciers hold vast amounts of fresh water that are essential...

A new study has found that air pollution isn't just affecting health - it’s also shaping how people spend their money. As pollution levels rise, so do purchases in categories tied to pleasure and emotional comfort.



From gourmet snacks to entertainment gadgets, people potentially turn to these items as a way to cope with the discomfort and anxiety brought on by poor air quality.



This discovery not only broadens our understanding of air pollution's societal impact, but also highlights the subtle ways in which environmental stress can drive financial decisions. 



In this case, there is an apparent unexpected link between the state of the environment and our consumer behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-air-pollution-fuels-consumer-spending">Air pollution fuels consumer spending</h2>



The recent study reveals an intriguing correlation that arises when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parents-worry-about-poor-air-quality-but-dont-know-how-to-protect-their-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">poor air quality</a> meets our inherent human nature.



The key takeaway is that spending tends to rise mainly in categories related to joy, entertainment, and health. These purchases serve as emotional comforts, helping individuals cope with the anxiety and discomfort of living in polluted air.



This new revelation upends the traditional understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shopping-mania-part-of-your-brain-is-always-browsing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">consumer behavior</a> under conditions of environmental distress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-poor-air-quality-and-digital-platforms">Poor air quality and digital platforms</h2>



Digital platforms play a bigger role in consumer behavior when air quality is poor. With people spending more time indoors, there is an increased reliance on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/happiness-influences-online-shopping-habits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">online shopping</a>, social media recommendations, and digital marketing campaigns.



According to the researchers, businesses leveraging online ads and content related to healthcare products see a marked increase in consumer engagement in areas of poor air quality.



This phenomenon is part of a broader trend where digital interactions increase in frequency when environmental factors limit outdoor activities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-air-pollution-spending-link">The air pollution-spending link</h2>



The research was conducted by Sanghwa Kim, assistant professor of marketing at McMaster University, and Michael Trusov, professor of digital marketing and analytics at the University of Maryland's <a href="https://www.rhsmith.umd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Robert H. Smith School of Business</a>.



The team identified the unexpected link between pollution and spending through an analysis of credit card usage data and air quality indexes.



Professor Kim noted that the relationship was pronounced among pleasure-seeking categories - from gourmet snacks and entertainment gadgets to wellness products - due to their ability to lift the mood of consumers.



This spending spree, however, doesn't come without its fair share of risks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-hidden-danger">The hidden danger</h2>



Kim warns that the surge in hedonic spending may lead consumers to develop unhealthy and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/internet-addiction-impairs-brain-function-in-teenagers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">addictive routines</a> that not only erode their emotional well-being but also risk saddling households with a burdensome buildup of revolving debt. 



The reliance on retail therapy as a coping mechanism for environmental distress could potentially trap families in a vicious cycle of overspending that threatens their long-term financial stability and overall quality of life.



The study was conducted "in the spirit of protecting consumer well-being and societal welfare beyond simply serving profit-seeking purposes," Kim added.



The experts suggest that a pivot towards eco-friendly products with a hedonic, or pleasure-seeking focus, might offer a more sustainable solution.



They argue that such a move could strike a delicate balance between ensuring immediate consumer gratification and promoting responsible, long-term sustainable choices, thereby mitigating the hidden dangers associated with excessive and impulsive spending.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-policy-implications-and-recommendations">Policy implications and recommendations</h2>



The study does not stop at observing consumer behavior but also provides valuable advice for policy-making institutions, businesses, and marketers.



Policymakers, for instance, can develop campaigns that link air quality with everyday consumer choices and illuminate how environmental health contributes to individual well-being and economic stability.



Public initiatives could focus on raising awareness of how environmental conditions influence consumer behavior, and steer towards developing mindful spending habits.



Businesses and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-robots-marketing-and-the-power-of-persuasion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marketers</a>, on the other hand, could tap into air quality trends to mold their strategies. 



Professor Trusov suggests that brands could "adjust in-store ambiance, promotional timing, and digital outreach" and incorporate sustainability and well-being into their messaging.



Ultimately, the study advocates for a balance between focusing on societal values and business profits.



"We need marketing strategies with a strong focus on sustainability, aiming to promote more responsible marketing for a better world," concluded Professor Trusov.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://api.crossref.org/v1/works/10.1177%2F00222429241282998/transform" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Marketing</a>.



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How air pollution affects consumer spending

A new study has found that air pollution isn't just...

Adelie,Penguin,Jumping,Between,Two,Ice,Floes

Humanity just received a jolt from nature. Fresh satellite data shows that sea ice at both the North and South Poles shrank to a combined extent of about 6.08 million square miles (15.76 million square kilometers) on February 13, 2025, marking a new low in modern records.



Experts are concerned that warmer waters and higher air temperatures are propelling this trend, which could be tied to climate change. 



Together, these conditions seem to be undoing some of the natural insulation that Earth depends on to maintain stable weather patterns.



<a href="https://nsidc.org/about/about-nsidc/what-we-do/our-people/walter_meier" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Walter Meier</a> from the U.S. National Snow and Ice Data Center has been studying these shifts for years. 



He described the Antarctic as having “moved into a new regime of lower <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-ice-free-day-in-the-arctic-may-arrive-in-2027/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice extents</a>,” highlighting a worrisome change in how the region behaves compared to past decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-polar-ice-the-basics">Understanding polar ice - the basics</h2>



Polar ice is like Earth’s built-in air conditioner, keeping the planet cool by reflecting sunlight back into space. 



The Arctic and Antarctic are covered in massive ice sheets, glaciers, and floating sea ice, all of which help regulate global temperatures.



But as the planet warms, this ice is melting faster than ever, causing major climate shifts. When sea ice shrinks, it exposes darker ocean water, which absorbs more heat and speeds up warming. 



This creates a vicious cycle, making ice loss even worse. Scientists call this the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rapid-surge-in-global-warming-may-have-an-unexpected-source/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">albedo effect</a>, and it’s a big reason why polar ice is so crucial for climate stability.



Beyond keeping temperatures in check, polar ice directly affects sea levels, ocean currents, and weather patterns. 



When land ice from Greenland and Antarctica melts, it raises sea levels, threatening coastal cities around the world. 



Meanwhile, disappearing sea ice disrupts the ocean’s natural circulation, which can mess with everything from monsoons to hurricanes. 



The loss of polar ice also impacts wildlife - polar bears, penguins, and seals rely on it for survival. But the effects don’t stop at the poles; they ripple across the entire planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-polar-ice-is-vanishing-fast">Why polar ice is vanishing fast</h2>



Ice at the poles is created when ocean water freezes at the surface. It reflects a large portion of the sun’s rays, preventing some of that heat from staying in the ocean. 



If the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildly-unexpected-consequences-polar-ice-melt-earth-rotation-spin-day-length/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice</a> recedes, the darker water left behind absorbs more heat. That can warm the water faster, further delaying the refreezing process when the colder season arrives.



Scientists who track changes in polar conditions confirm that “Both Arctic and Antarctic sea ice are affected by climate change,” noted <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2023JC020848" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bocquet and colleagues</a>, researchers at the Laboratoire d’Etudes en Géophysique et Océanographie Spatiales in a 2024 publication.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-polar-wildlife-under-threat">Polar wildlife under threat</h2>



Marine mammals like walruses and polar bears rely on stable ice to rest, hunt, and breed. Melting sea ice can push these animals to swim greater distances, increasing energy expenditure and risk of starvation. 



Experts also worry about ripple effects through local food webs.



When ice breaks up sooner than expected, it can reduce the breeding grounds for species that nest or nurse on top of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emergency-meeting-reveals-the-alarming-extent-of-antarcticas-ice-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice</a>. 



These disruptions can reshape entire ecosystems, making it harder for local communities who rely on fishing and hunting to maintain their way of life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-satellite-data-confirms-drastic-ice-loss">Satellite data confirms drastic ice loss</h2>



Satellite sensors monitor the microwaves emitted by icy surfaces. Analysts collect these readings daily to keep tabs on total ice coverage. 



On February 15, the combined figure had inched up to 6.11 million square miles (15.84 million square kilometers), though it still sat well below what experts deem normal for mid-winter in the north and late summer in the south.



Research comparing the present situation to earlier patterns has revealed some parallels to past abrupt shifts.&nbsp;



“After a period of relative stability, the Antarctic sea ice extent has abruptly decreased in 2016 and has remained low since then,” wrote Goosse and team, a group of climate modelers from Université catholique de Louvain, in a 2024 <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-024-01793-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a>.&nbsp;



The gap between modern measurements and historical records is striking. While sea ice naturally fluctuates, the current deficit from typical averages highlights a more persistent pattern that is not bouncing back in the usual manner. 



Researchers say this spells trouble for the reflective shield that slows regional warming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-future-holds-for-polar-ice">What the future holds for polar ice</h2>



Multiple climate investigations show that the ocean beneath the ice plays a huge part in how quickly new ice forms when temperatures drop again. 



Warmer seawater takes longer to freeze and can thin the ice cover from below. Scientists will keep matching observational data with models to see how quickly conditions might change as seasons progress.



Experts think the next few months will be crucial in determining whether polar ice recovers or remains at record-low levels. Each year's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/glacier-melting-threatens-global-water-supplies-and-coastal-communities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice</a> coverage provides new insights into how quickly the climate is changing. 



These changes impact local wildlife, human communities, and global weather systems. Scientists will closely monitor ice formation and melting patterns to understand long-term trends. 



If ice levels remain low, it could indicate a lasting shift in Earth's climate, affecting ocean temperatures, weather extremes, and ecosystems worldwide.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-024-01793-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



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Sea ice levels drop to record lows on both poles as scientists issue warning

Humanity just received a jolt from nature. Fresh satellite data...

Mars may once have hosted a warm, ocean-bearing environment, according to new data collected by a rover that explored an area believed to be an ancient shoreline.&nbsp;



The evidence points to buried “beach” deposits, shaped by waves over a long period - highlighting the possibility of large bodies of liquid water in the planet’s distant past.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beneath-the-surface">Looking beneath the surface</h2>



The findings come from the Chinese Zhurong rover, which landed in Utopia Planitia in May 2021 and operated for about one year. 



Using ground penetrating radar (GPR), the rover investigated up to 80 meters (260 feet) below the red planet’s surface. 



Throughout its 1.9-kilometer (1.2-mile) traverse, Zhurong’s radar detected thick, sloping layers consistent with material deposited along a beach - where waves carry sediment upslope at a relatively uniform angle.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/mars-beach_Zhurong-mars-rover_credit-NAO_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/mars-beach_Zhurong-mars-rover_credit-NAO_1s.webp" alt="A panoramic photo taken by the Zhurong Mars rover on Mars. Credit: Courtesy of National Astronomical Observatories." class="wp-image-1960743"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A panoramic photo taken by the Zhurong Mars rover on Mars. Credit: Courtesy of National Astronomical Observatories. </figcaption></figure>



“The structures don’t look like sand dunes. They don’t look like an impact crater. They don’t look like lava flows. That’s when we started thinking about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-evidence-suggests-that-mars-had-a-massive-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oceans</a>,” said Michael Manga, a professor of earth and planetary science at the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Berkeley</a>.&nbsp;



“The orientation of these features are parallel to what the old shoreline would have been. They have both the right orientation and the right slope to support the idea that there was an ocean for a long period of time to accumulate the sand-like beach.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mars-beaches-were-similar-to-earth">Mars' beaches were similar to Earth</h2>



These layered deposits, described in a paper published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2422213122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>, fit the scenario of wave-driven accumulation of sand.&nbsp;



On Earth, similarly thick beach sediments form over millions of years, suggesting that the Martian ocean - if it existed - must have persisted for quite some time.&nbsp;



Furthermore, the radar indicates that these layers are composed of sand-sized particles rather than fine dust or coarser rock fragments, which also supports their interpretation as ancient beach deposits rather than wind-blown dunes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-beaches-on-mars">Implications of beaches on Mars</h2>



“This strengthens the case for past habitability in this region on Mars,” said Hai Liu, a professor with the School of Civil Engineering and Transportation at <a href="https://english.gzhu.edu.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Guangzhou University</a>, who is part of the Tianwen-1 science team that managed Zhurong.&nbsp;



Other co-authors note that the presence of ancient beaches on Mars implies that rivers once carried sediment into an open body of water, and that liquid water - free of ice - existed there.&nbsp;



“Shorelines are great locations to look for evidence of past life. It’s thought that the earliest life on Earth began at locations like this, near the interface of air and shallow water,” added Benjamin Cardenas, an assistant professor of geosciences at the <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pennsylvania State University</a>.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/mars-beach_Zhurong-landing-site_schematic_credit-Hai-Liu_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/mars-beach_Zhurong-landing-site_schematic_credit-Hai-Liu_1s.webp" alt="Schematic showing how a series of beach deposits would have formed at the Zhurong landing site in the distant past on Mars (left) and how long-term physical and chemical weathering on the planet altered the properties of the rocks and minerals and buried the deposits. Credit: Hai Liu, Guangzhou University, China" class="wp-image-1960741"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Schematic showing how a series of beach deposits would have formed at the Zhurong landing site in the distant past on Mars (left) and how long-term physical and chemical weathering on the planet altered the properties of the rocks and minerals and buried the deposits. Credit: Hai Liu, Guangzhou University, China</figcaption></figure>



Mars is now cold and dry, with a thin <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/is-mars-missing-atmosphere-hiding-in-plain-sight/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmosphere</a> that makes stable liquid water unlikely on the surface. However, numerous studies indicate that the planet once had a denser atmosphere capable of supporting liquid water on a large scale.&nbsp;



While some of that water likely escaped to space over billions of years, the rest may remain frozen beneath the Martian surface or locked in mineral formations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-shoreline-controversy">The shoreline controversy</h2>



For decades, planetary scientists have debated whether a massive ocean once occupied Mars’ northern lowlands. Images from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>’s Viking orbiters in the 1970s showed what looked like a shoreline wrapping around much of the northern hemisphere.&nbsp;



Yet the proposed shoreline appeared far from level, varying in altitude by up to 10 kilometers - something that doesn’t match the relatively flat shorelines found on Earth.



One proposed solution is that volcanic activity reshaped Mars’ spin axis and topography long after an ocean had formed.&nbsp;



“Because the spin axis of Mars has changed, the shape of Mars has changed. And so what used to be flat is no longer flat,” Manga explained.&nbsp;



The study suggests that the Tharsis volcanic region - home to the solar system’s largest volcanoes - altered the planet’s rotation while forming, resulting in warped elevation levels. These dynamic processes may have distorted any once-level shoreline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beaches-buried-on-mars">Beaches buried on Mars</h2>



Zhurong’s Rover Penetrating Radar (RoPeR) has offered a fresh perspective by detecting features hidden beneath the surface, where they have remained relatively untouched by eons of erosion or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-chaos-how-an-asteroid-strike-would-change-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asteroid impacts</a>.&nbsp;



“The sand that’s on those beaches is coming in from the rivers, and then it’s being transported by currents in the ocean and continually being transported up and down the beaches by the waves,” Manga said.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/mars-beach_earth-beach-comparison_graphic_credit-Hai-Liu_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/mars-beach_earth-beach-comparison_graphic_credit-Hai-Liu_1s.webp" alt="On Earth, ocean tides and winds carry sediment toward the shoreline, where the sediment settles out to form a beach deposit with a characteristic dipping angle. New observations indicate that early in its history, Mars also had an open ocean with tides and wind-driven waves that deposited sediment on the beach. Credit: Hai Liu, Guangzhou University, China" class="wp-image-1960738"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">On Earth, ocean tides and winds carry sediment toward the shoreline, where the sediment settles out to form a beach deposit with a characteristic dipping angle. New observations indicate that early in its history, Mars also had an open ocean with tides and wind-driven waves that deposited sediment on the beach. Credit: Hai Liu, Guangzhou University, China</figcaption></figure>



In other words, the rover uncovered structures one would expect to find along a coastline, still preserved after billions of years.



Overlying the beach deposits are around 10 meters (30 feet) of later material, likely derived from dust storms, volcanic ash, and debris from meteorite impacts.&nbsp;



This overburden fortuitously kept the beach layers intact, preventing weathering or erosional processes from completely removing the evidence of ancient shorelines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mystery-of-water-on-mars-nbsp">Mystery of water on Mars&nbsp;</h2>



Zhurong’s discovery aligns with other indications of past water on Mars. 



NASA’s Curiosity rover found sedimentary “wave ripples” in Gale Crater, suggesting an ancient lake free of ice, while the Perseverance rover revealed a fossilized river delta in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lake-sediments-found-in-jezero-crater-hint-at-past-life-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jezero Crater</a>. Yet these findings pointed to lakes, not seas. 



Zhurong’s data, by contrast, offers a vision of a far more expansive body of water - a genuine ocean or sea.



“To make ripples by waves, you need to have an ice-free lake. Now we’re saying we have an ice-free ocean. And rather than ripples, we’re seeing beaches,” Manga said, highlighting the difference in scale.



Though Zhurong is no longer active, the results of its one-year mission add compelling new evidence to the idea that Mars was once home to a significant ocean - complete with beaches shaped by waves.&nbsp;



Future missions that explore these buried shoreline deposits may shed even more light on how Mars transitioned from a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-captured-in-true-color-like-youve-never-seen-the-red-planet-before/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet</a> with long-lived bodies of water to the arid world we know today.



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Featured image: A hypothetical picture of Mars 3.6 billion years ago, when an ocean may have covered nearly half the planet. The blue areas show the depth of the ocean filled to the shoreline level of the ancient, now-gone sea, dubbed Deuteronilus. The orange star represents the landing site of the Chinese rover Zhurong. The yellow star is the site of NASA's Perseverance rover, which landed a few months before Zhurong. Credit: Robert Citron



The full study was published in the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2422213122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a> (PNAS).



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Mars once had 'vacation-style' beaches and shorelines similar to Earth

Mars may once have hosted a warm, ocean-bearing environment, according...

A branching coral under pressure from heat and physical damage appears to gain crucial support from a particular reef-dwelling crab, offering fresh insight into how positive species relationships can shield corals from multiple hazards.&nbsp;



These findings reveal a protective role for the crustaceans when corals face intense stress, highlighting the possibility that cooperative interactions may bolster the resilience of vulnerable reef habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reef-dwelling-crabs-and-foundation-corals">Reef-dwelling crabs and foundation corals </h2>



Published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2024.2936" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal B Biological Sciences</a>, the study emphasizes that corals are what ecologists call “foundation species,” forming the bedrock of entire ecosystems.&nbsp;



Study first author Julianna Renzi conducted the research as a graduate student at the Duke University Marine Laboratory, part of the <a href="https://nicholas.duke.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nicholas School of the Environment</a>.



“Foundation species like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breaks-in-ancient-coral-growth-reveal-earths-climate-past/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">corals</a> create the base of an ecosystem: They form structures that other species use for shelter, they modify the local environment, and they provide food for other organisms,” said Renzi.



“Learning how these species respond to stress can help us design better strategies to conserve them - and, in turn, other species that rely on them - in an era of global change.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mutualism-and-overlapping-stressors">Mutualism and overlapping stressors </h2>



Renzi concentrates on the concept of mutualism, in which two species each benefit from interacting with the other. Much existing research focuses on how one beneficial partnership mitigates a single threat, such as higher ocean temperatures. 



However, few studies have explored whether such alliances can ease multiple overlapping stressors. 



In this case, the team selected a branching coral known as Acropora aspera from a research zone in Australia’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-bleaching-has-reached-catastrophic-levels-on-the-great-barrier-reef/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Great Barrier Reef</a> during a period of elevated water temperatures.&nbsp;



Within controlled seawater tanks, the scientists subjected coral samples to different stress combinations, including physical wounding, harmful algae, and the presence of Cyclodius ungulatus (the hoof-clawed reef crab).&nbsp;



Coral tissue loss over a month served as the main measure of coral health, allowing the team to see precisely which factors worsened damage and which helped the coral endure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-benefits-for-wounded-corals">Unexpected benefits for wounded corals</h2>



The data indicated that high temperatures alone instigated tissue loss, but the extent depended heavily on other conditions. 



Corals placed alongside harmful algae were six times more likely to suffer serious tissue loss, while those housed with reef crabs had more than a 60% lower chance of severe damage. 



Even more unexpected was how strongly the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-crab-diversity-discovered-in-coral-reefs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crabs</a>’ presence helped corals that had sustained wounds. Those corals displayed significantly less tissue loss than uninjured corals sharing tanks with crabs, and also less tissue loss than wounded corals without crab companions.&nbsp;



While corals lacking crabs sometimes saw injuries expand, corals with crab neighbors rarely experienced further deterioration around the wounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reef-crabs-removing-algae">Reef crabs removing algae</h2>



To unravel what motivated the crabs to linger near wounded coral, the researchers examined their behavior in more detail. They noticed that, in laboratory tests, the crustaceans avoided live coral tissue, instead feeding in regions where tissue had recently been lost.&nbsp;



Observations on the reef revealed that areas of algae disappeared faster around corals with wounds, leading the investigators to suggest that reef crabs and other organisms might be methodically removing algae in these damaged spots, effectively tidying up the coral surface.



Another key question arose: what attracts crabs to fresh wounds in the first place? Renzi and colleagues propose that the injured coral releases a nutritious mucus that proves enticing.&nbsp;



“Corals probably experience small wounds, like the ones we used in this study, relatively frequently from fish bites and physical abrasion. These wounds are probably not super detrimental, but they may be enough to release this mucus and attract coral-associated organisms, like C. ungulatus,” said Renzi.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mutualism-and-heat-stress-resistance">Mutualism and heat stress resistance</h2>



The conclusions back an ecological view that beneficial interspecies interactions, or mutualisms, can become particularly vital when the environment imposes significant hardships.&nbsp;



“This work challenges a paradigm about corals,” said Brian Silliman, Rachel Carson Distinguished Professor of Marine Conservation Biology at the Nicholas School, who advised Renzi during her master’s work.&nbsp;



“The temperature at which corals succumb to heat stress is generally thought to be innate and inflexible. But this work shows that an intricate biological partnership greatly increases the ability of corals to resist heat stress. The crabs don’t affect heat tolerance directly - rather, they appear to remove the stress of injury by cleaning coral wounds.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reef-crabs-working-under-pressure">Reef crabs working under pressure </h2>



The researchers note that these discoveries hold promise for coral reef restoration, since introducing mutualistic crabs to newly planted colonies could reduce tissue loss from infection and disease. 



One broader lesson is that nature sometimes operates more cooperatively than commonly assumed. 



“We often think of the world as ‘dog-eat-dog’ and assume organisms are constantly competing against each other in effort to survive,” Renzi said. “But in cases like these, positive species interactions may be really important for survival. Evolutionarily, looking out for number 1 may also mean looking out for number 2.”



Altogether, this study suggests that reef-dwelling crabs could prove key to helping certain branching corals remain healthy, even under the combined pressures of heat and injury. 



By highlighting such mutually beneficial partnerships, the findings pave the way for innovative approaches to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protecting-coral-reefs-is-a-matter-of-humans-rights/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reef conservation</a> and underline the value of collaborative ties in the marine realm.



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Reef crabs help heat-stressed corals survive

A branching coral under pressure from heat and physical damage...

Severe weather events have become more frequent and intense globally, threatening public health significantly. Of these events, heatwaves are particularly notable for their silent but lethal effects. 



Heatwaves are frequently underestimated in comparison to events that are more obviously destructive, such as hurricanes or floods.



A recent study from <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The University of Queensland</a> has revealed dire trends. The researchers investigated increased exposure to heat, particularly in urban settings, as a result of the exacerbating effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astonishing-global-heat-in-january-2025-defied-climate-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heatwave-mortality-in-a-hotter-climate">Heatwave mortality in a hotter climate</h2>



Heat-related deaths are a rising issue globally, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-earth-energy-imbalance-temperature-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a> change is a major contributing factor.



The Queensland study confirms that human-driven climate change has increased heatwave deaths by 20 percent. The findings highlight the critical need to be more proactive about addressing climate-related health threats.



Professor Nicholas Osborne, an associate in UQ School of Public Health, emphasized the value of preparedness.



"Our results suggest heatwaves with associated periods of higher mortality will occur more often than they did in the past," said Professor Osborne.



"These higher mortality rates associated with extreme temperature heatwaves are projected to continue, and we hope our research will help communities be better prepared for heatwaves."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cities-face-highest-heatwave-risks">Cities face highest heatwave risks</h2>



Urban areas are particularly at risk from heatwaves due to high population densities and large infrastructure like roads, buildings, and transport systems.



The UQ team examined 20 years of information on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-heat-is-pushing-parts-of-earth-beyond-human-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperature</a> and death rates throughout Australia, using the internationally accepted Heatwave Vulnerability Index.



Study lead author Patrick Amoatey said city dwellers are considerably more at risk when there is severe heat.



"We used an index mapping tool to assess how human populations will fare under a range of heat scenarios," related Amoatey. "We found the Heatwave Vulnerability Index, frequently used in other countries, could reliably predict heatwave-related deaths in Australia."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-who-is-most-vulnerable">Who is most vulnerable?</h2>



Based on a detailed data analysis of over 2,000 suburbs, the researchers were able to identify certain factors that greatly elevated vulnerability.



Urban dwellers with lower incomes, less education, diabetes, and limited healthcare access were especially vulnerable to heat surges.



Australia's capital cities, which are home to about 70% of the country's population, have a high concentration of residents with these risk factors. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recognizing-the-heat-island-effect">Recognizing the heat island effect</h2>



One major contributor to increased risks in urban centers is the "heat island effect," in which cities store and absorb heat more than outlying or rural areas. 



"We believe the risk is higher in cities because of the 'heat island effect,' as there are more heat-absorbing surfaces like roads, buildings, and railway lines," said Amoatey.



The heat island effect intensifies temperature extremes and significantly affects residents' health during heatwaves. Understanding this effect is crucial for urban planning and developing strategies to prevent heat-related fatalities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-heatwave-responses">Global heatwave responses</h2>



Amoatey emphasized the successful implementation of the Heatwave Vulnerability Index. In London, the index effectively predicted increases in ambulance calls and death rates during heat surges.



"This is helpful for health authorities and something we could use in Australia," said Amoatey. 



Incorporating the heatwave index into current frameworks would substantially improve community preparedness and resilience, while delivering real-time intelligence to health authorities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-climate-change-in-australia">Impact of climate change in Australia</h2>



A study by UQ and <a href="https://www.anu.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian National University</a> researchers found a link between climate change and deaths during the 2009 heatwave in southeastern Australia.



The disaster was estimated to have caused 374 excess fatalities as temperatures hit a record 12-15 degrees above the average. 



"Human-induced climate change had increased the excess heatwave-related mortality in the 2009 event by 20%. These findings were in line with other research that shows heat-related deaths are increasing due to human-induced climate change," Dr. Osborne noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparedness-for-future-events">Preparedness for future events</h2>



In light of these alarming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mapping-marine-heatwaves-to-understand-their-impacts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trends</a>, experts call for urgent health infrastructure and workforce preparedness. 



"From a public health perspective, our studies and further research can provide guidance on the need for adequate health infrastructure and workforce that might be needed to cope with higher demand for health services during heatwaves," said Dr. Osborne. 



Preparation could greatly lower future mortality rates and enhance community resilience against unavoidable climate-related issues in the future.



The Heatwave Vulnerability Index study appears in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195925525000095?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Impact Assessment Review</a>, while the climate change and mortality study is published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/2752-5295/ada8cd" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Research: Climate</a>.



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Climate change has made heatwaves more deadly

Severe weather events have become more frequent and intense globally,...

In many parts of the world, people are too poor to afford energy options such as gas or electricity. In addition, the supply of more conventional fuels, such as wood, may be insufficient for the population size. 



People in this position are increasingly turning to plastics to provide energy for heating and cooking. This dangerous practice has the potential to hurt millions due to the effects of toxic emissions on health.



Growing urban populations make energy demands higher, but policies in support of cheap, cleaner fuel alternatives also fall short of requirements, particularly in developing countries.



In densely populated areas of Africa, Asia, and Latin America, scientists have charted patterns of energy consumption. The information indicates an alarming trend - a significant majority of the population is unable to pay for clean energy options. 



With few choices, many families turn to whatever combustible material is available, which further reinforces the cycle of pollution and illness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urbanization-fuels-the-crisis">Urbanization fuels the crisis</h2>



The rapid expansion of urban areas in developing nations has exacerbated the plastic-burning crisis. 



Traditional fuels such as wood and charcoal, once readily available in rural settings, have become increasingly scarce within sprawling cities. 



Meanwhile, inadequate waste management has led to a surplus of plastic waste which is seen as a readily accessible - albeit hazardous - fuel source.



A new study led by researchers at <a href="https://www.curtin.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Curtin University</a> highlights the growing severity of this issue. The experts are calling for urgent action to curb the use of plastic for fuel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-risks-of-burning-plastic">Health risks of burning plastic </h2>



Lead researcher Dr. Bishal Bharadwaj warns that burning plastic exposes millions to toxic emissions, which can have severe health consequences.



“Burning plastic releases harmful chemicals such as dioxins, furans and heavy metals into the air, which can have a range of health and welfare impacts such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/low-levels-of-air-pollution-increase-the-risk-of-heart-and-lung-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lung diseases</a>,” noted Dr. Bharadwaj.



The risks are particularly severe for women and children, who spend more time indoors and are thus more exposed to airborne pollutants. However, the consequences are far-reaching and can affect entire neighborhoods and cities.



The research highlights the scale of the problem, and reveals alarming statistics from different regions.



“In a survey, 13 percent of Nigerian households reported using garbage as a cooking fuel, while soil and food samples in Indonesia have revealed dangerous toxin levels linked to burning plastic,” said Dr. Bharadwaj.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trends-in-plastic-consumption">Trends in plastic consumption </h2>



This issue is all the more distressing since it affects millions of people who already struggle with the effects of poverty and inequality. 



Furthermore, trends predict an exponential growth in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-disease-found-in-seabirds-is-caused-by-plastic-consumption/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastic consumption</a> and urban population sizes.



“By 2050, two-thirds of the world’s population will live in urban areas and many cities already struggle to provide basic services such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-day-of-zero-waste-a-global-commitment-to-a-sustainable-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">waste collection</a>," explained Dr. Bharadwaj. 



"This will be a growing problem, given global plastic consumption is expected to triple by 2060 and inequality will deepen with rapid, unmanaged urbanisation in developing countries.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-issue-effectively">Addressing the issue effectively</h2>



According to Professor Peta Ashworth, solving this crisis will require a multi-pronged approach.



Effective government intervention is essential, but current policies often do not take into account the needs of the communities most affected by plastic burning. 



“Many governments are not addressing the issue effectively because it’s usually concentrated in areas such as slums, which are often neglected. A ban on plastic burning might not help if people have no other option to keep warm and cook their food,” noted Professor Ashworth.



Instead, the study emphasizes the need for practical and inclusive solutions that provide alternative energy options to vulnerable communities.



“Possible ways to address the problem include subsidies for cleaner fuels to make them affordable for poorer families, better waste management to prevent plastic from piling up in slum areas, education campaigns to inform communities about the dangers of burning plastic, and alternative low-cost, innovative <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clean-cooking-could-save-half-a-million-lives-each-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cooking solutions</a> tailored to lower-income areas,” said Professor Ashworth.



As we move forward, it is clear that comprehensive studies and collaborative efforts are essential to grasp the full magnitude of this crisis and develop realistic solutions. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ripple-effects-of-plastic-burning">Ripple effects of plastic burning</h2>



While the plastic-burning crisis is most prevalent in developing nations, its effects extend far beyond the communities directly involved. 



The toxic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-can-make-other-pollutants-more-toxic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollutants</a> released into the air contribute to global atmospheric pollution, which can worsen respiratory diseases and environmental degradation.



International organizations, policymakers, and researchers must work together to develop sustainable, long-term solutions.



Strengthening global waste management policies, investing in alternative energy technologies, and promoting cross-border collaborations will be crucial steps toward mitigating the crisis.



As the world moves toward a more urbanized future, the challenge is clear - without bold, immediate action, millions will continue to suffer from the consequences of this silent crisis.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s44284-025-00201-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Cities</a>.



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Burning plastic as fuel for cooking is becoming a big global problem

In many parts of the world, people are too poor...

Understanding the apparent paradox of "stress as a strength" has led to a recent discovery that could well change the way we perceive biological communities and their resilience.



In a world characterized by rapid environmental change, comprehending the complex relationship between genetic diversity and environmental stress is more critical than ever.



The breakthrough challenges conventional views by suggesting that, under certain conditions, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-plants-thrive-under-environmental-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stress</a> may actually drive the adaptive processes essential for survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adapting-to-changing-environments">Adapting to changing environments</h2>



A recent study from <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McGill University</a> has explored the complexities of how natural communities react and adapt to changing environmental scenarios. The research was led by Professor Rowan Barrett and Charles Xu, a recent PhD graduate.



The results indicated that not all stress is harmful. In fact, a moderated level of environmental stress equips these communities with a robust defense mechanism against severe threats.



This newfound understanding may turn out to be a crucial factor in managing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-biodiversity-crisis-is-actually-worse-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> amid growing anthropogenic stressors, such as pollution and climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-environmental-stress">What is environmental stress?</h2>



Environmental stress is defined as external forces that disturb the balance of biological processes.



The stressors are either natural in origin - such as high temperatures, droughts, and flooding - or anthropogenic, such as pollution, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-deforestation-crisis-how-can-we-stop-massive-forest-losses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deforestation</a>, and global warming.



Understanding these environmental stressors is crucial for identifying the challenges an ecosystem faces and developing effective conservation and management strategies to safeguard biodiversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simulating-environmental-stress">Simulating environmental stress </h2>



The experiment was conducted at a special site known as the Large Experimental Array of Ponds (LEAP), which is located within the university’s nature reserve.



The team exposed microbial communities to a progressive acidification process, thus emulating the type of environmental stressors found in real-world <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/silent-invasion-how-microplastics-are-disrupting-land-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a>.



The study revealed that prior exposure to mild stressors served as a protective shield against subsequent stress.



Communities previously exposed to low-level stressors demonstrated impressive survival rates, maintaining a diverse pool of species, even under more severe stress conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-natural-selection-and-evolutionary-change">Natural selection and evolutionary change </h2>



At the heart of this study lie the processes of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lifes-rules-natural-selection-change-significantly-often-daphnia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural selection</a> and evolutionary change in freshwater bacterial communities.



Natural selection ensures survival and success of the individuals within a species that are best adapted for a particular environment.



Evolutionary change, on the other hand, involves genetic modifications (over generations) that result in new variants or species that can thrive in their specific habitats.



The scientists used metagenomic analysis to track changes that occurred within the microbial communities.



The findings indicated that the toughest species, the ones that survived the stress, evolved over time to become even stronger against stress.



This dual process guarantees the survival and diversity of the community under conditions of extreme stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



"This research underscores the need to consider both ecological and evolutionary forces when predicting how natural communities will respond to environmental stress," said Barrett.



Incorporating these evolutionary responses into models can significantly improve predictive accuracy concerning changes in biodiversity, and thereby enhance conservation efforts.



With this new knowledge in hand, the research team plans to investigate the long-term evolution of these microbial communities and assess the impact of different environmental stressors on genetic adaptation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-stress-and-ecosystem-health">Environmental stress and ecosystem health</h2>



The results provide a new perspective on the mechanisms that can lead to ecosystem resilience from environmental stress.



Further research may enhance our knowledge about whether such adaptability is replicated in different types of biological communities and environmental scenarios.



By extending research into such dynamics, researchers will be able to reveal overall principles that inform useful conservation and management strategies.



While the mechanisms behind these adaptive responses continue to be investigated, the study serves as a reminder that not all stress is harmful.



These emerging insights encourage a reevaluation of how stress might be integrated, in a controlled manner, into broader efforts to preserve biodiversity and maintain ecological balance.



The research highlights the potential for leveraging natural adaptive processes to enhance ecosystem health and paves the way for innovative conservation efforts.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0960982225000673" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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How environmental stress strengthens ecosystems

Understanding the apparent paradox of "stress as a strength" has...

Anxiety is a common mental health disorder that affects millions of people all over the world. It has long been the subject of intense scientific study.



Recently, researchers have stumbled upon an unexpected ally in the fight against this prevalent condition - the humble gut microbe. 



It appears that gut microbes, in their natural habitat, produce compounds known as indoles, which are crucial for regulating the brain activity associated with anxiety.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-microbes-big-impacts">Tiny microbes, big impacts</h2>



The researchers, who were based at <a href="https://www.duke-nus.edu.sg/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Duke-NUS Medical School</a> and the National Neuroscience Institute, set out to investigate the role that gut microbes play in regulating anxious behavior.



The findings are truly eye-opening. Not only do <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-microbes-affect-how-we-handle-everyday-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbes in the gut</a> influence brain activity, they may also hold the key to potential treatments for mental health issues such as anxiety and depression.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gut-microbes-and-anxiety">Gut microbes and anxiety </h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/151-million-americans-have-mental-health-disorders-linked-to-leaded-gasoline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mental health disorders</a> are becoming increasingly prevalent in today's world. In Singapore, for instance, 1 in 7 people has experienced a mental health issue.



The most common conditions include <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/confirmed-magic-mushrooms-can-effectively-treat-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">depression</a> and anxiety, which contribute significantly to the disease burden in many countries.



The research team set out to explore how the presence of microbes affects the anxious behavior of mice.



In germ-free mice that had not been exposed to any living microbes, observable anxiety-related behavior increased significantly compared to the behavior of mice that had been exposed to microbes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-the-gut-to-the-brain">From the gut to the brain</h2>



Upon further study, the researchers linked this increased anxiety to heightened activity in the basolateral <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-do-fear-and-anxiety-reside-in-the-brain-new-cells-identified/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amygdala</a> (BLA) - a part of the brain responsible for processing emotions such as fear and anxiety.



More specifically, the team identified the role of specialized proteins within brain cells, referred to as calcium-dependent SK2 channels, which regulate anxiety behavior.



"Our findings reveal the specific and intricate neural process that links microbes to mental health," said co-lead author Professor Shawn Je.



"Those without any live microbes showed higher levels of anxious behavior than those with live bacteria. Essentially, the lack of these microbes disrupted the way their brains functioned, particularly in areas that control fear and anxiety, leading to anxious behavior."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gut-microbes-and-mental-balance">Gut microbes and mental balance </h2>



The researchers extended their investigation by introducing live microbes to germ-free mice.



With live microbes reintroduced, the heightened neuronal activity in the basolateral amygdala was significantly reduced, and the rodents showed less anxiety-related behavior.



Additionally, treating these germ-free mice with indoles - metabolites produced by certain microbes - resulted in similar effects, confirming a direct link between the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-bacteria-have-an-impact-on-brain-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gut microbiota</a> and mental balance.



"Establishing hunger signals and controlling hunger is an evolutionarily conserved defense mechanism. The physiological switch at birth, can therefore, be viewed as a first major wave of anxiety exposure for the newborn, which simply says, 'If you don’t eat, you will die,'" explained co-lead author Professor Sven Pettersson.



"Additionally, birth is associated with exposure to breast milk, known to contain microbes that can produce molecules known as indoles." 



"Indoles are known to be secreted in plants when they are exposed to stress or malnutrition (drought) and in this paper we report a similar mechanism in which indoles can regulate anxiety levels in mammals."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-era-of-anxiety-treatments">A new era of anxiety treatments</h2>



This breakthrough suggests that targeting the gut-brain axis could pave the way for new anxiety treatments, either through dietary indole supplementation or introduction of indole-producing microbes as probiotics. 



Professor Patrick Tan, Senior Vice-Dean for Research at Duke-NUS said that the findings underscore the deep evolutionary links between microbes, nutrition, and brain function. 



"This has huge potential for people suffering from stress-related conditions, such as sleep disorders or those unable to tolerate standard psychiatric medications. It’s a reminder that mental health is not just in the brain - it’s in the gut too," said Professor Tan.



Next, the researchers will test their findings in clinical trials and examine the efficacy of indole-based probiotics or supplements as a natural anxiety treatment in humans.



If these trials are successful, we may be on the brink of a new era in mental health care, where gut microbes play a pivotal role in maintaining mental health balance.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.embopress.org/doi/full/10.1038/s44321-024-00179-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EMBO Molecular Medicine</a>.



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Gut microbes have an unexpected link to anxiety

Anxiety is a common mental health disorder that affects millions...

Birds and feathers are closely tied together - feathers enable flight, provide insulation, and make courtship displays possible. Yet the origin of these remarkable structures predates birds.



Feathered dinosaurs were first reported in the 1990s, but many mysteries remain about how and when feathers emerged. Did all dinosaurs share a feathered ancestor, or did feathers appear multiple times in different lineages?&nbsp;



A new study co-authored by Paul Barrett and Xu Xing from the <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural History Museum</a> attempts to consolidate the latest knowledge and move us closer to an answer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feathers-of-the-distant-past">Feathers of the distant past</h2>



Fossil evidence has revealed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-bird-feathers-contain-traces-of-dinosaur-feathers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">feathers</a> are not exclusive to modern birds and their immediate relatives. Dinosaurs with feathers existed in the distant past, showing that these structures are much more ancient than once believed.&nbsp;



However, broad questions endure: Are feathers found only in meat-eating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-theropod-dinosaurs-thrived-in-polar-environments/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">theropods</a> close to birds, or could they have been more widespread across the dinosaur family tree?



“While dozens of feathered dinosaurs have been identified since Sinosauropteryx was first unveiled in the 1990s, they’re mainly meat-eaters that are close relatives of birds,” Barrett explained. 



“Everyone agrees that these dinosaurs had feathers, but there’s little consensus beyond that.”



“To settle these disagreements, we need more fossils and to define what a feather is. If we can sort this out, it could reveal where feathers first came from and whether they predate the dinosaurs themselves.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conflicting-theories-on-feather-origins">Conflicting theories on feather origins</h2>



Some scientists propose that feathers originated in a common ancestor of dinosaurs and pterosaurs, suggesting all later descendants inherited the potential to grow feathers - though some lost it over time.&nbsp;



Others argue that pterosaurs did not have true feathers, meaning the structures observed on them might be something else. 



A third viewpoint holds that feathers emerged solely within theropods, the group that includes well-known predators like Velociraptor and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-rex-may-have-had-brains-and-brawn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tyrannosaurus</a>.



To resolve these debates, better fossil evidence from earlier time periods is essential. Most known feathered dinosaur fossils date to the Cretaceous, yet feathers may have evolved well before then.&nbsp;



Finding older specimens could clarify whether feathers appeared at the dawn of dinosaur evolution or surfaced in only one branch of the family tree.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-did-early-dinosaurs-have-feathers">Did early dinosaurs have feathers?</h2>



Professor Barrett emphasized the importance of discovering prehistoric remains from much earlier geological periods.&nbsp;



“We need to find new sites with fossilized feathers, particularly from the Jurassic and the Triassic,” he said. “The Triassic is especially important, as finding feathered dinosaurs at this early time in dinosaur evolution would suggest that all dinosaurs had an ancestor with feathers.”



“If feathered dinosaurs aren’t found among early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-evolved-feathers-for-much-more-than-just-flying/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a>, then it makes it more likely feathers were an innovation among later groups.”



Such discoveries could shift perceptions of the entire dinosaur lineage. Were feathers a universal trait that some species shed over time, or did they evolve independently in separate groups?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-defining-a-true-feather">Defining a "true feather"</h2>



Another challenge paleontologists face involves the definition of a “true feather.” 



Modern bird feathers have distinct chemical and structural characteristics, including growth from a follicle in the skin. Ancient dinosaur feathers may have looked different, reflecting earlier evolutionary stages.



“To identify a true feather from a living bird, we’d look to see what it’s made out of, and its structure,” Barrett explained. “One of the characteristics we have to identify is that the feather grows out of a follicle in the skin.”



“It’s possible, however, that follicles and other modern characteristics might not have been present in all dinosaur feathers. Detailed anatomical work at a microscopic level to compare preserved skin and feathers with examples from living birds could help to resolve this.”



Fossilized skin can also offer important clues. Some specimens display bird-like tissues, hinting that the common ancestor of certain dinosaurs and birds shared these traits.&nbsp;



But other dinosaurs show more reptilian textures, indicating the possibility that feathers evolved separately in multiple lineages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unraveling-the-history-of-feathers">Unraveling the history of feathers</h2>



For the moment, experts remain divided on how feathers took hold in dinosaur evolution. The challenge lies in discovering enough well-preserved fossils from the right time periods and reaching a clear consensus on what counts as a feather.&nbsp;



From tantalizing glimpses in existing fossils to ongoing searches in promising new sites, researchers continue to piece together this ancient puzzle.



Ultimately, answers about the origins of feathers may transform how scientists understand dinosaur evolution - and the emergence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-evolution-timeline-pushed-back-20-million-years-by-baminornis-zhenghensis-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a>.&nbsp;



Until then, paleontologists will continue to search the world for the fossils which can finally settle this decades-old debate. 



Each new find has the potential to reshape our perception of the prehistoric world and the ancestors of the birds we see in our skies today.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2024.0517" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology Letters</a>.



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From dinosaurs to birds, the origin of feathers remains a mystery

Birds and feathers are closely tied together - feathers enable...

The Amazon rainforest, known as "the lungs of the Earth," faces continuous threats from deforestation. 



The Amazon's unique biodiversity, extensive carbon storage capabilities, and significant role in regulating the Earth's climate highlight the urgent need to fully understand the consequences of deforestation.



Scientists, activists, and global citizens have been increasingly concerned about changes in rainfall patterns. However, emerging research challenges previously held assumptions about rainfall <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-amazon-rainforest-is-approaching-widespread-collapse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dynamics</a> in this vital ecosystem.



The concept of a "tipping point" - a threshold beyond which the Amazon could irreversibly degrade into savannah - has dominated environmental discussions. 



But now, recent studies have begun to question the accuracy of this alarming scenario, bringing new insights into the resilience of the region's rainfall patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-the-amazon-rainforest-stable">Is the Amazon rainforest stable?</h2>



Scientists from the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology (<a href="https://mpimet.mpg.de/en/homepage" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MPI-M</a>) have made a significant breakthrough, revealing that the Amazon may sustain its rainfall even in extreme cases of deforestation. 



Published in the journal Geophysical Research Letters, the findings challenge earlier scientific consensus about the region’s vulnerability to rainfall disruption.



Previously, researchers emphasized the critical role of vegetation in maintaining Amazonian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nearly-40-of-climate-critical-amazon-rainforest-is-unprotected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainfall</a> through evapotranspiration - the process where plants transfer moisture from soil to the atmosphere.



This cycle, scientists warned, would weaken dramatically if widespread deforestation occurred, significantly reducing rainfall and destabilizing the region.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oversimplified-climate-models">Oversimplified climate models</h2>



These earlier predictions, however, depended heavily on models that oversimplified or overlooked key atmospheric processes. 



Most relied on global climate models that inadequately represented convection, the atmospheric mechanism crucial for rainfall. Alternatively, regional models were unable to account for how large-scale atmospheric circulation might adapt to deforestation.



Such limitations cast doubt on earlier predictions, necessitating a more sophisticated approach to better understand the complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-extremes-will-boost-methane-emissions-in-the-amazon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dynamics</a> involved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-modeling-approach">A new modeling approach</h2>



Experts at MPI-M, including Arim Yoon and Cathy Hohenegger, adopted an advanced approach using the global storm-resolving ICON model.



This model directly resolves atmospheric convection with extraordinary precision. They conducted their simulation globally over three years, operating at an exceptionally detailed resolution of five kilometers, a significant methodological advancement over previous research.



The findings revealed that rainfall in the Amazon isn't predominantly determined by evapotranspiration, as previously believed. Instead, large-scale atmospheric circulation substantially compensates for any loss of moisture due to deforestation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-winds-maintain-moisture-levels">Ocean winds maintain moisture levels</h2>



"The wind at about three kilometers altitude carries enough moisture from the ocean into the region to make up for the decline in evapotranspiration," said Yoon.



The calculations demonstrated little to no change in annual rainfall, even under conditions of complete deforestation, contrasting sharply with earlier findings.



This unexpected resilience suggests that earlier assessments of deforestation impacts may have overstated the Amazon’s vulnerability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signs-of-a-more-stable-amazon">Signs of a more stable Amazon </h2>



"Precipitation over land seems more tightly coupled to the large-scale circulation than to evapotranspiration in our global storm-resolving simulation if compared to state-of-the-art climate models currently used in the IPCC assessment reports," noted Hohenegger.



"This fact is exciting as it asks for the revisitation of some of the things we thought we knew about precipitation over land and its sensitivity."



This research shifts scientific understanding towards a more nuanced view of rainfall dynamics in the Amazon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rainfall-patterns-and-seasonal-variability">Rainfall patterns and seasonal variability</h2>



Despite the optimistic findings regarding total annual precipitation, significant changes remain in rainfall distribution throughout the year.



"Just using one indicator to assess the future of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-amazon-rainforest-and-the-looming-threat-of-drought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Amazon rainforest</a> isn't enough. The details of the rainfall patterns can make a big difference," said Yoon.



Seasonal variability could profoundly impact the ecosystem, agriculture, and communities dependent on predictable rainfall patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consequences-of-deforestation">Consequences of deforestation </h2>



The MPI-M scientists aim to further refine their analysis by examining whether extreme rainfall events or prolonged droughts might increase in frequency or intensity under conditions of deforestation. 



Understanding these patterns will provide critical insights into the real-world impacts of deforestation on Amazonian ecosystems and human livelihoods.



Although total rainfall might remain stable in the Amazon, deforestation inevitably disrupts ecological balance and climate stability. 



Changes in rainfall distribution, coupled with habitat loss and climate shifts, remain a threat to biodiversity, ecosystem health, and human communities relying on the Amazon.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024GL110503" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a>.&nbsp;



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Amazon rainforest may be much more stable than we thought

The Amazon rainforest, known as "the lungs of the Earth,"...

This bright blue creature might look like a single jellyfish drifting on the water, but it is actually a community of specialized polyps all working in unison. This <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/hydrozoa" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hydrozoan</a>, known as the Blue Button jellyfish or Porpita porpita, appears delicate but displays a cunning strategy for survival.



Its float usually measures only a few inches across, yet it hosts an impressive mini-collective where each polyp plays a unique role. 



Some feed, some defend, and others handle reproduction - all of which contribute to the colony’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-jellyfish-day-2024-protecting-the-health-of-our-oceans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">success</a>.



Marine biologist Dr. Shi from the <a href="https://www.ysfri.ac.cn/ENGLISH.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute</a> has <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39591675/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">documented</a> notable appearances of these organisms in new locations along coastal regions.



Studies have suggested that changes in ocean temperatures and currents may explain why this small floater is popping up in places where it once was rare.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-floating-colony-not-a-jellyfish">A floating colony, not a jellyfish</h2>



The upper part of the colony looks like a thin disk that can be a brilliant blue or sometimes greenish-brown. This disk is a gas-filled float that keeps the group on the water’s surface as currents move it around.



Circling beneath the float are hundreds of tentacle-like structures that are actually bundled <a href="https://sussexwildlifetrust.org.uk/news/hydroids-and-bryozoans-the-weird-and-wonderful">polyps</a>. They branch off in different lengths, forming a fringe that does much of the colony’s work.



Some polyps specialize in gathering food from the water. Others focus on warding off would-be predators with stinging cells called nematocysts that are designed to deter an attacker.



This layered teamwork sets Porpita porpita apart from most solitary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jellyfish-more-than-just-a-snack-for-predatory-fish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">jelly-like creatures</a>. Its structure is so integrated that it can function almost like a single being.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-porpita-have-a-mild-sting">Porpita have a mild sting</h2>



Most casual swimmers who brush up against this floating cluster feel little more than a mild irritation. The sting is gentle compared to that of more notorious marine animals, yet those with sensitive skin might notice some redness or itching.



The sting is still a defense that helps the colony survive. Small fish and other drifting animals think twice before nibbling on those tentacles!



Many beachgoers mistake the Blue Button for a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/comb-jellyfish-can-fuse-with-a-friend-and-become-one-creature-after-injury/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">jellyfish</a> because of its overall shape and bright hue. Careful observers soon realize, however, that this is a colonial hydrozoan rather than a single organism.



A separate <a href="https://www.lajar.cl/index.php/rlajar/article/view/vol51-issue4-fulltext-3070" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">analysis</a> suggests that sightings along the Mexican Atlantic have increased as more people venture into coastal areas. 



Researchers are using open-access data and field surveys to keep tabs on the spread of the species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-but-tough">Tiny but tough</h2>



This group of polyps may look fragile on the surface, yet it handles varied conditions surprisingly well. The float’s gas chamber helps the colony remain buoyant even during moderate waves.



It drifts passively, riding the currents without any directed swimming. Some ocean wanderers break apart easily if disturbed, but Porpita porpita remains intact unless hit by rough surf or beached.



It appears that this species adapts to changing waters by relying on wind and sea flows. Despite its delicate look, the colony endures journeys over wide stretches of ocean.



Scientists have found that population size can fluctuate with seasonal shifts in temperature. During certain months, cooler water encourages healthy growth, while extreme heat might reduce their numbers in shallower areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-porpita-grows-and-reproduces">How Porpita grows and reproduces</h2>



Porpita porpita individuals have both male and female reproductive structures, making them hermaphrodites that are capable of different forms of reproduction. 



Some references describe an intriguing developmental process where larvae transform into floating colonies without a typical polyp stage.



This means new generations can appear if conditions are right, causing occasional clusters to show up unexpectedly on sunny beaches. 



The young start off as tiny forms, then expand into an enchanting blue disk with busy polyps attached.



These polyps may adopt distinct tasks almost immediately. In many cases, protective tentacles appear early, ensuring the colony has a built-in guard system even in its youth.



Studying early developmental stages offers clues about how these colonies adapt to diverse temperatures and salinity levels. More work is underway to map their genetic makeup and clarify potential regional differences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



While Porpita porpita itself poses little harm to people, its presence can indicate shifts in local ecology. 



Changes in temperature or currents can carry these creatures beyond their usual routes, raising questions about broader marine health.



They also serve as food for certain sea slugs, snails, and sea turtles, linking them to larger food webs. Observing their distribution can reveal patterns in how smaller marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-invasion-jellyfish-are-moving-north-in-a-warming-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a> and grazers behave.



Some researchers believe continued sightings of the Blue Button in unfamiliar waters may reflect oceanic warming trends. Analyzing these subtle movements becomes a way to understand broader environmental influences.



Effective monitoring hinges on both academic efforts and everyday beachgoers who spot unusual clusters near shorelines. 



Citizen science projects are increasingly vital for gathering valuable data and strengthening the record of occurrences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-porpita-studies">What's next for Porpita studies?</h2>



Porpita porpita will likely keep surprising those who stroll along the beach and catch sight of a vivid blue disk washed ashore. Although harmless for most, its mild sting and unusual look cause many to marvel at what it really is.



Future investigations will show whether increased frequency of sightings correlates with patterns of warming seas and shifting currents. 



Understanding these drifting colonies may help scientists see how oceans are responding to constant environmental change.



Marine scientists who study the Blue Button view it as a subtle biological indicator of the world’s changing waters. 



They aim to gather more details about its genetic variations and possible global distribution patterns.



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This 'blue button jellyfish' isn't actually a jellyfish, so what is it?

This bright blue creature might look like a single jellyfish...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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