Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

When you toss food waste into the trash, it might seem like no big deal. After all, it’s organic - it’ll break down eventually, right? 



But what actually happens to that waste after it’s hauled away is a much bigger issue than most people realize. And it’s not just about overcrowded landfills - it’s about methane.



Food waste buried in a landfill doesn’t simply rot and disappear. It releases <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/top-10-global-methane-emissions-hotspots-spotted-by-satellites/">methane</a>, a greenhouse gas that’s 80 to 85 times more powerful than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-carbon-dioxide-travels-in-the-atmosphere/">carbon dioxide</a> over a 20-year period. 



This makes food waste a serious player in climate change - not because of how much we toss, but because of where it ends up and how it breaks down.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-landfills-turn-food-waste-into-methane">Landfills turn food waste into methane</h2>



Here’s the issue: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/landfills-emit-exorbitant-amount-methane-into-atmosphere/">landfills</a> aren't built to help food break down cleanly. When food waste ends up buried under other trash, it quickly uses up the oxygen in its immediate surroundings. 



At first, some decomposition happens with oxygen, which releases carbon dioxide - still a greenhouse gas, but not nearly as potent.



But once the oxygen's gone, the process switches. Now you’ve got anaerobic decomposition, which happens without oxygen. This is where methane starts building up. 



And unlike compost piles, which stay exposed to air and rely on oxygen, landfills are packed tight. That makes them perfect methane factories.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-composting-transforms-food-waste">Composting transforms food waste</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-waste-crisis-why-u-s-goals-remain-out-of-reach/">Composting</a> does the exact opposite. It keeps oxygen in the mix throughout the process. That means no methane. Plus, it turns food scraps into something useful: a natural fertilizer that can go back into farms and gardens.



Some cities, especially in recent years, have started composting programs to cut down on landfill methane. But how effective are these programs? Do they really work?



One recent study examined how composting plays out in real life, based on actual data. The study concentrated on places such as Austin, Texas, where there are programs set up to allow people to compost at home. 



On average, the program reduced organic waste output by roughly 2.3 pounds per household per week. That’s a good start, but it’s only about 30% of what a typical American household discards a week.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-composting-requires-individual-effort">Composting requires individual effort</h2>



There’s also the question of participation. Unlike cities such as San Francisco, many places don’t enforce composting. That means it’s optional - and a lot of people skip it.



Jackson Somers is an assistant professor of&nbsp;agricultural and resource economics&nbsp;in the College of Agriculture, Health and Natural Resources (<a href="https://cahnr.uconn.edu/">CAHNR</a>).



“As individuals, we produce a lot of food waste, and it’s something we should be cognizant of. From there, you should compost if you want to compost,” said Somers. 



"I think, inherently, we don’t want to be wasteful. But for some people it’s just a high burden of effort.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-composting-isn-t-cheap-yet">Composting isn’t cheap - yet</h2>



Even with some success, the economics are tricky. According to Somers’ analysis, it currently costs about $478 to avoid emitting one ton of CO2 through composting programs. 



By comparison, the “social cost of carbon” - a number economists use to estimate the damage caused by each ton of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/circular-economy-needed-to-reduce-americas-carbon-emissions/">carbon emissions</a> - is set at $51.



That means composting, at least in small-scale residential programs with low participation, isn’t cheap when measured in dollars.



“With current programs, given the infrastructure we have - these programs are really expensive for the savings we see,” Somers said. But that doesn’t make composting a lost cause.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-short-term-cost-long-term-gain">Short-term cost, long-term gain</h2>



The cost of building new landfills is rising fast. Once current landfills are full, finding and building new ones will be a big financial burden for many cities. So building composting infrastructure now might save money down the road.



Also, the social cost of carbon isn’t fixed. As scientists understand more about climate change, the estimated damage from each ton of carbon goes up. That means composting could become more cost-effective over time - even if the upfront price is high.



“As we learn more about our impact, composting programs may become cheaper from an environmental sense,” Somers said.



The study focused on households, but Somers pointed out that restaurants, grocery stores, and other businesses throw away massive amounts of organic waste. That’s where composting could really move the needle.



“That’s where I think you can see real savings. I think that’s something we should consider more than we do," said Somers. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-benefits-of-composting">Unexpected benefits of composting </h2>



Composting might also bring unexpected benefits. Large cities with lots of exposed food waste deal with more mess and public health concerns. Composting can help reduce that and keep neighborhoods cleaner.



“Keeping <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rats-are-spreading-a-deadly-disease-across-cities/">rats</a> and other pests out of neighborhoods certainly goes into the calculus too,” Somers said. 



“How many people get sick from rats? How much do we dislike seeing rats running around on the streets? It’s important to factor in other impacts, not just environmental.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-no-universal-fix-for-food-waste">No universal fix for food waste</h2>



Different communities need different solutions. Demographics, geography, and even local habits all shape what works best.



In some Connecticut cities, compost bins are picked up curbside. In others, residents drop off food scraps at centralized locations. 



“A one-size-fits-all solution is not the answer,” Somers said. “The solution in northwestern Connecticut is very different from the solution in Stamford or Hartford - and the solutions for Stamford and Hartford are also going to be different because demographically they’re quite different.”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0095069625000580?via%3Dihub">Journal of Environmental Economics and Management</a>.



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Food waste is a growing climate threat - can composting help?

When you toss food waste into the trash, it might...

Plants appear still, yet inside they are alive with communication. They must continuously balance how to capture energy without losing too much water. For decades, scientists suspected there were internal messengers guiding this process, but the exact molecules remained unidentified.



A new study led by <a href="https://www.psu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a> researchers finally reveals the nature of these signals. This work not only solves a long-standing mystery but also suggests new directions for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-finally-learn-what-makes-plants-roots-grow-faster-and-stronger-autophagy/">agriculture</a> and plant resilience research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-plants-balance-food-and-water">How plants balance food and water</h2>



“This discovery significantly advances our understanding of how plants coordinate their internal metabolism - the chemical reactions they use to make energy - with their external environment, a fundamental process for plant growth and survival,” said Professor Sarah Assmann. 



“Our findings open doors for future research into improving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-future-climate-conditions-will-transform-plant-growth/">plant</a> resilience and crop yields.”



Guard cells, located on the leaf surface, control stomata, the tiny pores that regulate the intake of carbon dioxide and the release of water vapor. 



These pores act like microscopic mouths. When they open, plants can “eat” by absorbing CO2, but they risk losing vital water at the same time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysterious-plant-messengers">Mysterious plant messengers</h2>



“There is always a tradeoff for terrestrial plants between maximizing CO2 intake, which is needed for photosynthesis, and letting out water vapor, which can dry out the plant and ultimately kill it if it loses too much water,” explained Professor Assmann.



“The stomata are the pores where that tradeoff takes place. When they open, they let in CO2 that allows the plant to feed, but they also let out water vapor, which dehydrates the plant. We knew there had to be some kind of messenger telling the guard cells how to regulate that life-or-death decision.”



The new findings show that sugars, including sucrose, glucose, and fructose, as well as maleic acid, act as these critical messengers. These metabolites form a feedback loop, linking the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-grow-longer-in-cities-due-to-artificial-light/">plant</a>’s energy production to its stomatal control.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-signals-in-plant-leaves">Tracking signals in plant leaves</h2>



The researchers worked with the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana, or thale cress, and fava beans to uncover the energy production system in plants. 



By extracting apoplastic fluid from leaves exposed to either red light or darkness, they were able to isolate chemical compounds. Red light stimulates photosynthesis, making it easier to detect active signals.



Through this process, the team identified 448 chemical compounds in the fluid. “We identified hundreds of metabolites in apoplastic fluid, which no one had analyzed to this extent before,” noted Professor Assmann.



“That, on its own, is an important contribution to the field, independent of the research question that we specifically were addressing, because it gives a lot of leads on other potential signaling molecules for processes throughout the plant.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sugars-control-plants-water-use">Sugars control plants water use</h2>



Further experiments revealed sugars directly promoted stomatal opening under red light. When tested in intact leaves, these compounds increased carbon dioxide uptake and also altered water release, confirming their messenger role.



Cell-level experiments explained the mechanism: sugars stimulate molecular machinery inside guard cells, activating them to open the stomata. 



This research provides the first full picture of the internal dialogue between photosynthesis and water regulation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-what-makes-plants-resilient">Studying what makes plants resilient</h2>



The Nature Plants study also emphasizes that stomatal control does not rely solely on hormones, as once thought. Instead, metabolic products themselves can serve as powerful signaling agents. 



This finding adds a new dimension to how scientists view plant-environment interactions. According to Professor Assmann, the team is focused on understanding how plants sense and respond to environmental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-roots-could-be-key-to-fighting-climate-change/">conditions</a>. 



“Plants can’t uproot themselves and find somewhere else to live; they have to deal with whatever the environment throws at them - increasingly drought and heat stress," she noted. 



"So we study what makes plants resilient, from the very specific molecular level all the way up to whole plant physiology and field experiments, with the goal of improving crop productivity.”



The project brought together researchers from Penn State, <a href="https://en.huji.ac.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Hebrew University of Jerusalem</a>, Nagoya University, RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, and the University of Mississippi. 



The research was funded, in part, by the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Science Foundation</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41477-025-02078-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Plants</a>.



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Hidden messengers tell plants when to eat and breathe

Plants appear still, yet inside they are alive with communication....

The question of aging has always fascinated humanity. Why do some creatures seem to wear out faster while others retain vitality for longer? 



Recent research has taken a surprising turn by asking whether migration influences how animals <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-education-matters-for-healthy-aging-and-longevity/">age</a>. To find the answer, scientists turned to an unexpected teacher: the flamingo.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-migration-affects-aging-in-flamingos">Migration affects aging in flamingos</h2>



The greater flamingo, with its pink elegance, is a familiar sight in the Camargue wetlands of southern France. Here, researchers have been studying flamingos for over four decades, thanks to an extensive tagging program. 



This long-term observation has revealed an unexpected truth. Migratory flamingos <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-are-experimenting-with-new-approach-to-fight-and-stop-human-aging-necrosis/">age</a> more slowly than their resident counterparts.



Some flamingos remain in the Camargue year-round, while others travel seasonally along Mediterranean shores. 



At first, the residents appear to thrive. They enjoy safer winters in the lagoons, leading to higher survival and reproductive success in their early adult years. Yet this advantage fades with time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cost-of-staying-home">The cost of staying home</h2>



As years pass, the residents decline faster. Their reproductive abilities drop, and their risk of death rises. Researchers calculated that resident flamingos experience about 40 percent greater aging than migrants. 



On average, the aging process begins earlier for residents, at 20.4 years, compared to 21.9 years for migratory birds.



The migrants, who travel to Italy, Spain, or North Africa for the winter, face tougher odds early in life. They have higher mortality rates and reproduce less in their youth. 



However, migrants gain a long-term advantage: slower aging later in life. Migration, while risky, seems to preserve <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-some-people-age-better-hundreds-of-genes-identified/">vitality</a> as the years accumulate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-migration-helps-flamingos-age-slowly">Migration helps flamingos age slowly</h2>



The findings suggest that migration, a behavior shared by billions of animals worldwide, influences aging itself. Choosing to stay or go shapes life history. 



"This is probably linked to a compromise between performance when young and health in old age. Residents live intensely at first, but pay for this pace later on. Migrants, on the other hand, seem to age more slowly," noted Sébastien Roques, <a href="https://www.cnrs.fr/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CNRS</a> researcher and co-author of the study.



The research highlights flamingos as more than iconic birds of the Camargue. With their long lifespan, sometimes exceeding 50 years, and their varied behaviors, they serve as a powerful model for studying aging.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-aging-in-animals">Understanding aging in animals</h2>



The study would not have been possible without dedication. "That's the whole point of having continued this study over the long term," said Arnaud Béchet and Jocelyn Champagnon, research directors at <a href="https://tourduvalat.org/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tour du Valat</a>.



"Initiated in 1977 in the Camargue by tagging flamingos with rings that can be read from a distance with a telescope, this program still allows us to observe flamingos tagged that year."



The researchers noted that their unique dataset that is proving invaluable for understanding the mechanisms of aging in animal populations.



The dataset now provides rare insight into how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breakthrough-method-reverses-aging-in-human-cells-without-modifying-dna/">lifestyle</a> differences within the same species translate into distinct aging patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aging-differs">Why aging differs</h2>



The flamingo findings fit into the broader scientific quest to unravel senescence, or biological aging. 



"Understanding the causes of changes in the rate of aging is a problem that has obsessed researchers and polymath philosophers since ancient times. For a long time, we thought that these variations occurred mainly between species," noted Hugo Cayuela, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a>.



"But recently, our perception of the problem has changed. We are accumulating evidence showing that, within the same species, individuals often do not age at the same rate due to genetic, behavioral and environmental variations."



By studying how different animals live and die, researchers hope to reveal not just how flamingos age, but also how aging works across life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-universal-question">A universal question</h2>



This discovery extends beyond flamingos, touching on one of biology’s most fundamental questions: why and how do living beings die? 



By showing that lifestyle choices, such as migration, influence the pace of aging, the study reveals that aging is not fixed but shaped by behavior and environment.



Flamingos, with their contrasting life strategies, highlight trade-offs between early success and long-term survival. These insights could help explain variation in aging across species, including humans. 



Understanding these patterns may eventually inform medicine, health, and longevity research, offering clues into how we might age more slowly or live healthier lives.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2422882122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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What flamingos can teach us about the mysteries of aging

The question of aging has always fascinated humanity. Why do...

Feeling comfortable indoors is not guesswork. Your skin constantly sends information about heat and cold to the brain, and that signal aligns with how comfortable you report feeling.



A new review brought together 172 studies published since 2000 and found strong links between skin temperature and thermal sensation. 



The big picture is simple: the face and hands track comfort well, local cooling helps more than local heating, and comfort varies by age, gender, and climate background.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reading-the-body-s-thermostat">Reading the body’s thermostat</h2>



This work was led by Professor John Kaiser Calautit at the <a href="https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/">University of Nottingham's</a> Faculty of Engineering. 



The team shows why mean skin temperature (<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0360132324000738" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MST</a>) matters, because it summarizes the whole body in a single number that rises and falls with how warm or cool people say they feel.



“Skin temperature tells us a great deal about whether people feel too hot, too cold, or comfortable indoors," said Calautit. 



"By bringing together research from around the world, we’ve shown how this knowledge can help design safer, healthier, and more sustainable spaces.” 



The review ties skin temperature to how we set up buildings and devices. Older models did not use body signals like this. 



They focused on room air, radiant heat, humidity, clothing, activity, and airflow, which can miss how two people in the same room feel very differently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-face-and-hands-matter-most">Face and hands matter most</h2>



The analysis shows the face and hands are prime spots to monitor. These areas are sensitive, easy to measure, and not usually covered by thick clothing.



Cooling targeted areas - such as the back or chest - improves comfort more than heating a small spot. That pattern makes sense because the skin has more cold receptors near the surface and cooling quickly changes blood flow.



The results also suggest practical steps for designers. If you want to help people feel better in summer, focus cooling on larger trunk areas instead of only blowing cold air at the hands and feet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comfort-is-not-universal">Comfort is not universal</h2>



Comfort is not one-size-fits-all. The review reports that older adults are typically less sensitive to warmth, which raises their risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-heat-is-leaving-older-adults-dangerously-unprepared/">overheating</a> during hot spells.



Gender can also shape comfort responses. Many studies find that women report stronger sensations across conditions, though results vary.



Where you grew up matters as well. People from warmer regions often respond differently than those from cooler regions, so a single comfort formula will not work for every building or city.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-skin-temperature-can-predict-comfort">Skin temperature can predict comfort</h2>



Research teams are building personal comfort models that use <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wearable-sensor-can-help-prevent-dangerous-dehydration/">wearable sensors</a> to read skin temperature and other signals, then predict how you feel. 



In tests, these models reached strong accuracy with signals from the wrist and ankle paired with heart rate.



Cameras and computer vision are entering the mix. A study comparing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strange-link-found-between-body-temperature-and-depression/">thermal infrared</a> skin temperature, thermal image features, and wearables found that automated systems can estimate comfort with off-the-shelf sensors.



This points to future building controls that quietly keep you comfortable without surveys or knobs - and without storing unnecessary personal data - if designed carefully.



Your face carries useful information too. Another study using facial skin temperature built a thermal comfort evaluation method that classified how people felt with fewer sensors and less intrusion.



Machine learning methods matter for how these systems work. 



Classification trees and related approaches have shown that a small number of body locations, like arm, back, and wrist, can predict personal comfort well, according to this paper.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moving-toward-tailored-comfort">Moving toward tailored comfort</h2>



Many buildings still rely on the predicted mean vote, a traditional index developed decades ago. 



Across a large global database, its accuracy in predicting how people actually feel was about one in three, which helps explain why offices often feel too warm to some and too cool to others.



Putting skin temperature into feedback loops can change that. Smarter control can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/steam-dishwashers-could-reduce-water-and-energy-use/">reduce energy use</a>, cut health risks for vulnerable groups, and respect privacy by using minimal, local signals rather than constant surveillance.



The review also points to equity. Children, older adults, and people who cannot always voice their needs should not be left out of comfort decisions. Systems that read simple physiological cues can help close that gap.



The authors argue for tailored models. A building in Singapore should not run the same comfort rules as one in Stockholm, and a care home should not mirror a tech office.



“Looking ahead, we see a future where smarter building technologies use this physiological data to automatically deliver comfortable, energy-efficient environments with minimal input from occupants,” said Calautit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-skin-temperature-improves-daily-life">Skin temperature improves daily life</h2>



Wearables already measure skin temperature to support <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-quality-could-be-the-key-to-better-metabolic-health/">sleep</a>, recovery, and stress tracking. 



With clear consent and careful data handling, the same signal can guide your home to pre-cool a bedroom before you arrive or warm your workspace when your hands grow cold.



Building managers can use aggregated, anonymized data to adjust supply air or chilled water setpoints. A small nudge in the right direction, informed by skin signals, can save energy without people noticing a change.



Engineers can design quieter, simpler systems when they know which body areas matter most. A chair back that gently cools could matter more than a powerful vent at the feet.



Care settings can benefit as well. Monitoring skin temperature trends helps staff protect residents who might not recognize heat stress as quickly.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666123324000369?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Energy and Built Environment</a>.



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Indoor comfort depends more on your skin than the air temperature

Feeling comfortable indoors is not guesswork. Your skin constantly sends...

Rice feeds billions. It thrives in warm, wet fields and stores energy in a way that fits busy lives and tight budgets. Those same flooded fields can also make arsenic more available to rice plants, and some of that arsenic can end up in the grain.



A growing body of field evidence points to a new twist: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astonishing-global-heat-in-january-2025-defied-climate-expectations/">as the planet warms</a> and CO₂ rises, flooded soils lose oxygen more often and for longer stretches. That chemical shift frees arsenic from soil particles, and rice roots take up more of it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-rice-and-arsenic">Climate, rice, and arsenic</h2>



After years of outdoor trials, researchers report that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-water-day-2025-preserving-glaciers-protecting-our-future/">climate conditions</a> expected by mid-century would increase the flow of inorganic arsenic - the harmful form - from soil to plant to grain.



The work appears in a leading medical journal and was conducted by teams at Columbia University’s <a href="https://www.publichealth.columbia.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mailman School of Public Health</a>, with collaborators in China and the United States. 



“Our results suggest that this increase in arsenic levels could significantly elevate the incidence of heart disease, diabetes, and other non-cancer health effects,” explained <a href="https://www.publichealth.columbia.edu/profile/lewis-ziska" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Lewis Ziska</a>, associate professor of Environmental Health Sciences at the Columbia Mailman School.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-arsenic-is-in-rice">Why arsenic is in rice</h2>



Arsenic occurs naturally in many soils and waters. In paddies that stay flooded, oxygen dwindles. Iron minerals that normally bind arsenic dissolve, and arsenic becomes more mobile. 



Warmer conditions paired with higher CO₂ push that chemistry along, especially in fields that remain waterlogged. 



Under future settings - temperatures <a href="https://climate.mit.edu/ask-mit/why-did-ipcc-choose-2deg-c-goal-limiting-global-warming" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">more than 2°C</a> (about 3.6°F) above pre-industrial levels plus elevated CO₂ - the balance tilts toward more inorganic arsenic entering the plant.



That does not make every bowl risky. Local geology, irrigation sources, soil type, and farming practices all shape grain levels. It does mean that the odds can shift in places where paddies stay saturated for long periods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-rice-and-arsenic">Studying rice and arsenic</h2>



The scientists did not rely on short greenhouse trials. They grew 28 rice varieties outdoors for roughly a decade using a Free-Air CO₂ Enrichment (<a href="https://ess.science.energy.gov/face/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FACE</a>) system.



This process releases extra CO₂ around crops in the open air so that sunlight, wind, microbes, and soil behave as they do in real life.



Those long-running field data then fed into models linking plant arsenic levels to typical rice intake and body size across major <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/feeding-the-world-without-harming-nature-the-complex-balance-of-farming/">rice-eating countries</a> in Asia.



The projections indicate a sizable shift in risk. Lifetime cancer risks, particularly for lung and bladder cancer, increased by 44% relative to ambient conditions. China alone may face 19.3 million excess cancer cases related to arsenic exposure through rice. 



“From a health perspective, the toxicological effects of chronic iAs exposure are well established; and include cancers of the lung, bladder, and skin, as well as ischemic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-disease-kills-differently-now-than-five-decades-ago/">heart disease</a>,” said Dr. Ziska.



Non-cancer outcomes also matter. The modeling points to increased risks for cardiovascular and metabolic diseases tied to long-term inorganic arsenic exposure in populations with high rice intake.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-risks-are-the-highest">Where risks are the highest</h2>



Diet and water sources shape exposure. Regions where rice is a daily staple and paddies are often kept flooded will see the largest impacts under warmer, CO₂-richer conditions. 



“Ingesting rice in regions like southern China and Southeast and South Asia is already a significant source of dietary arsenic and cancer risk,” said Dr. Ziska.



Within countries, irrigation that draws from arsenic-rich groundwater can raise grain levels. Varieties also differ in how strongly they transport arsenic from roots to grain, which creates room for practical solutions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-this-is-bad-what-can-be-done">This is bad, what can be done?</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetic-fixes-may-save-crops-from-climate-stress/">Plant breeding</a> can help: select and develop varieties that limit arsenic uptake even when soils push it toward the roots. Breeders already see large differences among rice lines in how much arsenic reaches the grain. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trillions-of-cubic-meters-of-water-is-used-to-grow-crops-each-year/">Water management</a> is another lever. Continuous flooding increases arsenic mobility, while giving soils time to drain lets oxygen return, which can hold arsenic in less available forms.



Post-harvest steps matter too. Milling and cooking methods can reduce how much arsenic ends up on the plate. 



No single fix works everywhere. Shifting water regimes, for example, can raise cadmium in some settings, so local testing and tailored management are essential to avoid trading one problem for another.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limits-and-moving-parts">Limits and moving parts</h2>



Any mid-century projection carries uncertainty. Policies can bend emissions paths, and farmers adapt as technology and economics shift. 



Diets change with income, urbanization, and migration. The underlying processes are well established. The decade of fieldwork done for this study adds weight because it includes real weather, pests, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-plant-microbiomes-the-future-of-crop-protection/">microbial communities</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rice-arsenic-and-human-health">Rice, arsenic, and human health</h2>



Rice remains a staple food, and the findings from this research don't claim that every bowl on every table becomes unsafe. Instead, the scientists point to smarter ways of managing risk and a need to act upstream.



Farmers can adjust irrigation where feasible. Breeders can favor varieties that move less arsenic to the grain. Public health agencies can track arsenic in grains and irrigation sources to guide choices in hotspots. 



“Our study underscores the urgent need for action to reduce arsenic exposure in rice, especially as climate change continues to affect <a href="https://www.nifa.usda.gov/topics/global-food-security" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global food security</a>,” said Dr. Ziska.



Keeping rice safe in a warming world is within reach: breed smarter, water smarter, process smarter—and cut emissions, because the air over our fields follows us to the table.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanplh/article/PIIS2542-5196(25)00055-5/fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Lancet Planetary Health</a>.



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Scientists warn a very deadly poison is accumulating in global rice fields

Rice feeds billions. It thrives in warm, wet fields and...

Most of us think about oil and gas as the stuff that keeps our lights on, our cars running, and our homes warm. But what rarely gets talked about is what this fuel-heavy system takes from us - especially our health.



A major new study just laid it all out: every year, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-weakens-brain-function-and-focus-in-daily-tasks/">air pollution</a> from oil and gas leads to tens of thousands of early deaths and widespread health problems across the U.S. Add to that asthma, preterm births, and even cancer diagnoses, and the picture becomes a lot harder to ignore.



And here's the kicker - it’s not hitting everyone equally. People of color are paying a much steeper price.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-oil-and-gas-damage">Tracing oil and gas damage</h2>



This research is the first to track the health damage from oil and gas pollution across every stage - from the first drill into the ground to the final puff of exhaust from your car or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gas-stove-pollution-why-dont-we-have-the-full-story/">gas stove</a>.



Scientists behind the study ran detailed computer models that mapped out where the pollution comes from and how it moves. Then they used health risk data to figure out who it’s affecting - and how badly.



What they found was disturbing. The final “end-use” stage - when we actually burn the stuff - is by far the most harmful. It’s responsible for 96 percent of all the deaths and illnesses linked to oil and gas air pollution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-counting-the-health-costs">Counting the health costs</h2>



Each year, oil and gas pollution is tied to 91,000 early deaths, 10,350 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/millions-of-premature-births-linked-to-air-pollution/">preterm births</a>, 216,000 new cases of childhood asthma, and 1,610 lifetime cancer cases.



“We used a state-of-the-science air quality model to separate air pollution caused by each major stage of the oil and gas lifecycle from other sources of air pollution," said lead author Dr. Karn Vohra from <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/mssl/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London</a> (UCL). "This enabled us to work out and compare health outcomes."



The researchers found that oil and gas pollution accounts for one in five preterm births and adult deaths linked to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fine-particle-pollution-may-cause-children-to-develop-asthma/">fine particulate matter</a>, and nearly 90 percent of new childhood asthma cases tied to nitrogen dioxide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unequal-impacts-from-oil-and-gas">Unequal impacts from oil and gas</h2>



It’s not just a health problem - it’s an equity problem. Native American and Hispanic populations are most affected by the early stages like drilling and transport. 



Black and Asian communities are hardest hit by the end-use pollution - especially in places like eastern Texas and southern Louisiana, also known as “Cancer Alley.”



These aren’t random patterns. Old zoning laws and systemic decisions - like redlining - forced marginalized communities to live near factories, refineries, and major highways.



This is a big reason why Black children are more likely to develop <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nearly-one-third-of-asthma-cases-linked-to-air-pollution/">asthma</a>. Or why Black mothers are more likely to give birth prematurely.



“These communities are already aware of this unjust exposure and the disproportionately large health burdens they experience," said senior author Professor Eloise Marais from UCL. "Our study puts science-backed numbers on just how large these unfair exposures and health outcomes are." 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-toll-by-state">Health toll by state</h2>



Five states bear the heaviest overall burden: California, Texas, New York, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey. These states aren’t necessarily where the pollution starts, but they’re where the health damage adds up the most - simply because more people live there.



But if you look at the numbers adjusted for population, another set of regions jumps out: New Jersey, the District of Columbia, New York, California, and Maryland. People living there face the highest per-person health impacts from oil and gas pollution.



This is also not just a U.S. problem. Oil and gas pollution from the U.S. has been linked to 1,170 early deaths in southern Canada and 440 in northern Mexico. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oil-and-gas-beyond-the-numbers">Oil and gas beyond the numbers</h2>



Researchers say their numbers are actually conservative. The data they used was from 2017, and since then, U.S. oil and gas production has jumped by 40 percent. 



On top of that, the study only looked at outdoor air pollution - it didn’t even touch indoor pollution or water contamination.



Researchers say the study offers another compelling case for accelerating the phase-out of oil and gas production and combustion. Hundreds of thousands of children, adults, and older people in the U.S. could avoid illnesses and premature deaths each year.



"We have an imperative to not only urgently transition away from fossil fuels to achieve <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/residual-emissions-must-be-addressed-to-reach-net-zero/">net-zero emissions</a> to save lives in the long term from climate devastation, but also to save lives and minimize environmental injustices in the near term," said co-author Dr. Ploy Achakulwisut.



This research doesn’t just tell us what’s happening - it shows us where and who it’s happening to. The numbers are there. The technology is there. The question now is whether we’ll act on it.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adu2241" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Oil and gas pollution is fueling a public health crisis

Most of us think about oil and gas as the...

3d,Illustration,Of,Salmonella,Bacteria,For,Medicine,Concept.

If Salmonella poisoning conjures thoughts of being deathly ill with an upset stomach from undercooked chicken or eggs, you’re not alone. Another type - Salmonella Dublin - is primarily associated with cattle and can cause more severe illness in people. 



Doctors see more bloodstream infections, longer hospital stays, and a higher risk of severe outcomes when this <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10803612/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dangerous bacteria</a> infects people, which it has started doing recently.



How does it get there? <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-raw-milk-health-hazard-pasteurization-important/">Unpasteurized milk</a> and undercooked beef are common routes, and contact with sick animals can spread it too. 



This is not only a farm issue; it is a public health issue because what happens around cattle does not always stay around cattle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-cattle-and-salmonella-dublin">Humans, cattle, and Salmonella Dublin</h2>



Scientists have wrestled with a practical question: Are the Salmonella Dublin strains in cattle, people, and farm-linked environments in the United States different or basically the same? 



The answer shapes how we prevent infections and how we handle antibiotics. If the strains match closely across settings, the effective approach should connect animal health, human health, and environmental monitoring - an idea many researchers call “<a href="https://www.cdc.gov/one-health/about/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">One Health</a>.”



This catchy phrase isn't just a slogan. If the same bug moves between species and spaces without changing much, targeting only one part of the supply chain system will not be enough. We need solutions that address the pathogen wherever it travels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-salmonella-dublin">Studying Salmonella Dublin</h2>



Researchers gathered Salmonella Dublin from three places: sick cattle, sick people, and environmental sites tied to farms or processing facilities. 



Then they sequenced the bacteria’s DNA to compare how closely the strains were related. 



In genetics, scientists track tiny letter-level changes called single nucleotide polymorphisms (<a href="https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/understanding/genomicresearch/snp/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SNPs</a>), pronounced “snips.” Fewer SNP differences mean the strains likely share a recent common ancestor.



The goal was to see whether strains from cows, people, and the environment clustered into separate groups or stayed together. 



If they stayed together, that would point to active movement between hosts and places, not isolated pockets of disease.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-we-know-so-far">What we know so far</h2>



The team learned that strains from cattle, humans, and the environment in the U.S. were extremely similar - often differing by only a small number of SNPs. 



In a study published in Applied and Environmental Microbiology, the researchers reported that despite some genetic differences across 2,150 Salmonella Dublin strains, the bacteria remained highly similar.



"This similarity shows potential for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reverse-zoonoses-humans-are-getting-their-pets-sick/">cross-transmission</a> between cattle, humans, and the environment," explained team leader and senior author Erika Ganda, an associate professor of food animal microbiomes in the Penn State <a href="https://agsci.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">College of Agricultural Sciences</a>. 



“That’s important, because it shows that Salmonella Dublin is highly connected across humans, animals and the environment - so efforts to control it need to consider all three,” Ganda continued. 



“This study’s findings provide detailed genetic evidence that can help guide surveillance - tracking the bacteria, intervention strategies such as limiting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antibiotic-resistance-increasing-enterococci-looming-global-crisis/">antibiotic use</a> in livestock and public health policies.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-salmonella-dublin-has-a-tight-family-tree">Salmonella Dublin has a tight family tree</h2>



The genetic picture does not split into distant branches based on where or when strains were found. It looks like a “tight family tree.” That suggests ongoing movement between animals, people, and farm environments or equipment.



That kind of connected pattern matters for hospital readiness, farm policies, and everyday choices at the dinner table.



The team also examined <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-increases-threat-antimicrobial-resistance/">antimicrobial resistance</a>. They did not stop at asking whether resistance existed. 



They checked which resistance genes appeared and how those patterns differed among strains from cows, people, and the environment. They found meaningful differences across those sources.



That means control strategies should match the resistance patterns in each place. A one-size-fits-all antibiotic plan is unlikely to work. 



Responsible antibiotic use requires laboratory testing and clear guidelines, not guesswork, to protect drugs that still work.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farms-families-and-food-chains">Farms, families, and food chains</h2>



Prevention starts before anyone gets sick. On farms, that includes biosecurity to keep new or sick animals from spreading infection, plus cleaning and disinfection that reach tough spots. In the food chain, the basics work: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-americans-dont-know-the-dangers-of-raw-milk-and-bird-flu/">pasteurize milk</a> and cook beef thoroughly. 



For home kitchens, avoid raw milk and use a thermometer. Ground beef should reach 160°F, and whole cuts like steaks should reach 145°F with a rest.



For clinics and hospitals, rapid laboratory testing helps clinicians avoid antibiotics that will not work. When lab teams can see the resistance profile early, patients get better treatment sooner, and we save the stronger drugs for when they are truly needed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-resolution-genome-map">High-resolution genome map</h2>



Genome sequencing turns thousands of bacterial samples into a high-resolution “map.” 



By comparing SNP differences across many strains, scientists can connect dots that older methods might miss, including hidden links between farm sources and human cases.



That means public health teams can focus on the pathways doing most of the harm. Targeted steps beat broad, blunt strategies, especially when resources and time are limited.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-salmonella-dublin-and-human-health">Salmonella Dublin and human health</h2>



This is not a fear story or some type of political stunt. It's a highly-coordinated scientific study driven by peer-reviewed evidence. 



The U.S. Salmonella Dublin population looks tightly knit and changes only a little as it spreads. 



That clarity helps, because it points to a shared job and a big "to-do" list.



Officials must strengthen surveillance that connects animal, human, and environmental samples; tailor antibiotic guidelines to the resistance patterns seen in each source; and block obvious transmission routes with pasteurization, thorough cooking, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-confirm-first-case-of-rare-parasite-in-pigs-posing-health-risks/">farm hygiene</a>, and smart infection control in clinics.



Put simply, the same pathogen keeps appearing in cows, people, and nearby environments, showing a nearly identical genetic profile. 



With a shared target and coordinated defenses, we stand a better chance of stopping it before it reaches pandemic levels by starting on someone’s dinner plate, ending up in the bloodstream, and spreading from there like wildfire.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/aem.00689-25" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Applied and Environmental Microbiology.</a>



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Bacteria strains that infect cattle are now also infecting humans, sounding alarm bells

If Salmonella poisoning conjures thoughts of being deathly ill with...

The ocean covers most of our planet, yet much of it remains out of reach. Scientists have long struggled to study life in the deep sea. Robotic equipment is expensive, and people cannot dive to extreme depths. 



These issues leave entire marine ecosystems unexplored. Nicole Xu, an engineer at <a href="https://www.colorado.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CU Boulder</a>, is confident that her lab's "cyborg" moon jellyfish can help.



These sea creatures, also known as <a href="https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Aurelia_aurita" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aurelia aurita</a>, are simple but remarkable. They move with little effort, pulsing gently as their translucent bells expand and contract. Their tentacles drift behind them like threads, yet every motion is purposeful.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-creating-cyborg-moon-jellyfish">Creating "cyborg" moon jellyfish</h2>



Xu has watched jellyfish for years, first as a fascinated student and now as a researcher. She studies their movements not just to admire them, but to put them to work.



Her team attaches small electronic devices to the animals. These devices stimulate their <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/cell-and-developmental-biology/articles/10.3389/fcell.2016.00157/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">muscles</a> and allow researchers to steer them. Soon, the system may carry sensors to track temperature, acidity, and other ocean data.



That could send jellyfish into places humans rarely reach, and return information that is otherwise too costly to gather.



“Think of our device like a pacemaker on the heart,” Xu said. “We're stimulating the swim muscle by causing contractions and turning the animals toward a certain direction.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-survival-through-500-million-years">Survival through 500 million years</h2>



Climate change is hitting the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-ecosystem-sea-creatures-never-before-seen-revealed-antarctica-iceberg-breakup/?utm_source=chatgpt.com">ocean</a> hard. The water is getting warmer and more acidic as carbon dioxide levels rise. 



Marine life struggles to adapt, and many species are in danger. Scientists need to measure how these changes unfold. 



The challenge is scale. The ocean is vast, deep, and unpredictable. Sending ships or robots everywhere is simply not possible.



That is where jellyfish stand out. They are some of the most energy-efficient creatures alive. They have survived in their current form for more than 500 million years. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moon-jellyfish-are-ideal-explorers">Moon jellyfish are ideal explorers</h2>



Jellyfish don’t have a brain or spine, but their basic organs and nerve nets keep them moving. 



They also lack nociceptors, so they don’t experience pain the way humans do. Their stings cannot break human skin, which makes them easier to work with.



Moon jellyfish live in many environments. They often float near shorelines where food is abundant. But they also dive to extreme depths, even as far as the <a href="https://ocean.si.edu/planet-ocean/seafloor/mariana-trench" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mariana Trench</a>, 36,000 feet (10,900 meters) down.



That range makes them ideal for exploration. Xu first tested her biohybrid jellyfish in 2020, guiding them through shallow waters near Woods Hole, Massachusetts.



“There’s really something special about the way <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/this-blue-button-jellyfish-isnt-actually-a-jellyfish-so-what-is-a-porpita/?utm_source=chatgpt.com">moon jellies</a> swim. We want to unlock that to create more energy-efficient, next-generation underwater vehicles,” she said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-how-moon-jellyfish-work">Learning how moon jellyfish work</h2>



Xu’s lab doesn't only focus on movement. She and her team study how jellyfish push water as they swim. To see this, they fill tanks with biodegradable particles like corn starch. They then shine lasers through the water.



The particles light up the flow patterns created by the jellyfish. This approach replaces older methods that used synthetic tracers such as glass beads. Those tracers were more toxic and less sustainable. Corn starch is safer, cheaper, and better for the animals.



Her group also works on improving steering in natural ocean conditions. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seamounts-are-gathering-hubs-for-ocean-predators/">open sea</a> is far less predictable than a lab tank, so making the technology reliable outside is a big step. 



Xu believes these advances can lead to new tools that draw ideas from nature rather than replacing it. But the research is not only about technology - it also raises ethical questions.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/cyborg-moon-jellyfish_lab-tank_nicole-xu-scientist_CUBoulder_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/cyborg-moon-jellyfish_lab-tank_nicole-xu-scientist_CUBoulder_1s.webp" alt="Nicole Xu stands behind the main jellyfish tank in her lab. (Credit: Glenn Asakawa)" class="wp-image-1983357"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Nicole Xu stands behind the main jellyfish tank in her lab. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Glenn Asakawa</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-caring-for-moon-jellyfish-in-labs">Caring for moon jellyfish in labs</h2>



For many years, scientists believed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-noise-can-be-fatal-to-marine-invertebrates/">invertebrates</a> could not feel pain. New evidence now suggests that some may react to harmful experiences. 



That means researchers must think carefully about how their experiments affect the animals they study. Xu takes this seriously.



She watches for signs of stress in her jellyfish. Stress usually causes them to produce extra mucus and stop reproducing. 



Her jellyfish show none of those patterns. Instead, they seem to be thriving. Inside her tanks, baby polyps the size of pinheads are growing, with tiny tentacles starting to appear. That growth suggests the jellyfish are healthy and reproducing naturally.



“It's our responsibility as researchers to think about these ethical considerations up front,” Xu said. “But as far as we can tell, the jellyfish are doing well. They're thriving.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-jellyfish-as-ocean-allies">Jellyfish as ocean allies</h2>



Jellyfish may look simple, but they represent a major shift in how humans can explore the ocean. By combining engineering with biology, Xu’s work shows that living creatures can serve as allies in research.



They move efficiently, survive in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-in-the-extreme-microbial-activity-discovered-in-old-faithful/">extreme environments</a>, and carry little risk to humans. Outfitted with sensors, they could one day map parts of the ocean we know almost nothing about.



This is not science fiction. Xu has already proven the concept in the field. Her next steps include refining the technology and expanding its capabilities. 



She sees jellyfish not only as data gatherers but also as inspiration. Their effortless swimming could shape how we design future underwater vehicles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-research-tools">Rethinking research tools</h2>



The idea challenges how people think about research tools. Instead of building larger machines, we might adapt what already exists in nature. It is efficient, elegant, and potentially transformative. 



At the same time, Xu insists that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-and-possibly-even-insects-have-emotions/">ethical care</a> for the animals must remain at the center of this work.



Her project stands as a reminder that progress and responsibility can go together. The moon jellyfish, a creature that has floated through Earth’s waters for half a billion years, may now help us understand how those waters are changing today.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.aps.org/prfluids/abstract/10.1103/bg66-976x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physical Review Fluids</a>.



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Scientists create and control 'cyborg' moon jellyfish to study changes in Earth's oceans

The ocean covers most of our planet, yet much of...

Sex is everywhere - on TV, in music, and online - but for many teens in the U.S., the classroom isn’t where they’re learning about it.



Most parents assume schools teach kids what they need to know about relationships, consent, pregnancy, and sexually transmitted infections. However, that’s not always the case.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geography-decides-sex-education">Geography decides sex education</h2>



There’s no federal law requiring schools to teach sex education, so states and school districts decide for themselves. Some teach it well, others offer little or nothing, and some teach things that aren’t even medically accurate.



A new national study found that 42 states require public school students to receive some kind of sex education between kindergarten and high school. 



That sounds good at first, but there’s a catch: only 19 states require the material to be medically accurate. Of those, five apply that rule only to specific topics. So in many places, kids could be taught opinions instead of facts.



Even more troubling, 34 states require schools to teach abstinence. That might sound safe, but research shows abstinence-only education doesn’t work. 



It doesn’t stop teens from having sex, reduce <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-disasters-are-fueling-a-child-exploitation-crisis/">sexually transmitted infections</a>, or prevent unplanned pregnancies. Despite all that, abstinence-only education is still funded and promoted by the federal government.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sex-education-missing-key-parts">Sex education missing key parts</h2>



The study was led by Dr. Kimberly Nelson from the <a href="https://www.bu.edu/sph/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Boston University School of Public Health</a>, along with experts from Cornell Law School and Florida International University. 



The researchers looked at laws, court decisions, and school regulations across all 50 states and Washington, D.C.



They found that 34 states allow parents to opt their children out of sex education altogether. In five states, parents have to opt in, meaning students don’t get any instruction unless their parents actively agree to it.



“While many students in the U.S. are required to get some form of sexual education, our study shows that substantially fewer students are likely to be getting the comprehensive sexual education that public health and medical associations recommend,” said Dr. Johnson. 



“Only 58 percent of students reside in a jurisdiction that requires sexual education to be medically accurate, and many jurisdictions have content mandates that extend only to a few topics."



This means that many U.S. students are living in jurisdictions where they are unlikely to receive the accurate and comprehensive information that we know will help them make informed, healthy choices about their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/does-your-finger-length-predict-sexual-behavior-a-rat-study-says-yes/">sexual behaviors</a> and relationships.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-anatomy-lessons">Beyond anatomy lessons</h2>



Sex education isn’t just about anatomy or how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-links-teen-pregnancy-to-smaller-newborns/">pregnancy</a> happens. It’s also about relationships, safety, and respect. But the study found that many states skip these key lessons. 



Only 27 states require schools to teach about healthy relationships. Just 21 mandate lessons on dating or intimate partner violence. And only 9 states require instruction on consent.



When it comes to topics like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-birth-control-scientists-develop-a-non-hormonal-pill-for-men/">birth control</a>, condoms, and sexual orientation, the numbers drop even lower. Just 20 states require teaching about contraception. 



Only 12 states mandate information about sexual orientation - and in two of those states, Oklahoma and Texas, schools are required to present it negatively. They teach that same-sex activity is “primarily responsible” for AIDS exposure.



Furthermore, only 11 states require schools to include instruction on condoms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-states-different-rules">Different states, different rules</h2>



Not all regions approach sex education the same way. All states in the Northeast require sex education on at least one topic, but only 62 percent of states in the West do the same.



The South and Midwest fall somewhere in between. These differences often reflect local politics and cultural beliefs.



“Because policy decisions about sexual education curricula happen at the state-level, state-level sociopolitical forces exert substantial influence on sexual education,” said Dr. Nelson.



“In states where sociopolitical forces and vocal advocacy groups push an abstinence-focused approach, that approach is likely to be seen as politically advantageous and be adopted.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-poor-sex-education-harms-teens">Poor sex education harms teens</h2>



Teens face higher risks than adults for sexually transmitted infections, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetic-variant-linked-to-both-covid-risk-and-hiv-protection/">HIV</a>, unplanned pregnancies, and unhealthy relationships. Incomplete or misleading information leaves them confused and vulnerable.



Good sex education doesn’t encourage kids to have sex. It helps them make better choices when they do. It gives them tools to stay healthy, protect themselves, and treat others with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-rejection-teaches-us-valuable-lessons-about-relationships/">respect</a>.



More states have changed their sex education laws in the last five years. The hope is that this new research will push lawmakers to keep going - to make instruction more accurate, more comprehensive, and more inclusive.



But that won’t happen unless people start paying attention to what’s actually being taught. Right now, millions of kids in America aren’t getting the facts - and that’s a real problem.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/abs/10.2105/AJPH.2025.308199">American Journal of Public Health</a>.



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Millions of U.S. teens lack reliable sex education in the classroom

Sex is everywhere - on TV, in music, and online...

The United States digs up enough rock each year to cover its need for most critical minerals. Yet elements like cobalt, lithium, gallium, and rare earths still slip through the cracks - ending up in tailings ponds or waste piles instead of being recovered. 



The real bottleneck isn’t the supply, but the ability to capture and reuse what’s already mined.



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.mines.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Colorado School of Mines</a> quantifies the opportunity. The team paired mineral production data from federally permitted metal mines with geochemical surveys from national agencies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-minerals-lost-in-plain-sight">Minerals lost in plain sight</h2>



The result is a first-of-its-kind estimate of how much critical material already flows through U.S. concentrators and smelters every year, then leaves the process unrecovered.



“The challenge lies in recovery,” said lead author Elizabeth Holley, an associate professor of mining engineering. “It’s like getting salt out of bread dough - we need to do a lot more research, development, and policy to make the recovery of these critical minerals economically feasible.”



The database spans 70 elements used in everything from phones and medical devices to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellites-capture-dramatic-shifts-in-earths-forests/">satellites</a>, wind turbines, and fighter jets. 



It shows that, for all but two - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/magnetar-flares-create-gold-platinum-uranium-in-seconds/">platinum</a> and palladium - unrecovered byproducts from ongoing U.S. mining could meet domestic demand if even small fractions were captured.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-minerals-mines-leave-behind">The minerals mines leave behind</h2>



America’s mines for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supergiant-gold-deposit-discovery-wangu-field-might-be-largest-ever-found-on-earth/">gold</a>, copper, zinc, nickel, and molybdenum handle enormous volumes of rock, with trace elements tagging along in the ore.



Because U.S. plants are optimized for the primary metals, the trace values typically leave in tailings. The new analysis estimates that capturing slivers - often less than one percent - could transform supply.



“This is a brand-new view of ‘low-hanging fruit’ - we show where each critical mineral exists and the sites at which even one percent recovery of a particular critical mineral could make a huge difference, in many cases dramatically reducing or even eliminating the need to import that mineral,” Holley said.



Consider cobalt. It hitchhikes through nickel and copper circuits. Recovering under 10 percent of the cobalt currently mined and processed but not saved would cover the entire U.S. battery market.



Germanium - vital for infrared optics and defense sensors - occurs in some zinc and molybdenum deposits. Recapturing under one percent of the germanium now lost from those mines could erase the nation’s import dependence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-minerals-in-mine-waste">Tracking minerals in mine waste</h2>



The researchers assembled annual output from U.S. metal mines and matched it to ore chemistry using a statistical resampling method. They drew on recent geochemical compilations from the <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Geological Survey</a>, <a href="https://www.ga.gov.au/">Geoscience Australia</a>, and the <a href="https://natural-resources.canada.ca/minerals-mining/geological-survey-canada" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geological Survey of Canada</a>.



By fusing production volumes with typical concentrations for co-occurring elements, they approximated the quantities of critical minerals already entering U.S. processing streams at mines- and then heading to waste.



Those tailings are not benign. They must be stored, monitored, and sometimes remediated to prevent contamination of air and water. 



Recovering value from them, or better yet before they reach the waste pile, would shrink the waste footprint and lower long-term environmental liabilities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-recovery-is-hard-nbsp-and-worth-it">Why recovery is hard&nbsp;- and worth it</h2>



Existing mills are designed to extract one or two main <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-mantle-may-contain-a-wealth-of-green-metals/">metals</a> efficiently. Capturing gram-to-kilogram-per-ton traces requires new flowsheets, reagents, and hardware. It can also mean slowing a plant or adding stages that raise costs. That’s why economics, not geology, is the constraint.



“Now that we know which sites are low-hanging fruit, we need to conduct detailed analyses of the minerals in which these chemical elements reside and then test the technologies suitable for recovery of those elements from those specific minerals,” Holley said.



Technology is only half the equation. Without the right incentives, mine operators have little reason to retool for tiny revenue streams that can be volatile.



“We also need policies that incentivize mine operators to incorporate additional processing infrastructure," noted Holley. 



"Although these elements are needed, their market value may not be sufficient to motivate operators to invest in new equipment and processes without the right policies in place.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-benefits-beyond-the-mine">Benefits beyond the mine</h2>



Recovering critical minerals onshore strengthens supply security for energy, defense, and technology. It reduces exposure to geopolitical chokepoints and volatile import markets. 



Mineral recovery also creates new revenue lines from rock already mined, delinked from permitting new pits.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-mining-impacts-marine-life-for-decades/">environmental</a> dividend is real. Every extra ton recovered from existing ore reduces the need to dig and crush new rock somewhere else. It also cuts the mass and toxicity of tailings piles by removing elements that can complicate long-term storage.



In some cases, recovered byproducts can feed low-carbon technologies - neodymium for high-strength magnets, lithium for batteries - creating a virtuous loop.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-trash-to-treasure">From trash to treasure </h2>



The study reframes U.S. critical mineral strategy. Instead of treating supply as a greenfield problem, it points to hundreds of “brownfield” opportunities hidden in plain sight. 



Holley’s conclusion is straightforward: the United States already extracts the very atoms it classifies as critical. The problem is that they exit the process through the wrong stream. 



With focused science and well-designed incentives, that stream can be redirected - transforming “waste” into the strategic materials needed for an electrified, digitized economy.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adw8997" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Buried treasure: The U.S. is throwing away its critical minerals

The United States digs up enough rock each year to...

The seatbelt sign pings on - trays rattle and drinks slosh. For many flyers, turbulence is unnerving on the best of days. 



A warming climate is adding fuel to the bumps, and a growing body of research shows that choppy skies are likely to become more frequent and intense.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turbulence-injuries-make-headlines">Turbulence injuries make headlines</h2>



Beyond frayed nerves, turbulence is the leading cause of in-flight weather accidents. The absolute numbers are small, but serious incidents make headlines and underscore the risk.



There were 207 reported injuries on U.S. commercial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/airline-flights-may-be-slowed-down-intentionally-to-fight-climate-change/">flights</a> between 2009 and 2024. Recent examples include an Air Europa flight in which 40 passengers were hurt, and a Singapore Airlines flight where one passenger died and dozens were injured.



“Typically, injuries (are) to unbelted passengers or cabin crew rather than structural damage,” said John Abraham, a mechanical engineering professor at the <a href="https://www.stthom.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of St. Thomas</a>. “Modern aircraft withstand turbulence, so the main risk is occupant injury, not loss of the plane.”



Even without damage, severe encounters trigger inspections. “Severe” is about 1.5 times the normal force of Earth’s gravity, and those events occur some 5,000 times a year over the United States, said Robert Sharman, senior scientist emeritus at the <a href="https://ncar.ucar.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Center for Atmospheric Research</a>. 



Turbulence also drives up fuel burn when pilots must leave optimal altitudes, alter routes, or change speeds, Abraham added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-all-bumps-are-equal">Not all bumps are equal</h2>



Not all turbulence is the same. Lead author Mohamed Foudad, an atmospheric scientist at the <a href="https://www.reading.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Reading</a>, identified three main types.



Convective turbulence is linked to rising or sinking air from clouds or thunderstorms and can be seen on radar or visually. Mountain wave turbulence forms as winds spill over ranges. The most dangerous is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clear-air-turbulence-expected-to-intensify-in-a-warmer-climate/">clear-air turbulence</a> (CAT), which is invisible.



CAT tends to form near jet streams - fast west-to-east rivers of air around six to seven miles up, at the same cruising levels as commercial jets. That’s where wind shear, the change in wind speed and direction with height, can set off sharp, unseen jolts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-turbulence">Climate change and turbulence </h2>



The physics that drive CAT are changing. With <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-affects-how-we-feel-not-just-how-we-live/">climate change</a>, the tropics are warming faster at cruising altitude than higher latitudes. That increases the temperature difference between low and high latitudes. 



The gradient strengthens jet streams and sharpens wind shear - the volatile vertical shifts that trigger CAT. Foudad and colleagues analyzed data from 1980 to 2021. 



“We find a clear, positive trend - an increase in turbulence frequency over many regions, including the North Atlantic, North America, East Asia, the Middle East, and North Africa,” Foudad said, with increases ranging from 60 to 155 percent.



Further analysis linked rising turbulence in certain regions to increased greenhouse gas emissions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warming-shifts-turbulence-seasons">Warming shifts turbulence seasons</h2>



A 2023 paper led by Isabel Smith at the University of Reading found that for every degree Celsius of near-surface warming, North Atlantic winters would see about a nine percent increase in moderate CAT, and summers a 14 percent rise.



While winter has historically been the roughest season for turbulence, warming is now amplifying CAT in summer and autumn, closing the gap. Jet stream disruption is not the only concern. 



“Climate change may also increase the frequency and severity of thunderstorms under future scenarios, and turbulence encounters near thunderstorms are a major component of turbulence accidents,” Sharman said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-airlines-brace-for-rough-skies">Airlines brace for rough skies</h2>



Some fixes are operational. Foudad is working on optimizing flight routes to avoid turbulence hotspots and improving forecasting accuracy so dispatchers and crews can plan better climbs, descents, and deviations.



Airlines are adjusting procedures too, encouraging passengers to keep seatbelts fastened more often and ending cabin service earlier when rough air is likely.



Technology may help crews see the invisible. Sharman said promising onboard LIDAR systems are being tested. These beam lasers search the atmosphere to sense subtle shifts in air density and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-method-developed-to-measure-the-wind/">wind speed</a> ahead, giving pilots a preview of clear-air disturbances before the bumps arrive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-action-less-turbulence">Climate action, less turbulence</h2>



Ultimately, the root cause is the same force remaking weather everywhere. Cutting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenhouse-gas-emissions-reach-another-all-time-high/">greenhouse gas emissions</a> is essential if we want to ease long-term turbulence trends driven by climate change.



Aviation accounts for about 3.5 percent of human-caused warming. Airlines are exploring cleaner fuels to reduce the industry’s footprint, though progress has been “disappointingly slow,” according to the International Air Transport Association.



In the meantime, the advice for passengers is simple and time-tested. Keep your seatbelt buckled when seated. 



Heed crew instructions and expect that summertime and shoulder-season flights may feel rougher than they used to. Moreover, remember that modern airliners are built to handle turbulence.



“Modern aircraft withstand turbulence, so the main risk is occupant injury, not loss of the plane,” Abraham said.



The skies aren’t falling, but they are getting choppier. In a warming world, that’s one more reason to respect the forecast, secure the cabin early, and curb the emissions that are adding extra shake to the jet stream’s natural sway.



The study is published in the <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2023JD040261" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres</a>.



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Bumpy skies ahead: Why air turbulence is getting worse

The seatbelt sign pings on - trays rattle and drinks...

A new study argues that the first urban civilization of Sumer in southern Mesopotamia emerged from a landscape shaped by tides, rivers, and shifting sediments at the head of the Persian Gulf.



Early farmers tapped a dependable, twice-daily pulse of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vanishing-freshwater-earth-continents-are-rapidly-drying-out/">fresh water</a> to grow crops and date groves with simple canals. When the tides withdrew, the system unraveled, forcing societies to reinvent how they managed land and water - setting the stage for city-states and large public works.



The study was led by Liviu Giosan, a senior scientist emeritus in geology and geophysics at the <a href="https://www.clemson.edu/cafls/baruch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sumer-s-world-shaped-by-water">Sumer’s world shaped by water</h2>



“Our results show that Sumer was literally and culturally built on the rhythms of water,” Giosan said.



“The cyclical patterns of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-warming-is-subtly-changing-the-tides/">tides</a>, together with delta morphodynamics - how the form or shape of a landscape changes over time due to dynamic processes - were deeply woven into the myths, innovations, and daily lives of the Sumerians.”



For millennia, Sumer’s reputation has rested on its inventions: writing, the wheel, planned fields, and temple economies across city-states like Ur, Uruk, and Lagash. The new work reframes those achievements as responses to a coastal world that would not sit still.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-reached-deep-into-mesopotamia">Water reached deep into Mesopotamia</h2>



From roughly 7,000 to 5,000 years ago, the Persian Gulf extended far inland. Twice a day, tides pushed tongues of freshened water up the lower Tigris and Euphrates. In that setting, short lateral canals could lift and spread water without monumental infrastructure.



The hydrology was predictable. Fields and groves thrived. Villages clustered along channels, harvesting fish, reeds, and fertile silt while tending irrigated plots.



That coastal geometry did not last. As the great rivers constructed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-does-saturns-moon-titan-have-rivers-but-not-deltas-scientists-have-an-idea/">deltas</a> at the head of the Gulf, tidal reach shrank, channels silted up, and access to the interior by tide was severed. The dependable pulse that once watered fields began to fail.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-water-crisis-to-power">From water crisis to power</h2>



The loss of tides likely set off an ecological and economic crisis. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flood-fatalities-experts-reveal-the-hidden-health-impacts/">Floods</a> became wilder, droughts harsher, and salt more intrusive. 



To cope, communities scaled up. They cut long canals, raised levees, and coordinated labor across wider territories. Those efforts - irrigation, flood protection, and engineered landscapes - came to define Sumer’s golden age.



Study co-author Reed Goodman is an assistant professor of environmental social science in the <a href="https://www.clemson.edu/cafls/baruch/">Baruch Institute of Social Ecology and Forest Science</a> at Clemson University.



“We often picture ancient landscapes as static,” Goodman said. “But the Mesopotamian delta was anything but. Its restless, shifting land demanded ingenuity and cooperation, sparking some of history's first intensive farming and pioneering bold social experiments.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gods-floods-and-power"><a></a>Gods, floods, and power</h2>



Water shaped belief as well as practice across Mesopotamia. Flood narratives and a water-centered pantheon fit a world where seas advanced and retreated, and rivers remade the land. 



Political order followed the flow, too, as leaders who organized water earned authority.



“The radical conclusions of this study are clear in what we're finding at Lagash,” said Holly Pittman, director of the Penn Museum's <a href="https://www.penn.museum/research/project.php?pid=219">Lagash Archaeological Project</a>. “Rapid environmental change fostered inequality, political consolidation, and the ideologies of the world's first urban society.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rebuilding-the-ancient-coast"><a></a>Rebuilding the ancient coast</h2>



To test their ideas, the team blended paleoenvironmental evidence with archaeology and remote sensing. They assembled ancient environmental and landscape data, analyzed new samples from Lagash, and mapped preserved channels, levees, and shorelines with satellite imagery.



The result is a coastal reconstruction that shows where tides once ran, where deltas prograded, and how settlements tracked those changes.



The picture is of a coast in motion: a tide-fed mosaic that promoted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ideas-traveled-farther-than-people-in-the-early-days-of-farming/">early agriculture</a> with minimal engineering, followed by a deltaic cutoff that compelled canal states and complex governance. In that sequence, myth and innovation sit alongside mud and tide as co-authors of civilization.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sumer-s-changing-stage">Sumer’s changing stage</h2>



Sumer has often been treated as a fixed stage on which cities appeared. This study argues the stage itself kept changing. The earliest farmers exploited a fortunate hydrological rhythm. When that rhythm stopped, societies did not collapse - they transformed. 



They built the first large-scale waterworks in Mesopotamia, formalized hierarchies, and encoded water’s power into ritual and law.



“Our work highlights both the opportunities and perils of social reinvention in the face of severe environmental crisis,” Giosan explained.



“Beyond this modern lesson, it is always surprising to find real history hidden in myth - and truly interdisciplinary research like ours can help uncover it.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-water-modern-warning">Ancient water, modern warning</h2>



The through-line is sobering and timely. Coastal systems are never still. As seas rise and deltas shift today, communities face versions of challenges the Sumerians knew well: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/salinity-is-rising-in-coastal-areas-and-hurting-farmlands/">salinity</a>, erratic floods, silt-clogged channels, and the need for collective action. 



The Sumerian experience shows both the gains of cooperation and the costs of delay. Sumer may be the cradle of urban life, but it was also a proving ground for living with change. 



The first cities in Mesopotamia did not just master water. They learned, repeatedly, to live by its rhythms - and to rebuild when those rhythms changed.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0329084" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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Water shaped the world’s first urban society in ancient Mesopotamia

A new study argues that the first urban civilization of...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



-----



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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