Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

We often admire the alpha males of the world - think of a lion ruling his pride, a CEO commanding a boardroom, or a wolf leading his pack. These males have dominance, respect, and the first pick of resources. But what if being on top wasn’t as great as it seemed? 



For alpha baboons, for example, the price of power is steep. 



A new study shows that these primates live under intense stress. Surprisingly, their stress doesn’t come from fighting rivals but from guarding their mates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-does-it-mean-to-be-an-alpha-male">What does it mean to be an alpha male?</h2>



Being an alpha male often means embodying confidence, leadership, and a strong presence in social situations. 



People who see themselves - or others - as alpha males typically take charge in group settings, make decisive choices, and inspire others to follow their lead. 



They usually exhibit traits like assertiveness, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-robots-with-charismatic-voices-get-better-results-from-students/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">charisma</a>, and the ability to stay calm under pressure. Whether it's in the workplace, among friends, or in romantic relationships, alpha males are seen as the ones who set the tone and drive the group forward. 



They prioritize their goals and are often highly motivated, which can make them natural leaders in various aspects of life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alpha-males-and-leadership-pressure">Alpha males and leadership pressure</h2>



Becoming an alpha male <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primates-face-an-uncertain-future-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">baboon</a> is no easy feat. Males must battle their way up the ranks - relying on strength, strategy, and persistence. But reaching the top is only the beginning. Staying there demands constant vigilance.



The dominant male must protect his status against challengers, ensuring that no rival steals his position. But his biggest concern is not other males - it is the females.



During fertile periods, he must closely monitor them and prevent other males from mating with them. This requires following the females around for days on end, ensuring that he remains their only mate.



“They’re essentially staking a claim; preventing other males from gaining access,” said Professor Susan Alberts of <a href="https://duke.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Duke University</a>.



This near-constant surveillance takes a toll. Instead of using their time to rest, eat, or socialize, alpha males devote their energy to guarding their mates. Over time, this effort drains them both physically and mentally.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stress-in-alpha-male-baboons">Stress in alpha male baboons</h2>



For decades, scientists have studied wild baboons in Kenya as part of the <a href="https://amboselibaboons.nd.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Amboseli Baboon Research Project</a>. Since 1971, researchers have closely tracked the social <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/visually-striking-primate-features-ease-tension-and-reduce-conflict/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interactions and behaviors</a> of these animals, collecting valuable data about their lives.



A study published in 2011 provided one of the first clues that being an alpha male comes with a cost. The research, led by senior scientist Laurence Gesquiere at Duke University, found that alpha males had significantly higher levels of glucocorticoids - hormones linked to stress and the "fight-or-flight" response.



“In humans, this response is activated for every kind of challenge we face, whether it’s running down the block because you’re late for a meeting, running a marathon, or going into a stressful meeting with your boss,” Alberts explained.



The new study builds on these findings. The research team analyzed 14 years of behavioral data from 204 male baboons and measured their stress hormone levels using droppings left behind in the wild.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-source-of-stress">Surprising source of stress</h2>



The results confirmed that life at the top is stressful. Alpha males had 6% higher glucocorticoid levels than lower-ranking males. 



But the study also revealed something unexpected: aggressive behaviors such as fighting, bullying, or threatening rivals had no impact on the stress levels of alpha male baboons. “That was a big surprise!” Gesquiere exclaimed.



The researchers had expected that constant battles with other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primate-evolution-completing-the-timetree-of-life-for-all-of-our-closest-relatives/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">males</a> would be the main cause of stress. Instead, they found that stress hormones spiked when alpha males spent more time guarding females.



Their thyroid hormone levels also dropped, indicating they were burning more calories than they consumed. This suggested that being an alpha male is not just stressful - it is physically exhausting as well.



“Being alpha really has energy consequences,” Gesquiere noted. Unlike lower-ranking males, who can focus on feeding and resting, alpha males are constantly on alert, even when they attempt to eat.



“They’re constantly interrupted,” Alberts said. “They'll start to dig up or pry open a tasty morsel, but then the female gets up and walks away, and they have to abandon it.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-cost-for-short-term-rewards">High cost for short-term rewards</h2>



The constant stress of being an alpha male baboon appears to have lasting effects. Previous research on Amboseli <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/non-human-primate-chromosomes-mapped-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">baboons</a> found that top-ranking males age faster and have shorter lifespans than their lower-ranking counterparts.



Chemical changes in their DNA suggest that stress accelerates aging, and weakens their bodies over time. Once they lose their alpha status, they may struggle to recover from years of physical and emotional strain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-can-humans-learn-from-baboons">What can humans learn from baboons?</h2>



While baboon society is different from human society, some parallels exist. Alpha males live in a rigid hierarchy, but humans navigate multiple social structures. A person may be a low-ranking employee at work but a leader in their sports team or community.



Still, the study on alpha male baboons highlights an important lesson: leadership comes with challenges, and constant stress can take a toll on well-being. In humans and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-primates-must-prioritize-survival-over-long-term-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">baboons</a> alike, maintaining power requires energy, focus, and sacrifice.



For dominant male baboons, the cost of being on top is clear. “Stress definitely has long-term consequences,” noted Gesquiere.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.1790#d1e1714" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.



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Many alpha male primates sacrifice good health for power

We often admire the alpha males of the world -...

Have you ever wondered what farmers in ancient times ate thousands of years ago? Their diets, shaped by the landscapes that the farmers inhabited and the resources available to them, offer a window into the past.



It's fascinating to see how their meals evolved from humble grain-based recipes - rooted in necessity and tradition - to the complex, rich, and intricate flavors we enjoy today.



While historians and archaeologists have been unraveling the secrets of ancient civilizations for decades, one fascinating piece remained undisclosed - the exact menu of the earliest farmers.



What ingredients did they rely on to sustain their communities? How did they supplement their cultivated crops with nature’s bounty?



But recently, a compelling study, drawing on cutting-edge archaeological techniques, has shed new light on this captivating subject, revealing surprising insights into the diverse and resourceful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-hunter-gatherer-ancestors-did-much-more-gathering-than-hunting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diets of our ancestors</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-did-ancient-farmers-eat">What did ancient farmers eat?</h2>



Unfolding the story requires a journey to Southern Scandinavia and Northern Germany, specifically Oldenburg LA 77, a region once known for its Middle <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-neolithic-mountain-settlers-used-complex-farming-methods/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neolithic</a> settlements. 



Oldenburg LA 77 is located in a former wetland area known as the Oldenburger Graben, resting on the southwestern coast of the Baltic Sea. 



This area was home to a number of settlements, and this once-secluded village stands as a reflection of the evolution of society, gradually shifting from isolated farmsteads to more concentrated, populated villages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-farming-diets">Ancient farming diets</h2>



During the excavations, scientists discovered plenty of artifacts including houses, wells, and an array of daily life materials such as pottery fragments and grinding stones. 



"Grinding stones are truly archives for preserving information about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-foods-linked-to-drastically-lower-risk-of-heart-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant foods</a>. Even a small fragment of them can carry plenty of plant microfossils, including starch grains and phytoliths," noted Dr. Jingping An, a research assistant in the study.



And so, it is these grinding stones from Oldenburg LA 77 that provided the breakthrough in this gastronomical mystery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-examining-grinding-stones">Examining grinding stones</h2>



The study, led by experts from the Collaborative Research Center (CRC) 1266 in Kiel, analyzed ancient plant microfossils preserved on these grinding stones. The findings were impressive, to say the least.



Various food ingredients were discovered, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-bread-wheat-gave-rise-to-civilization/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wheat</a>, barley, fruits of wild grasses, knotweeds, and acorns. Starch-rich tubers, and possibly a small number of wild legume seeds, were also detected. 



These wild ingredients shed light on our ancestors' use of nature's bounty.



"Charred <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/domesticating-wild-plants-may-result-in-more-resilient-crops/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wild plants</a> have been documented by archaeobotanical analyses of soil samples from this Neolithic village, but this study further confirms their consumption by looking directly into food processing," noted Professor Wiebke Kirleis, who led the research.



"People in the past knew how to enrich their diet," added Dr. An. 



Undoubtedly, our ancestors were culinary explorers, well-versed in supplementing their meals with the best of what their environment had to offer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-similar-diets-among-ancient-farmers">Similar diets among ancient farmers</h2>



Interestingly, a similar dietary pattern was observed in a different site - the Frydenlund site in Denmark - which was part of the same Funnel Beaker Culture. 



Plant microfossils from wild plants were also found on the grinding stones at this site.



Ultimately, the study offers a fascinating insight into the culinary lifestyle of our earliest farmers. They were not just farmers but also skilled food processors, adept at harnessing the variety of ingredients around them to enrich their meals and lead a wholesome life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-legacy-of-neolithic-farmers">Legacy of Neolithic farmers</h2>



The dietary choices of Neolithic farmers were not only shaped by necessity but also by an intuitive understanding of their environment. 



Their ability to blend cultivated grains with wild plants provided a balanced and diverse diet that sustained growing communities. 



Today, this ancient knowledge continues to influence modern dietary trends, with a renewed focus on whole grains, plant-based nutrition, and sustainable food sources. 



Studies of early farming practices offer valuable insights into how our ancestors adapted to their surroundings, utilizing locally available ingredients to create nourishing meals. 



The enduring legacy of ancient farmers highlights the importance of biodiversity and traditional knowledge in shaping the way we eat today.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2352409X24005418" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Archaeological Science</a>.



Image Credit: Susanne Beyer, Kiel University



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Surprising diet of early farmers from 5,000 years ago revealed by new technology

Have you ever wondered what farmers in ancient times ate...

When it comes to understanding the process of effective learning, there are some variables that make it less straightforward. While many believe that repetition is the key to mastering new information, research suggests that the reality is far more intricate.



The human memory, as complex as it is, relies on several factors for successful information retrieval. These factors include context, variation, and the way knowledge is reinforced over time.



Simply reviewing material in the same way may not always yield the best results, highlighting the need for more dynamic approaches.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-memory-performance">Improving memory performance </h2>



When it comes to providing practical guidelines for effective learning, it's not always easy to translate scientific findings into actionable strategies.



Learners often fall into the trap of relying on familiar study methods that may feel effective but fail to promote long-term retention.



A recent study offers compelling evidence that varying methods of learning and recalling information could significantly improve memory performance, providing fresh insight into the subject.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rediscovering-memory-retrieval">Rediscovering memory retrieval</h2>



So what does it take for our brain to learn and remember effectively? Is there a method for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spacing-effect-spaced-learning-long-term-impact-on-memory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memorizing</a> things more efficiently?



The answer perhaps lies not only in retrieving information from memory at regular intervals - but also doing it in varied ways. 



The study was led by scientists from <a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=SWPS+University&amp;client=ms-android-charter-us-rvc3&amp;sourceid=chrome-mobile&amp;ie=UTF-8#ebo=0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SWPS University</a> in Warsaw and Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań. The initial findings suggest that one could boost <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sleep-improves-memory-formation-and-recall/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory recall</a> using a method that the researchers refer to as "variable learning."



This technique involves introducing variety into the way we memorize, essentially learning about a phenomenon from different perspectives, contexts, and methods. 



According to the study, even the process of retrieval should be varied (not tied to identical cues leading to the answer).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-variable-retrieval-in-learning">Understanding variable retrieval in learning</h2>



In their research paper, "The role of variable retrieval in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/understanding-how-students-learn-is-key-to-helping-them-succeed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">effective learning</a>," the experts examined the many layers of the concept of variable learning.



In a series of experiments, participants were asked to learn foreign words, specifically Finnish. These words were embedded in sentences presented in the participants' native language. For instance, "Dad is sweeping the lattia" (Finnish: floor).



During the study, each foreign word was presented multiple times, either in the same sentence or in different sentences. 



The researchers found that memory performance was improved when foreign words were presented in varied sentences rather than repetitive ones.



The benefits of this method were observed both immediately after the study phase and 24 hours later.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-false-belief-in-learning-methods">False belief in learning methods</h2>



Interestingly, the participants believed that it was easier for them to memorize foreign words when they learned them using the same sentences repetitively, which contradicted the test results.



This phenomenon is referred to as a metacognitive illusion - a false belief in the effectiveness of certain learning conditions, leading to less effective ways of learning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-of-variable-learning">Challenges of variable learning </h2>



The concept of learning different features of information in each session is not foreign; it's vital for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-our-brain-form-long-term-memories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">long-term memory</a>. This could be analogous to creating multiple paths to memorized information, which can then be used to retrieve it.



The more paths we create while learning, the higher the chance of effectively recalling the information later. Such a diverse way of learning, where we explore several aspects of information, is a challenge for our memory.



While this approach requires more effort than learning repetitively, the effort boosts <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/having-too-much-knowledge-can-be-a-curse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">knowledge</a> acquisition.



"If we want our knowledge to be useful, i.e., accessible in different circumstances and in response to different cues or questions on a test, we should enrich our study sessions with the following difficulties: retrieving previously learned information (instead of reading it multiple times), spreading learning over a period of time (instead of accumulating it in a single learning session), and retrieving information from memory in different ways (and not in response to the same cue)," noted study co-author Dr. Ewa Butowska-Buczyńska.



The researchers believe that their findings could guide effective learning strategies. However, they noted that further work is needed to put these methods of learning into a broader context.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2413511121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Variable learning: The key to more effective study habits

When it comes to understanding the process of effective learning,...

The January blues aren't just a human struggle - our four-legged friends can feel them too. Dogs, much like humans, can experience post-holiday lows that leave them feeling out of sorts.



We're not talking about an episode of Blues Clues here, but rather a real phenomenon that affects many pets during this time of year.



According to new research conducted by the Guide Dogs organization, changes in routine and shorter days might be contributing to your dog's seasonal slump.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-january-blues-in-dogs">January blues in dogs</h2>



Just as many of us feel a bit lethargic and down in January, our canine companions are no different. 



In fact, the survey found that about one in four dogs exhibit signs of lethargy and lack of energy. Furthermore, roughly one in seven dogs appear to show signs of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/common-household-sounds-trigger-anxiety-in-dogs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anxiety</a> or boredom. 



But what is bringing dogs down in January? The answer is surprisingly human-like: changes in daily routines, dark mornings, and the absence of their owners (after the festive season).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-canine-emotions-mimic-humans">Canine emotions mimic humans</h2>



A staggering 94% of the surveyed owners agreed that their pets seemed to mirror their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-can-feel-our-emotions-through-our-heart-rate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emotions</a>.



"Dogs are incredibly attuned to their owners’ feelings, and when routines are disrupted or we feel low, it’s no surprise that they might reflect those changes," said Tim Stafford, director of canine affairs at Guide Dogs.



However, it’s worth mentioning that while <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-are-evolving-to-fit-the-modern-lives-of-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> may be receptive to our feelings, we might not be as good at recognizing theirs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-helping-your-dog-cope-with-the-blues">Helping your dog cope with the blues </h2>



January is undoubtedly a rough month for both dogs and their owners. With this in mind, it's important to pay extra attention to your dog’s behavior at this time.



"We know that dogs thrive on routine and consistency, so whilst January can be tough, by focusing on re-establishing structure and following our tips on exercise and stimulation, we can easily help our dogs (and ourselves) feel better," noted Stafford. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-january-s-impact-on-dog-owners">January's impact on dog owners</h2>



Did you know that more than half of dog owners feel the pressure of the dark days and cold weather of January? Approximately one-third are dealing with financial stress, while 39% struggle to get back into their routine.



Meanwhile, during January, many dog owners also observed noticeable changes in their pets' behavior. 



Lethargy was the most commonly reported issue - affecting 27% of dogs - while 15% of owners noted signs of anxiety in their furry friends. Additionally, 13% reported their dogs experiencing boredom.



Overall, 59% of owners acknowledged observing behavioral shifts in their pets during the post-holiday period.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-to-boost-your-dog-s-mood">How to boost your dog's mood</h2>



The <a href="https://www.guidedog.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Guide Dogs organization</a> recommends maintaining regular routines around walks, playtimes, and meals. There's no denying that dogs feel secure when they know what to expect.



Engaging with your dog during walks, playing games, and teaching them new skills can spark joy and distract them from their January blues. 



On cold, dreary days, snuggling on the sofa with your furry friend can also help to reduce stress and forge a stronger bond.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disrupted-dog-routines">Disrupted dog routines</h2>



The January blues can impact how you care for your dog too. Around one in five people confessed that the dark mornings have delayed outings, disrupting their dog's routine.



With many dog owners returning to work, about 13% reported that their dogs are spending more time alone compared to the holiday season.



However, there is some light at the end of the tunnel. An uplifting 88% of owners agreed that walking their dog improved their mental well-being.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-battling-the-january-blues">Battling the January blues</h2>



The survey concluded on a positive note, revealing that 45% of owners have resolved to lead a more active lifestyle this year. The respondents plan to use <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-walking-improves-mobility-and-prevents-falls-in-older-adults/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dog walks</a> as an opportunity to improve their fitness.



So, as we muddle through January, know that you are not alone battling the blues. It seems even our furry friends are feeling it too. 



However, by spending more time with our dogs, we can lift their spirits while giving our own a much-needed boost as well.



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Dogs suffer from the January blues, just like humans

The January blues aren't just a human struggle - our...

Understanding how birds think and process information has long been a mystery. Unlike mammals, birds do not leave behind preserved brains in fossils, making it difficult for scientists to study their cognitive abilities over time. 



However, a breakthrough study by evolutionary biologists in Australia and neuroscience researchers in Canada is now providing remarkable insights into avian intelligence.



By analyzing the structure of bird skulls using advanced digital technology, researchers at Flinders University in South Australia and the University of Lethbridge in Canada have developed a new way to study both extinct and living birds. 



The method involves creating digital "endocasts" from the cranial spaces inside bird skulls, allowing them to estimate brain size and shape with remarkable accuracy. 



This approach is giving scientists a clearer picture of bird cognition, intelligence, and evolutionary history without needing to physically examine brain tissue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reconstructing-bird-brains">Reconstructing bird brains</h2>



The research, published in the journal&nbsp;Biology Letters, focuses on reconstructing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagulls-birds-more-intelligent-than-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird</a> brain structures by analyzing the inside of their skulls.



By scanning dry museum skulls from long-dead birds, scientists have been able to extract surprisingly detailed information about their brains. This includes insights into the size of crucial brain regions responsible for intelligence and agility.



"This showed that the two correspond so closely that there is no need for the actual brain to estimate a bird's brain proportions," said study lead author and <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Flinders University</a> PhD researcher Aubrey Keirnan.



Despite the term "bird brain" often being used as an insult, birds are known for their remarkable intelligence. Many bird species such as crows and parrots demonstrate problem-solving skills, tool use, and even self-awareness.



"The brains of birds are so large that they are practically a braincase with a beak," noted Keirnan.



This study sought to determine whether the imprint left by a bird's brain on its skull accurately reflects the proportions of two crucial parts of the brain: the forebrain, which is responsible for intelligence, and the cerebellum, which controls coordination and movement.



To test this, the researchers scanned the skulls of 136 bird <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/survival-of-the-smartest-chickadees-with-better-memory-live-longer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> and compared the results with either microscopic brain sections or existing literature data. 



By doing so, they were able to determine whether the volume of these critical brain regions matched the imprints left inside the skull.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpectedly-precise-correlation">Unexpectedly precise correlation</h2>



The results of the study surprised even the researchers. The correlation between brain volume and endocast surface area was almost one-to-one, indicating a highly reliable method for estimating brain proportions.



"We used computed microtomography to scan the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crows-hold-grudges-for-up-to-17-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird</a> skulls. This allows us to digitally fill the brain cavity to get the brain's imprint, also called an endocast," explained Professor Vera Weisbecker from Flinders University.



The fact that endocasts so precisely reflect the shape of the brain means that scientists can now study the brains of rare and even extinct bird species without the need for preserved brain tissue. 



"This is excellent news because it allows us to gather insight into the neuroanatomy of elusive, rare, and even extinct species without ever even seeing their brains," said Weisbecker.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionizing-bird-brain-research">Revolutionizing bird brain research</h2>



The ability to create digital endocasts marks a significant shift in how scientists study bird brains. In the past, researchers had to pour liquid latex into a skull cavity, wait for it to harden, and then break the skull to retrieve the endocast. This process was destructive and often impractical for studying rare or fragile specimens.



"Using non-destructive scanning not only allows us to create endocasts from the rarest of birds, it also produces digital files of the skulls and endocasts that can be shared with scientists and the public," explained Weisbecker.



With these digital models, researchers can now conduct large-scale comparative studies, track evolutionary trends, and even explore how different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crows-count-out-loud-just-like-toddlers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird species</a> developed their unique cognitive abilities. 



The ability to share digital endocasts worldwide also means that scientists can collaborate more easily and work with data from species that might be difficult to access in person.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-bird-evolution">Implications for bird evolution</h2>



One of the most exciting aspects of this research is its potential to shed light on the evolution of bird intelligence. 



By studying the brain structures of different bird species, researchers can gain a better understanding of how certain cognitive traits developed over time.



University of Lethbridge Professor Andrew Iwaniuk, who co-led the study, admits he was surprised by how accurately the endocasts reflected brain structures. 



"While most of the telencephalon (outer part of the forebrain) is visible from the outer surface, a substantial portion of the cerebellum is obscured by this region," said Professor Iwaniuk.



"Given that the degree of obscurity can vary between species, I did not expect a strong correlation between endocast surface area and brain volume across all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bigger-bird-brains-grow-at-the-expense-of-the-parents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-bird-conservation">Implications for bird conservation</h2>



The study also has implications for conservation and research on endangered birds. Since many threatened species are difficult to study in the wild, being able to analyze skull structures from museum specimens could provide valuable insights into their cognitive abilities and behaviors.



Additionally, this research could offer clues about extinct species, including birds' closest prehistoric relatives: the dinosaurs. However, applying this method to dinosaurs remains uncertain. 



"For example, crocodiles are the closest living relatives of birds, but their brains look nothing like that of a bird - and their brains do not fill the braincase enough to be as informative," said Keirnan.



This suggests that while digital endocasts may help reconstruct the brains of extinct birds, they may not be as useful for studying dinosaur cognition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-avian-neuroscience">Future of avian neuroscience</h2>



This study marks a major step forward in avian neuroscience and evolutionary biology. By using advanced digital techniques, scientists can now explore the complexities of bird brains without relying on preserved brain tissue, opening up new possibilities for research.



As scanning technologies continue to improve, researchers may be able to refine their methods even further, potentially unlocking new insights into how birds process information, solve problems, and interact with their environments. 



The findings could also lead to a better understanding of the evolutionary pressures that shaped bird intelligence over millions of years.



Ultimately, this research demonstrates that birds are far more intelligent than the outdated stereotype of "bird brains" suggests. 



With new digital tools, scientists are now able to unlock the secrets hidden within bird skulls, providing a clearer picture of avian cognition and evolution.



As more species are studied, we may discover even more surprising connections between brain structure and intelligence in the animal kingdom.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2024.0596" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology Letters</a>.



Image Credit: CC-BY Aubrey Keirnan (skull) Andrew Iwaniuk (brain)



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"Bird brain" study gives remarkable new insights into avian intelligence

Understanding how birds think and process information has long been...

A mysterious item from the inner workings of a cow has sparked a worldwide scramble. Hardened lumps of bile known as cattle gallstones have become so valuable that criminal rings on multiple continents have begun hunting them down.



Some stones can command over twice the price of gold, sparking tales of nighttime thefts and elaborate smuggling schemes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-cattle-gallstones-are-suddenly-important">Why cattle gallstones are suddenly important</h2>



The fascination with gallstones centers on their use in <a href="https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/traditional-chinese-medicine-what-you-need-to-know" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chinese traditional medicine</a>, which is valued at around $60 billion annually, according to the World Health Organization (<a href="https://www.who.int/health-topics/traditional-complementary-and-integrative-medicine#tab=tab_1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WHO</a>).&nbsp;



<a href="https://africana.sdsu.edu/our-faculty/gomes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Daniela Gomes da Silva</a>, a researcher at <a href="https://www.international.unesp.br/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">São Paulo State University</a>, says the intensifying appetite for these stones has pushed some producers to consider strange ideas, such as trying to induce gallstones in their herds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-cattle-gallstones-the-basics">Understanding cattle gallstones - the basics</h2>



Cattle gallstones are solid formations that develop in the gallbladder of cows, although they’re not as common as in humans. They usually form when there's an imbalance in the substances that make up bile, much like in humans. 



However, in cattle, gallstones are typically made up of calcium salts like calcium carbonate or calcium phosphate instead of cholesterol, which is more common in humans. 



This difference stems from cattle’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-ai-can-help-reduce-methane-emissions-from-cows/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unique digestive systems</a>, which are designed to process large amounts of plant material. 



Their high-fiber diets and the way their bodies handle bile contribute to the formation of these calcium-based stones.



When cattle develop gallstones, they might not always show obvious signs at first. However, if the stones block the bile ducts, cows can experience discomfort, reduced appetite, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seaweed-supplements-reduce-methane-in-grazing-cattle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">digestive issues</a>. 



Farmers and veterinarians usually detect gallstones through ultrasound examinations or other imaging techniques if they suspect a problem. 



The fact that it's impossible to know if a cow has a gallstone without proper examination adds an entirely separate and sinister layer to this new global smuggling market.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-price-and-a-hidden-black-market">High price and a hidden black market</h2>



These rust-colored nuggets can fetch more than $5,800 an ounce - twice as much as gold - in certain markets.



They are often dried, powdered, and then combined with other materials to form traditional pills that some believe can help treat serious <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stem-cell-therapy-improves-brain-activity-after-stroke/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conditions like strokes</a>.



Because of the profits involved, a black market has developed. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-parrots-in-the-illegal-wildlife-trade-with-dna-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Smugglers</a> are known to transport stones in hidden compartments to avoid taxes and police, and some producers are wary of armed theft by those who want a shortcut to these lucrative byproducts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cattle-gallstones-and-stroke-recovery">Cattle gallstones and stroke recovery</h2>



The WHO <a href="https://www.emro.who.int/health-topics/stroke-cerebrovascular-accident/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reports</a> that strokes are the leading cause of death in China. Traditional remedies that include gallstone powder are often promoted as a way to provide extra time for stroke patients.



One <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6548905/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> from the <a href="https://www.hku.hk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Hong Kong</a> found evidence that certain ingredients in popular “<a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4281447/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Angong</a>” pills, which include cattle gallstone powder, may offer short-term protection for the brain in rats experiencing ischemic strokes. 



While these findings are still under investigation, this belief in gallstones’ protective qualities has added to their demand.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildlife-controversies">Wildlife controversies</h2>



“The rapid growth of the TCM industry over the last few decades has exacerbated the pressure on endangered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-conservation-day-2024-saving-species-from-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a> in Asia and beyond,” said the London-based <a href="https://eia-international.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Investigation Agency</a>. Some in the conservation community are concerned about the wider industry.&nbsp;



Although cattle gallstones themselves do not threaten wild species, the industry sometimes combines them with ingredients like rhino horn or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-pangolin-day-project-launched-to-save-the-elusive-mammal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pangolin scales</a> in certain remedies. That element has triggered alarm among groups working to curb illegal wildlife trafficking.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rising-demand-for-cattle-gallstones">Rising demand for cattle gallstones</h2>



Rising incomes and lifestyle changes in China have led to increased obesity, hypertension, and other conditions that are linked to <a href="https://www.heart.org/en/health-topics/consumer-healthcare/what-is-cardiovascular-disease" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cardiovascular diseas</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-century-of-progress-in-the-fight-against-cardiovascular-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">e</a>. 



As a result, gallstones, once discarded by slaughterhouses, have become prized commodities.



Because some black-market dealers try to dodge strict regulations, gallstone shipments have been hidden in everyday items to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-are-using-forensic-science-to-fight-wildlife-trafficking/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">avoid detection</a>.



Authorities have also encountered schemes where sugar or brick dust is injected or ground into the stones to inflate weight and boost profits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-farming-methods-may-help">Modern farming methods may help</h2>



As Brazil becomes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-paves-the-way-for-climate-conscious-farming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">more efficient</a> in producing beef, some farmers shorten the lifespan of their cattle with optimized feeding routines. 



Da Silva explains that younger herds may yield better meat and fewer gallstones because there is less time for these lumps to form.



The irony is that while certain ranchers see gallstones as valuable gold nuggets, modern techniques that improve farm production may unintentionally reduce the presence of these costly stones. 



Still, unscrupulous players look to exploit any opportunity to get their hands on the product, even resorting to theft in some regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lingering-mysteries">Lingering mysteries</h2>



Scientists have yet to determine the precise reasons some cattle develop gallstones. Da Silva notes that older animals with more time on pasture are more prone to this condition.



However, it remains unclear how diet, genetics, and stress might play a role. Rumors occasionally spread of stones the size of a football, but these stories are rarely supported by credible evidence.



Experts caution producers not to chase unrealistic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-elephant-day-2024-saving-the-gentle-giants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">legends</a>, warning that the gallstone frenzy can lead to costly risks, including robberies and legal troubles if regulations are ignored.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-regulations-needed">More regulations needed</h2>



Strict enforcement and improved oversight may push more of the market into legal channels. Some industry analysts believe that, if gallstones continue to command a price above that of gold, more players will be tempted to enter the trade, thus fueling both opportunities and criminal activities.



Meanwhile, many medical professionals maintain that though traditional solutions may offer support, they should be one facet of a well-rounded approach to healthcare.&nbsp;



Despite the high prices and dramatic tales of smuggling, many in Brazil’s farming regions remain content to focus on milk and meat production. For them, cattle gallstones are a novelty - albeit a very expensive one.



Details for this article came from <a href="https://www.wsj.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Wallstreet Journal.</a>



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Cattle gallstones, insanely valuable, are the new 'must-have' item in global smuggling rings

A mysterious item from the inner workings of a cow...

Complex organisms, thousands of times smaller than a grain of sand, have the power to shape entire ecosystems and influence the Earth's climate. 



A recent study by researchers from Arizona State University (ASU) and the National University of the Peruvian Amazon reveals the existence of an unknown family of microbes thriving in the waterlogged, low-oxygen peatlands of Peru’s northwestern Amazon rainforest.



These tiny organisms play a crucial role in the carbon cycle, with the ability to either stabilize carbon for long-term storage or release it into the atmosphere as greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide and methane.



The findings highlight the vital function of tropical peatlands as one of the world’s most significant carbon storage systems. The microbes within these ecosystems determine whether the peatlands remain vast carbon reservoirs or become sources of emissions that accelerate climate change. 



With human activity and climate shifts threatening their stability, the need to protect these delicate ecosystems has never been greater.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peatland-microbes-and-carbon-regulation">Peatland microbes and carbon regulation</h2>



Peatlands act as massive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-accelerating-beyond-control-as-co2-levels-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon</a> vaults, storing immense amounts of organic material that has accumulated over thousands of years. This process occurs because the waterlogged conditions slow down decomposition, allowing peat to build up over time. 



In the Amazonian peatlands, newly discovered microbes belonging to the ancient Bathyarchaeia group regulate this process by breaking down carbon compounds. Their metabolic flexibility allows them to survive in extreme environments, including oxygen-poor conditions.



These microbes perform a dual function. Under stable conditions, they help store carbon, keeping it locked away in the peat and reducing the risks associated with climate change. 



However, environmental shifts, such as drought and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-extremes-in-2024-what-have-we-learned/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rising temperatures</a>, can activate these microbes in ways that lead to increased greenhouse gas emissions. If peatlands dry out or are disturbed, these organisms accelerate the release of stored carbon into the atmosphere, contributing to global warming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fragile-balance-of-the-amazon-peatlands">Fragile balance of the Amazon peatlands</h2>



The microbes identified in the study are found in the&nbsp;Pastaza-Marañón Foreland Basin, one of the most extensive peatland regions in the northwestern Amazon rainforest of Peru. 



Spanning approximately&nbsp;100,000 square kilometers, this area contains vast stretches of flooded rainforest and swamps underlain by ancient peat. These peatlands store around&nbsp;3.1 billion tons of carbon, roughly double the carbon held in all the world’s forests combined.



Despite their immense importance, these peatlands face increasing threats from climate change and human activity. Shifts in rainfall patterns and rising temperatures can dry out the peat, changing the microbial activity and turning these carbon sinks into carbon sources. 



Deforestation, mining, and land-use changes further disrupt the natural equilibrium, accelerating the release of carbon dioxide and methane into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-microbes-in-amazon-peatland">Significance of microbes in Amazon peatland</h2>



"The microbial universe of the Amazon peatlands is vast in space and time, has been hidden by their remote locations, and has been severely under-studied in their local and global contributions," said Hinsby Cadillo Quiroz, corresponding author of the study and researcher at <a href="https://www.asu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ASU</a>’s Biodesign Swette Center for Environmental Biotechnology.



“Our work is finding incredible organisms adapted to this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-added-41-extra-days-of-dangerous-heat-in-2024/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environment</a>, and several of them provide unique and important services - from carbon stabilization or recycling to carbon monoxide detoxification and others."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-climate-connection">The climate connection</h2>



For centuries, tropical peatlands have functioned as reliable carbon sinks, absorbing more carbon than they release. However, they are now at risk of becoming net carbon emitters due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2024-confirmed-as-earths-hottest-year-in-recorded-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rising global temperatures</a> and changes in precipitation. 



When peatlands dry out, microbial activity shifts, leading to&nbsp;an increase in methane and carbon dioxide emissions. This process could drastically alter global carbon cycles and intensify climate change.



According to the study, continued human-caused disruptions could result in the release of 500 million tons of carbon by the end of the century - an amount equivalent to 5% of the world’s annual fossil fuel emissions. Such an outcome would significantly amplify global warming and accelerate environmental changes worldwide.



The researchers emphasize the urgent need for sustainable land management strategies to prevent these carbon-rich ecosystems from turning into major emission sources. Preventing deforestation, reducing drainage projects, and limiting mining activities in peatlands are crucial steps in preserving their role in climate regulation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbial-contributions-to-climate">Microbial contributions to climate</h2>



The discovery of these highly adaptable microbes provides new insights into how life persists in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/we-are-in-a-race-against-time-to-save-our-food-supply-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme environments</a> and how microorganisms influence global climate systems. 



These microbes consume carbon monoxide, a gas toxic to most life forms, and use it for energy, effectively reducing carbon toxicity in their surroundings. 



By breaking down organic carbon, the microbes generate hydrogen and carbon dioxide - which is then used by other microbes to produce methane. This interconnected microbial network plays a pivotal role in regulating the ecosystem’s overall carbon balance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-microbes-survive-in-amazon-peatland">How microbes survive in Amazon peatland</h2>



One of the most remarkable aspects of these microbes is their ability to survive in fluctuating oxygen levels. The Amazon rainforest undergoes seasonal shifts in water levels, creating an environment where oxygen availability changes throughout the year. 



These microbes have adapted to thrive under both oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor conditions, ensuring their survival in the dynamic Amazonian ecosystem.



However, as climate change alters rainfall patterns and human activities increase disturbances, the balance maintained by these microbes is at risk. 



Tracking shifts in temperature, precipitation, and ecosystem dynamics will be essential for predicting the future impact of microbial activity on climate stability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-path-forward-for-conservation">Path forward for conservation</h2>



As scientists uncover the microbial universe of Amazonian peatlands, they highlight the urgent need for conservation efforts. Protecting these ecosystems requires&nbsp;a combination of research, sustainable land management, and local engagement&nbsp;to ensure their long-term stability. 



The study demonstrates that the smallest organisms can have an outsized impact on global systems. When it comes to conservation, we must consider not only visible landscapes but also the microscopic life forms that sustain them.



This research, supported by the&nbsp;National Science Foundation, represents a significant step forward in understanding the crucial role of tropical peatlands in the global carbon cycle. As climate change continues to reshape our planet, the hidden ecosystems of the Amazon may hold key lessons for mitigating future environmental challenges.



Cadillo-Quiroz and his team plan to apply their findings to&nbsp;tropical peatland restoration. By deepening our understanding of microbial processes, they hope to develop strategies that enhance carbon sequestration and protect these vulnerable ecosystems from further degradation.



“Working to understand microbes and ecosystems in the lush and magnificent Amazon rainforest is the honor of my life, which I aim to use in the protection of this region in the fight against climate change,” said Cadillo-Quiroz.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/spectrum.00387-24" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microbiology Spectrum</a>.



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Tiny microbes in Amazon peatlands help balance the global climate

Complex organisms, thousands of times smaller than a grain of...

Artificial intelligence (AI) experts are abuzz about a new multimodal generative language model that may change how we think about proteins. 



Scientists have spent years searching for better ways to predict and design these tiny building blocks of life.



Yet, progress always felt like tiptoeing around a vast ocean. Now, a tool known as ESM3 has arrived. It is generating a fresh wave of excitement for anyone interested in uncovering uncharted protein varieties.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-esm3-and-protein-science">ESM3 and protein science</h2>



<a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.ads0018" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESM3</a> can learn from protein sequences, structural information, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-life-begins-egg-sperm-and-a-covert-team-of-proteins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">functional annotations</a> at the same time, which broadens what it can “understand.” Previous models mostly looked at sequences alone.



This more robust approach gave the <a href="https://github.com/evolutionaryscale/esm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">developers</a> a chance to encode intricate biological knowledge in a single model with an impressive 98 billion parameters. 



Thomas Hayes from <a href="https://forge.evolutionaryscale.ai/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EvolutionaryScale Forge</a> and colleagues used this model to produce a fluorescent protein with a genetic sequence that is far removed from anything seen before.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-leaping-through-time">Leaping through time</h2>



“We found a bright fluorescent protein at a far distance (58% sequence identity) from known fluorescent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/futuristic-food-supply-transforming-co2-into-protein/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">proteins</a>, which we estimate is equivalent to simulating five hundred million years of evolution,” said Thomas Hayes, who led the study.



This method explores sequence space far beyond the scope of typical lab experiments. While labs traditionally direct mutations step by step, ESM3 can jump to regions of protein space that look like they arose eons ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-analyzing-billions-of-proteins">AI analyzing billions of proteins</h2>



The training <a href="https://www.fpbase.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">data</a> for ESM3 is unusually large. Its developers compiled 771 billion unique tokens from around 3.15 billion protein sequences, 236 million three-dimensional structures, and 539 million annotated functions.



This variety helps the model see patterns that might otherwise remain hidden. It also offers a view of how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/junk-proteins-responsible-for-aging-cause-als/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">different proteins</a> fit together and carry out biological tasks.



This depth of insight has led to speculation that ESM3 may help us fill gaps in our knowledge of how proteins fold and what structural elements matter most.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-fluorescent-proteins-matter">Why fluorescent proteins matter</h2>



Fluorescent proteins light up under specific conditions, making them indispensable in microscopy and related imaging. They help scientists see inside cells and observe processes that used to be invisible.



Many labs rely on natural fluorescent proteins, often modified through traditional protein engineering. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chatgpts-carbon-footprint-is-astronomical-and-not-sustainable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI-driven methods</a> like ESM3 may speed up that work, offering faster alternatives for researchers who want to customize these proteins or discover entirely new ones.



Some investigators <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35348602/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predict</a> that such AI tools will be a boon for projects in which large, complex data sets are needed for rational protein design.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-designed-proteins-and-health">AI-designed proteins and health</h2>



The same reasoning that leads ESM3 to create an unexpected fluorescent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-genetic-mutation-has-given-rise-to-a-new-blood-group-mal-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">protein</a> can apply elsewhere. AI models can suggest ways to make enzymes more stable in challenging environments or build proteins that capture and break down pollutants.



Drugs might also be developed more quickly by zeroing in on promising protein targets. In many cases, success hinges on spotting crucial patterns across countless variations.



That is where a wide-training model like ESM3 stands out. Researchers say it is poised to <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/ar960017f" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">support</a> innovation in medicine and environmental technology.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-esm3-ai-new-way-to-program-proteins">ESM3 AI: New way to program proteins</h2>



ESM3’s release in public beta means any curious scientist can start to experiment with an API. There is also a browser-based interface that invites users to explore protein options without diving into code.



This broader access may spark unexpected collaborations. People working on renewable energy, biomedical devices, or synthetic biology might all find themselves using this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cracking-the-code-of-life-the-secret-language-of-dna/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI to craft proteins</a> that were never seen in nature.



Despite the excitement, experts remind us that real-world protein applications need careful validation. AI models like ESM3 may propose structures that look good on paper but require detailed lab checks.



Still, many researchers argue that these tools will save time and money, fueling experiments that push beyond the usual boundaries of what proteins can do. The high capacity of ESM3 and similar models suggests that this field will keep growing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



ESM3’s method of handling sequence, structure, and function as a unified puzzle has opened doors that were locked by the limitations of older technology. This is more than a clever trick.



It hints at future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-is-the-next-frontier-in-cancer-treatment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI-driven pipelines</a> where scientists quickly generate ideas for new proteins and test them with robotic labs. The approach points to a time when evolving proteins by design is as natural as editing text on a screen.



It may be a sign that we have only scratched the surface of what AI can accomplish in biology.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.ads0018" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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AI model creates new protein that simulates 500 million years of biological evolution

Artificial intelligence (AI) experts are abuzz about a new multimodal...

If you're already struggling with your 2025 resolutions, here's some reassuring news: it's not you, it's science. New research from the University of South Australia (UniSA) suggests that forming a healthy habit takes longer than most people expect.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-debunking-the-21-day-habit-myth">Debunking the 21-day habit myth</h2>



For years, a popular belief suggested that it only takes 21 days to form a habit. This idea has been widely circulated in self-help books and social media. 



However, <a href="https://www.unisa.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UniSA</a> researchers have now challenged this notion with a systematic review that is the first of its kind. The study shows that while new habits can begin forming within two months (typically between 59 and 66 days), they can take up to 335 days to become fully established.



Dr. Ben Singh, a researcher at UniSA, explained that adopting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-healthy-habits-can-reverse-your-biological-age/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">healthy habits</a> is a long and often difficult process. He stresses that the idea of forming a habit in just three weeks is not supported by scientific evidence.



“At the beginning of the year, many of us are setting goals and making plans for the months ahead - things like being more active, cutting back on sugar, or making healthier food choices - but while common wisdom suggests that it takes just 21 days to form such habits, these claims are not evidence-based,” noted Dr. Singh.



He emphasizes that habit formation is highly variable and can take anywhere from four days to nearly a year, depending on several factors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-forming-healthy-habits-matters">Why forming healthy habits matters</h2>



Chronic diseases remain one of the biggest health challenges in the world. Conditions such as type 2 diabetes, heart disease, lung diseases, and stroke contribute to a significant portion of the country’s disease burden.



Fortunately, many of these illnesses can be prevented by making <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/happiness-influences-online-shopping-habits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lifestyle changes</a>, such as improving diet, increasing physical activity, and quitting smoking.



Understanding how long it takes to form a new habit is crucial for designing effective health interventions. 



If people realize that habit formation is a long-term process rather than a quick fix, they may be less likely to abandon their efforts prematurely. This research can also help guide public health campaigns and individual strategies aimed at encouraging long-term behavior change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-factors-influencing-habit-formation">Factors influencing habit formation</h2>



The UniSA study, which examined over 2,600 participants, found that certain factors influence how successfully a new habit is formed. One of the most important elements is consistency. The more frequently a person engages in a new behavior, the more likely it is to become a habit.



Timing also plays a role. Dr. Singh notes that habits incorporated into morning routines are more likely to stick. The reason behind this is that morning routines tend to be more stable and predictable compared to other times of the day. 



If a person commits to an activity early in the day, they are less likely to be derailed by unexpected events or fatigue.



Enjoyment is another major factor. People are more likely to sustain a habit if they find it pleasurable or rewarding. For example, someone who enjoys swimming may find it easier to maintain a regular exercise habit than someone who forces themselves to run despite disliking it.



“Planning and intending to complete a new behaviour can also help solidify a new habit, so make sure you continue to make time to include your new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shopping-habits-have-remained-consistent-for-3500-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">healthy habits</a> into your everyday activities,” said Dr. Singh.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-of-forming-new-habits">Challenges of forming new habits</h2>



Many people give up on their resolutions because they expect immediate results. When they don’t see quick progress, they become discouraged and revert to old habits. This research highlights the importance of patience and persistence in habit formation.



Instead of focusing on short-term changes, individuals should view habit-building as a long-term investment in their health and well-being. If a habit doesn’t feel automatic after a few weeks, that doesn’t mean it’s a failure. It simply means that more time and repetition are needed.



It is also essential to be flexible and adaptable. If one approach doesn’t work, trying a different strategy can help. 



For example, if exercising in the morning feels unsustainable, shifting workouts to lunchtime or evening may be a better fit. The key is to find routines that are both enjoyable and practical.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-public-health-initiatives">Implications for public health initiatives</h2>



While more research is needed, these findings have significant implications for public health initiatives. Governments, healthcare providers, and wellness programs can use this knowledge to design interventions that promote long-term habit formation. 



Instead of promising quick results, they can emphasize the importance of gradual change and sustained effort.



Personalized programs that take individual differences into account can also be more effective. Since habit formation varies from person to person, interventions should be flexible enough to accommodate different lifestyles and preferences. 



By providing support and realistic timelines, these programs can help more people successfully adopt and maintain healthier behaviors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-staying-committed-to-your-goals">Staying committed to your goals</h2>



If you’re still working on your New Year’s resolutions, remember that forming a new habit takes time. Don’t be discouraged if you don’t see immediate results. Focus on consistency, enjoyment, and planning to increase your chances of success.



Dr. Singh’s research serves as a reminder that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/did-the-pandemic-change-our-transportation-habits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habit-building</a> is not about quick fixes but about long-term commitment. Whether you’re trying to eat healthier, exercise more, or break an unhealthy habit, persistence is key. 



The journey to better health is not a sprint - it’s a marathon. Stay the course, and over time, your new habits will become second nature.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9032/12/23/2488" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Healthcare</a>.



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Forming healthy habits takes much longer than 21 days

If you're already struggling with your 2025 resolutions, here's some...

Hand,Of,Robot,Touching,On,Big,Data,Network,Connection,,Science

Anyone who thinks booking a commercial flight is the only way to rack up carbon emissions should take a closer look at the monthly output of popular AI chatbots like ChatGPT. 



Recent data indicate that the emissions associated with these tools could raise eyebrows among those who care about shrinking our collective environmental footprint.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-carbon-footprint-of-chatgpt">High carbon footprint of ChatGPT</h2>



According to a study by <a href="https://www.knownhost.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">KnownHost</a>, the use of <a href="https://openai.com/index/chatgpt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ChatGPT</a> produces more than 260,930 kilograms (573,000 pounds of carbon dioxide (CO2) each month. That figure is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-shocking-reality-of-website-emissions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">linked to high traffic</a> from its more than 164 million monthly users.



Although it emits only 1.59 grams of CO2 per page view, that efficiency is offset by soaring popularity.&nbsp;



The study also points out that ChatGPT’s carbon impact is equivalent to 260 flights from New York City to London in the same timeframe, offering a stark reminder that digital services leave a mark on the environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chatgpt-isn-t-the-only-carbon-abuser">ChatGPT isn't the only carbon abuser</h2>



Other AI platforms show less total monthly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-carbon-sinks-are-being-pushed-to-their-limits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CO2</a>, but they emit more per individual pageview. Rytr’s output stands at 10.1 grams (0,35 ounces) CO2 per pageview, while Spellbook comes in at 6.5 grams (0.23 ounces) per pageview.



Even though their overall usage is smaller, the carbon cost per interaction is higher than ChatGPT’s. Some might see ChatGPT’s lower rate per pageview as a bright spot, but its heavy traffic means emissions still climb significantly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-data-centers-consume-massive-energy">Data centers consume massive energy</h2>



Data centers host these AI tools and, according to the 2024 United States Data Center Energy Usage <a href="https://eta-publications.lbl.gov/sites/default/files/2024-12/lbnl-2024-united-states-data-center-energy-usage-report.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Report</a> from Berkeley Lab, they consumed more than double the energy in 2023 than they did in 2017.&nbsp;



“Electricity consumption of US data centers is currently growing at an accelerating rate,” stated the authors of the report. These massive facilities keep servers cool and operational around the clock, leading to constant energy draw.



The International Energy Agency’s Electricity 2024 <a href="https://www.iea.org/reports/electricity-2024" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">report</a> notes that newer technologies - like advanced AI and cryptocurrency - could double energy use by next year. One-third of that rise is expected to be traced back to data centers.



This trend reveals how widespread digital services can become major contributors to global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-accelerating-beyond-control-as-co2-levels-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">energy consumption</a>.



“As innovation continues into 2025, balancing environmental sustainability will need to become a core focus for tech companies and the users of their tools alike,” said Daniel Pearson, CEO of KnownHost. The statement suggests a need for shared responsibility.



Developers can shift toward greener solutions, and users may opt for options that cut power use.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-governments-push-for-greener-ai">Governments push for greener AI</h2>



The Biden administration has responded with an executive order that addresses the future of AI and data centers. It urges the transition to cleaner power, given that a third of the world’s data centers are in the United States.



The announcement coincides with news of the <a href="https://openai.com/index/announcing-the-stargate-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stargate AI project</a>, a $500 billion data center initiative led by OpenAI in partnership with Oracle and SoftBank, which President Trump described as “a resounding declaration of confidence in America’s potential.” 



However, the project has sparked a feud between Elon Musk, a Trump advisor, and OpenAI CEO Sam Altman over the transparency and feasibility of the investment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cutting-ai-carbon-emissions">Cutting AI carbon emissions</h2>



Some AI tools already push down their energy load by optimizing code and trimming unnecessary processes. Meanwhile, data centers explore better cooling methods, such as liquid cooling and more efficient airflow designs, to cut overall energy consumption.



Renewables like solar or wind power also help lower fossil fuel reliance. Tech companies that concentrate on reducing emissions in hardware and software may find themselves at a competitive advantage, especially as the public eye shifts to climate impact.



AI applications are here to stay, and so is the energy they consume. While ChatGPT’s popularity puts it in the spotlight, other AI tools also contribute to rising energy demands.



Striking a balance between progress and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/met-office-2024-co2-levels-will-surpass-the-point-of-no-return/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustainability</a> will require a combined effort from developers, policymakers, and everyday users. Improving efficiency not only benefits the planet but also ensures that these digital services stay reliable.



The study was published by <a href="https://www.knownhost.com/blog/carbon-footprint-of-ai-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">KnownHost</a>.



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ChatGPT's carbon footprint is astronomical and not sustainable

Anyone who thinks booking a commercial flight is the only...

Biodiversity is at the heart of our planet's resilience, yet as the world grapples with climate change and seeks effective strategies to reduce carbon emissions, the journey toward environmental sustainability proves to be more complex than it seems. 



While planting forests and harnessing biofuels are key elements of this global remediation effort, a new study suggests that these well-intentioned actions may come with unintended consequences for the very ecosystems they aim to protect.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-mitigation-versus-biodiversity-loss">Climate mitigation versus biodiversity loss</h2>



The delicate balance between mitigating climate change and preserving biodiversity demands a more nuanced approach to ensure long-term ecological harmony.



The research was conducted by an international team of experts, including Evelyn Beaury, assistant cursor at the New York Botanical Garden (<a href="https://www.nybg.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NYBG</a>).



In their report, the researchers present compelling data on the potential impact of large-scale, plant-based strategies, or land-based mitigation strategies (LBMS).



"As efforts to address <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cities-are-largely-unprepared-for-the-effects-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> accelerate, it is urgent to ensure that in deploying LBMS we do not inadvertently imperil biodiversity," noted the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-effects-of-climate-mitigation-strategies">Complex effects of climate mitigation strategies</h2>



Plant-based strategies have become a staple in numerous net-zero emissions plans, spanning millions of acres across the globe. Common strategies include <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/success-story-reforestation-has-helped-keep-the-eastern-us-relatively-cool/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reforestation</a>, afforestation, and bioenergy cropping.



While the potential of these strategies in combating climate change is undeniable, their effects on biodiversity have been complex, multi-faceted, and hard to predict. This latest research represents a breakthrough in the understanding of these impacts.



Led by a team from Princeton University's <a href="https://environment.princeton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">High Meadows Environmental Institute</a>, the study has unraveled the potential biodiversity implications of land-based climate change mitigation efforts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unanticipated-impacts-on-animal-species">Unanticipated impacts on animal species</h2>



The researchers modeled the impacts of the three mitigation strategies on more than 14,000 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-report-highlights-urgent-need-to-protect-migratory-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal species</a> globally. The species ranged in size from animals smaller than a mouse to those larger than a moose.



The findings highlight the complexities and potential pitfalls in using plant-based mitigation strategies to meet climate targets.



"Plant-based mitigation strategies do not have the same effect on the climate or on biodiversity everywhere they are deployed. Our research suggests that we cannot assume plant-based solutions always indirectly reduce the biodiversity crisis," noted Dr. Beaury.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biodiversity-challenges-in-climate-efforts">Biodiversity challenges in climate efforts</h2>



While reforestation has proven to be a beneficial strategy that enhances local habitats and contributes to climate mitigation, the study’s findings on afforestation and bioenergy cropping paint a more concerning picture.



Transforming natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-are-the-scariest-predators-in-the-african-savannah/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">savannahs</a> and grasslands into forests, as well as replacing biodiverse meadows with bioenergy crops, may offer climate benefits but come at a significant cost. 



The researchers found that these efforts lead to immediate habitat loss - negatively impacting a wide range of species from grouse to elk, and even iconic species like ostriches and lions.



The study revealed that the loss of habitat from afforestation and bioenergy plantations would far outweigh their potential contribution to mitigating climate change.



"Reforestation is an obvious ‘win-win’ for biodiversity," said Dr. Beaury, an ecologist and biogeographer specializing in invasive plants. "Restoring lost forests provides habitat while also reducing the impacts of climate change."



This pivotal study offers critical insights that can guide policymakers, conservationists, and the global community in making informed decisions. 



As efforts to create a greener planet accelerate, it becomes evident that these initiatives must be carefully balanced to preserve the richness and diversity of our natural world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-striking-a-balance-for-the-future">Striking a balance for the future</h2>



The findings of this study highlight the urgent need for a balanced approach to climate mitigation - one that integrates both climate action and biodiversity conservation.



Policymakers and conservationists must work together and design strategies, taking into consideration ecological complexities so that unintended consequences are avoided.



Adaptive land management, regional assessments, and stakeholder engagement could be critical elements in ensuring that mitigation efforts lead to long-term sustainability without threatening <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/springs-are-crucial-habitats-that-are-overlooked-in-conservation-efforts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">critical habitats</a>.



This calls for a holistic approach that recognizes the connectivity of ecosystem and climate solutions.



In other words, by emphasizing the combination of restoration strategies that are tailored to specific landscapes and ecological needs, humans can achieve climate targets while protecting the intricate web of life that sustains the planet.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adm9485" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Climate mitigation strategies may be endangering biodiversity

Biodiversity is at the heart of our planet's resilience, yet...

Across cosmic history, powerful forces have shaped matter into the intricate structures that define the universe. From the earliest moments after the Big Bang to the present-day cosmic web, the distribution of galaxies, clusters, and filaments has evolved in ways largely consistent with Einstein’s theory of gravity. 



However, new research suggests that the universe's large-scale structure has developed in an unexpected way - becoming "messier and more complicated" over time.



Led by Joshua Kim and Mathew Madhavacheril from the University of Pennsylvania, along with collaborators from Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, the study reveals that the distribution of matter in the cosmos is less clumpy than expected.



The findings add a new layer of complexity to our understanding of how the universe has grown over the past 13.8 billion years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-cosmic-history">Studying cosmic history</h2>



To probe the structure of the universe across time, the research team combined two powerful datasets: the final data release from the Atacama Cosmology Telescope (<a href="https://act.princeton.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACT</a>) and the first-year results from the Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument (<a href="https://www.desi.lbl.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DESI</a>). 



By merging these complementary sources, they created a unique, multidimensional view of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mapping-the-universe-may-reveal-secrets-of-dark-energy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic evolution</a>.



“Our work cross-correlated two types of datasets from complementary, but very distinct, surveys. What we found was that, for the most part, the story of structure formation is remarkably consistent with the predictions from Einstein's gravity,” explained Madhavacheril.



“We did see a hint for a small discrepancy in the amount of expected clumpiness in recent epochs, around four billion years ago, which could be interesting to pursue.”



By integrating these two sources of data, the team effectively layered snapshots of the universe taken at different epochs, much like stacking transparencies of ancient cosmic photographs over more recent ones. 



This method allowed them to observe changes in the distribution of matter over billions of years, revealing surprising new details about the way <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-dark-matter-does-not-exist-and-the-universe-is-27-billion-years-old/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic structures</a> have formed and evolved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-picture-of-the-universe-in-its-infancy">A picture of the universe in its infancy </h2>



One of the key components of this research relies on ACT’s data, which provides a glimpse into the early universe through a faint remnant of the Big Bang known as the Cosmic Microwave Background (<a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Cosmic_Microwave_Background_CMB_radiation#:~:text=The%20Cosmic%20Microwave%20Background%20(CMB,shockwave'%20of%20the%20Big%20Bang." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CMB</a>). 



This radiation, which has been traveling through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dead-stars-reveal-the-hidden-physics-of-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space</a> for nearly 14 billion years, offers an unparalleled view of the universe when it was just 380,000 years old.



“ACT, covering approximately 23% of the sky, paints a picture of the universe's infancy by using a distant, faint light that's been traveling since the Big Bang,” said Kim.



“Formally, this light is called the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB), but we sometimes just call it the universe's baby picture because it's a snapshot of when it was around 380,000 years old.”



The journey of this ancient light has not been a straight one. As it traveled through space, the CMB was distorted by the gravitational pull of massive cosmic structures such as galaxy clusters. 



This phenomenon, known as gravitational lensing, alters the path of the CMB photons in much the same way that a pair of spectacles distorts the view of an image. 



By analyzing these distortions, cosmologists can infer valuable information about the large-scale structure of the universe, including how matter is distributed across cosmic time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-the-universe-s-structure-with-galaxies">Tracing the universe's structure with galaxies</h2>



While ACT provides insight into the early universe, DESI offers a more recent perspective by mapping the three-dimensional distribution of galaxies across vast stretches of space. 



Located at the <a href="https://kpno.noirlab.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kitt Peak National Observatory</a> in Arizona and operated by <a href="https://www.lbl.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory</a>, DESI is specifically designed to study the arrangement of luminous red galaxies (LRGs), which serve as cosmic landmarks.



“The LRGs from DESI are like a more recent picture of the universe, showing us how galaxies are distributed at varying distances. It’s a powerful way to see how structures have evolved from the CMB map to where galaxies stand today,” explained Kim.



By mapping the positions of millions of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unknown-factors-are-accelerating-the-expansion-of-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a>, DESI provides a precise record of how matter has spread out over the past several billion years.



When combined with the lensing data from ACT, this creates an unprecedented overlap between early and late-universe observations, allowing researchers to directly compare how structures have changed over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmic-ct-scan-of-the-universe">Cosmic CT scan of the universe</h2>



One of the most exciting aspects of this research is its ability to function like a&nbsp;cosmic CT scan, providing a layered view of the universe’s structure at different points in time. 



By examining the way matter has clumped together across cosmic history, the team was able to track the influence of gravity over billions of years.



“This process is like a cosmic CT scan, where we can look through different slices of cosmic history and track how matter clumped together at different epochs. It gives us a direct look into how the gravitational influence of matter changed over billions of years,” said Madhavacheril.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clumpiness-of-the-universe-s-structure">Clumpiness of the universe's structure</h2>



Despite overall agreement with established models, the researchers identified a small but notable discrepancy. The expected level of clumpiness, a measure of how matter is distributed in the universe, appears to be slightly lower than predicted in the later epochs of cosmic history.



This discrepancy is captured by a key metric known as&nbsp;Sigma 8 (σ8), which quantifies the amplitude of matter density fluctuations. A lower-than-expected value of σ8 suggests that cosmic structures may not have formed in complete accordance with early-universe predictions.



“This slight disagreement with expectations isn’t strong enough to suggest new physics conclusively - it’s still possible that this deviation is purely by chance,” said Kim.



However, if this deviation turns out to be real and not a statistical anomaly, it could point to unknown physical processes influencing the way <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-energy-could-explain-the-rapid-expansion-of-the-early-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic structures</a> form and evolve. 



One leading hypothesis is that&nbsp;dark energy, the mysterious force responsible for the accelerating expansion of the universe, may be affecting structure formation in ways that current models do not fully capture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-toward-the-future">Looking toward the future</h2>



While this research from the <a href="https://www.upenn.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Pennsylvania</a> raises new questions about cosmic evolution, upcoming projects promise to refine these measurements with even greater precision. 



The&nbsp;<a href="https://simonsobservatory.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Simons Observatory</a>, a next-generation telescope currently under development, will provide more detailed observations of the CMB and its lensing effects, helping scientists determine whether the observed discrepancy is real or simply a fluctuation within expected parameters.



By combining increasingly powerful observational tools with sophisticated theoretical models, researchers hope to gain a deeper understanding of how the universe’s large-scale structure has developed over billions of years. 



Whether this study ultimately confirms existing models or points toward new physics, it represents an important step toward unraveling the mysteries of the cosmos.



As scientists continue to push the boundaries of our understanding, one thing remains clear - the story of the universe’s evolution is far from over. Each new discovery brings us closer to answering some of the biggest questions in cosmology, revealing the intricate and ever-changing nature of the cosmos.



The study is published in the&nbsp;<a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1475-7516/2024/12/022" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics (JCAP)</a>&nbsp;and on the preprint server&nbsp;<a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2407.04607" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arXiv</a>.



Image Credit: Unsplash/CC0 Public Domain



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Powerful forces have made the structure of the universe very "messy"

Across cosmic history, powerful forces have shaped matter into the...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



—–



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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