Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

The gas that shields us from ultraviolet radiation is also a heat trapper. That tension sits at the heart of a new analysis that recalculates how much extra warming will come from changes in ozone over the next quarter century.



The headline result is stark, but the mechanics matter even more. The research was led by Professor Bill Collins at the <a href="https://www.reading.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Reading</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ozone-recovery-and-pollution">Ozone recovery and pollution</h2>



A multi-model study shows that without strong air pollution controls, ozone will add 0.268 ± 0.084 W/m² of extra heating between 2015 and 2050. This makes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-ozone-layer-is-healing-will-the-hole-disappear-for-good/">ozone</a> the second-largest driver of near-term warming after carbon dioxide.



The team separated two drivers that push ozone upward. One is recovery of the high altitude layer as ozone depleting chemicals keep declining. 



The other is the build up of ozone near and above the surface, fed by ozone <a href="https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/sites/default/files/2022-12/Ozone_Precursors.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">precursor</a> emissions such as methane and nitrogen oxides from industry, traffic, and agriculture.



Across seven state of the art Earth system and chemistry models, the signal was consistent. Roughly half of the added warming came from stratospheric recovery and half from tropospheric increases.



Those values exceed earlier estimates used by policymakers for the same scenario. The gap arises from the methods used to diagnose forcing and from how clouds, water vapor, and surface reflectivity respond to ozone changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-healing-ozone-also-traps-heat">Healing ozone also traps heat</h2>



Ozone acts as a greenhouse gas by absorbing infrared <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ozone-pollution-threatens-tree-survival-across-western-u-s/">radiation</a>, particularly near 9.6 micrometers. Higher concentrations in the upper atmosphere trap more outgoing heat, but increases closer to the surface have an even stronger effect because the air there is denser and warmer.



The Montreal <a href="https://ozone.unep.org/treaties/montreal-protocol" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Protocol</a> phased out Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), saving the protective layer and cutting dangerous ultraviolet exposure, yet its success has a climate side effect because a thicker ozone layer also holds more heat.



“Countries are doing the right thing by continuing to ban chemicals called CFCs and HCFCs that damage the ozone layer above Earth. However, while this helps repair the protective ozone layer, we have found that this recovery in ozone will warm the planet more than we originally thought,” said Professor Collins.



The study’s message is not to second guess the treaty. It is to count this unavoidable warming correctly while accelerating cuts to the pollutants that create ozone in the lower atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollution-today-warming-tomorrow">Pollution today, warming tomorrow</h2>



Near the ground, the <a href="https://scied.ucar.edu/learning-zone/atmosphere/troposphere" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">troposphere</a> is where we live and where familiar emissions cook up ozone under sunlight. Those reactive gases are short lived, so trimming them yields benefits within years, and it eases a public health burden that hits lungs, hearts, and crops.



Ground level ozone raises risks of coughing, worsened asthma, and reduced lung function, according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (<a href="https://www.epa.gov/ground-level-ozone-pollution/health-effects-ozone-pollution" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EPA</a>).



“Air pollution from vehicles, factories and power plants also creates ozone near the ground, causing health problems and warming the planet,” said Professor Collins.



Because ozone links air quality and climate, steps that reduce methane, nitrogen oxides, and volatile organic compounds can cool the climate while cleaning the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-heat-cleaner-air-the-surprising-ozone-connection/">air</a>. The dual payoff is large in cities and rapidly industrializing regions where ozone chemistry is most active.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-metrics-change-warming-numbers">Metrics change warming numbers</h2>



Climate science uses radiative forcing to tally how different agents change Earth’s energy budget. The effective radiative forcing (ERF) for ozone since 1750 is assessed at 0.47 [0.24 to 0.71] W/m², reflecting historical increases in tropospheric ozone as well as stratospheric changes.



ERF is powerful here because it includes fast adjustments in clouds, water vapor, and surface reflectivity that kick in when ozone changes, while leaving out the slower response of surface temperature. That makes ERF more representative of the actual climate push than methods that ignore these rapid adjustments.



By contrast, stratospheric temperature adjusted radiative forcing (SARF) accounts for the quick cooling or warming of the stratosphere but not other rapid adjustments. 



The new analysis shows that for ozone changes driven by declining ozone depleting substances, ERF is roughly double SARF, meaning older approaches can undercount the climate push from the healing layer.



This metric choice is not a technical footnote. It influences how we attribute warming to different pollutants, how we design near term mitigation, and how we set expectations for temperature outcomes by mid century.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ozone-recovery-needs-pollution-cuts">Ozone recovery needs pollution cuts</h2>



According to a <a href="https://csl.noaa.gov/assessments/ozone/2022/executivesummary/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NOAA report</a>, stratospheric ozone will continue to recover for decades, meaning the associated warming is effectively locked in regardless of air quality policies on the ground.



That does not weaken the case for the Montreal Protocol’s success or its health protections. It simply means climate planners should pencil a larger ozone line into their near-term forcing budgets and not assume a free climate bonus from the treaty’s chemical ban.



Where we do have leverage is on precursors. Cutting methane curbs a major source of global background <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rocket-launches-threaten-earths-ozone-recovery/">ozone</a> and reduces warming on short time scales. 



Tightening controls on nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds lowers urban and regional ozone peaks, improving health while shaving future climate forcing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ozone-recovery-speeds-up-warming">Ozone recovery speeds up warming</h2>



Ozone’s protective shield is on the mend, and that is non-negotiable for human and ecosystem health. 



At the same time, the climate system will feel extra heat from both the healing layer above and the pollution made ozone below, and counting it correctly helps us choose smarter levers.



Practical steps include updating inventories with ERF-based ozone data, accelerating cuts to methane and ozone precursors, and upholding the Montreal Protocol. These measures protect health gains while aligning energy and air quality policy with the physics that truly drives warming.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://acp.copernicus.org/articles/25/9031/2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics</a>.



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Ozone recovery will amplify near-term global warming

The gas that shields us from ultraviolet radiation is also...

When we picture Earth’s ancient landscapes, it’s easy to imagine vast braided rivers sprawling across barren land. For decades, geologists believed this was the norm until plant life colonized land about half a billion years ago. 



Vegetation, experts argued, gave <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-river-systems-suggest-that-mars-was-much-wetter-than-previously-believed/">rivers</a> the stability needed to curve gracefully into meandering paths. A new study from <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford University</a> now turns this long-held assumption on its head.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-origins-of-meandering-rivers">Origins of meandering rivers</h2>



The research shows that unvegetated meandering rivers can leave behind deposits that closely resemble those of braided rivers. This finding suggests that geologists may have misread the rock record, leading to the conclusion that braided <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-about-earths-bending-rivers-could-help-us-find-water-on-other-planets/">rivers</a> dominated most of Earth’s first 4 billion years.



“With our study, we’re pushing back on the widely accepted story of what landscapes looked like when plant life first evolved on land,” said lead author Michael Hasson, a PhD student at the <a href="https://sustainability.stanford.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford Doerr School of Sustainability</a>. 



“We’re rewriting the story of the intertwined relationship between plants and rivers, which is a significant revision to our understanding of the history of the Earth.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-floodplains">The role of floodplains</h2>



Meandering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-arabia-was-once-green-and-lush-with-rivers-lakes-and-grasslands/">rivers</a> create floodplains, which are among the most abundant non-marine carbon stores on the planet. Overflows deposit mud and organic matter, locking carbon into the land for thousands of years. 



These natural reservoirs influence atmospheric carbon dioxide, Earth’s thermostat. A better grasp of their history could refine models of climate, both ancient and future.



“Floodplains play an important role in determining how, when, and whether carbon is buried or released back into the atmosphere,” Hasson said. 



“Based on this work, we argue carbon storage in floodplains would have been common for much longer than the classic paradigm that assumes meandering rivers only occurred over the last several hundred million years.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-modern-rivers">Tracking modern rivers</h2>



To test their idea, the team analyzed satellite imagery of about 4,500 bends in 49 present-day meandering rivers. Roughly half lacked vegetation, while the rest were vegetated to varying degrees. 



The researchers focused on point bars, sandy features that form along inside bends. Unlike braided rivers’ mid-channel bars, point bars migrate laterally, driving meandering forms over time.



Geologists have long tracked these sandy structures in ancient rocks to reconstruct river paths. If the bars seemed to shift downstream, the conclusion was a braided system. This method led to the assumption that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-are-releasing-a-massive-amount-of-carbon-dioxide-into-the-air/">rivers</a> transformed when plants first evolved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-old-geology-lessons-were-mistaken">Old geology lessons were mistaken</h2>



“In our paper, we show that this conclusion - which is taught in all geology curricula to this day - is most likely incorrect,” said study senior author Mathieu Lapôtre, assistant professor at the Doerr School of Sustainability.



The team found that without vegetation, point bars often drift downstream, mimicking braided behavior. Using standard geological techniques on such rivers today would misclassify them as braided.



“In other words, we show that, if one were to use the same criterion geologists use in ancient rocks on modern rivers, meandering rivers would be miscategorized as braided rivers,” Lapôtre said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meandering-rivers-shaped-climate">Meandering rivers shaped climate</h2>



The implications are sweeping. If meandering rivers, with their carbon-rich floodplains, existed long before plants, then Earth’s carbon cycle operated differently than once thought. 



This insight could reshape models of ancient climate shifts and sharpen predictions about current climate change.



“Understanding how our planet is going to respond to human-induced climate change hinges on having an accurate baseline for how it has responded to past perturbations,” Hasson said. “The rock record provides that baseline, but it’s only useful if we interpret it accurately.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revising-earth-s-story">Revising Earth’s story</h2>



The study suggests that carbon cycling tied to river style has been misunderstood. By correcting this, scientists can gain clearer insight into both the deep past and the uncertain future.



“We’re suggesting that an important control on carbon cycling - where carbon is stored, and for how long, due to river type and floodplain creation - hasn’t been fully understood,” Hasson said. “Our study now points the way to better assessments.”



Researchers from the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.unipd.it/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Padova</a>&nbsp;and the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ubc.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of British Columbia</a>&nbsp;also contributed to the study.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adv4939" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Meandering rivers shaped early landscapes before plants arrived

When we picture Earth’s ancient landscapes, it’s easy to imagine...

Honey bees are at the heart of global food systems. Their tireless pollination supports crops, ecosystems, and economies. Habitat loss, pesticide exposure, climate extremes, and poor nutrition have threatened their survival in recent decades. 



Beekeepers worldwide have reported unsustainable losses, raising alarms about the stability of food production. To address this crisis, experts are working on solutions that go beyond traditional hive management. 



Scientists have now introduced a remarkable food source that can sustain honey bee <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-honey-bee-day-2025-why-pollinators-matter/">colonies</a> indefinitely, even without natural pollen.



The research comes from&nbsp;Washington State University (<a href="https://wsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WSU</a>) and&nbsp;<a href="https://apixbiosciences.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">APIX Biosciences NV</a>&nbsp;in Belgium. The trials showed that nutritionally stressed colonies thrived on this specially designed diet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-for-bees-on-the-brink">Food for bees on the brink</h2>



The innovation mirrors the artificial diets long used for livestock and pets. It provides honey bees with every essential nutrient, potentially offering a critical strategy against rising colony collapse. 



This advancement will strengthen global food security, since bees serve as vital pollinators for agriculture.



The new food resembles human “power bars.” These nutrient-rich bars are placed inside hives, where young bees process and distribute them to larvae and adults. 



This directly addresses the growing issue of poor nutrition that has long plagued honey bee survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-need-better-healthier-food">Bees need better, healthier food</h2>



Changes in land use, urban expansion, and extreme weather all negatively impact nutrition for honey bees and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heat-and-pollution-are-changing-the-buzz-of-bees/">pollinators</a>.



Study co-author Brandon Hopkin is a P.F. Thurber Endowed Distinguished Professor of pollinator ecology at WSU.



"Honey bees are generalists and do not get all their nutrition from a single source," said Hopkin. "They need variety in their diet to survive but find it increasingly difficult to find the continuous supply of pollen they need to sustain the colony."



Patrick Pilkington, CEO of APIX Biosciences US, emphasized the uniqueness of this breakthrough. "Until this study, honey bees were the only livestock that could not be maintained on a (human-made) feed," he said.



Trials showed that colonies under nutritional stress fared much better on the new diet compared to current feeding practices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-a-better-bee-diet">Building a better bee diet</h2>



The project took over a decade of research and global collaboration.&nbsp;Thierry Bogaert is the study's lead author and chairman of APIX Biosciences.



"The newly published work is the result of a Herculean scientific effort of three teams," Bogaert enthused. 



"First, the founders and scientists of APIX Biosciences who tested thousands of combinations of ingredients on honey bees over more than 10 years to create this feed," Bogart continued.



"Second, the WSU team, with leading honey bee and field expertise. And third, leading beekeepers in California, together with extension teams, made large-scale, science-based field testing of feeds possible."



A major finding during the research was the discovery of isofucosterol, a nutrient found naturally in pollen. This molecule proved critical for bee <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-bees-arrive-late-flowers-may-vanish/#google_vignette">survival</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-missing-piece-in-bee-diets">Missing piece in bee diets</h2>



The study revealed that not all sterols in pollen play the same role for bees. For decades, 24-methylenecholesterol was considered the most critical sterol, but experiments showed that colonies could survive without it, though with some decline in brood production. 



In contrast, removing isofucosterol had severe effects, including reduced brood growth and neuromuscular dysfunction.



Isofucosterol depletion caused bees to move sluggishly and exhibit impaired coordination, reducing their ability to forage and care for brood. Colonies missing this nutrient collapsed, proving it to be an essential sterol. 



The researchers suggest that the nutrient's importance may stem from how it influences cell membranes and nerve functions. 



Unlike other sterols, bees appear to conserve isofucosterol more carefully, suggesting an evolutionary mechanism to retain it for vital processes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trials-show-colonies-rebound">Trials show colonies rebound</h2>



To confirm real-world effectiveness, the WSU team tested the diet with colonies in blueberry and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sunflower-family-tree-explains-evolution-of-flower-symmetry/">sunflower</a> fields. These environments are known to have poor pollen quality and typically stress colonies.



The study showed that colonies receiving the complete diet maintained higher survival and growth, while those on commercial substitutes or no feed declined sharply.



Interestingly, colonies on the new diet also displayed feed efficiency similar to natural pollen. For every capped brood cell produced, the bees consumed almost the same diet mass they would have with pollen. 



This finding highlights that the artificial feed can truly substitute pollen, not just supplement it.



"Some beekeepers don't pollinate blueberries anymore because colonies suffer or die and the pollination fees don't cover the losses," Hopkins explained. 



"<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/disease-attacking-blueberry-plants-is-spreading-around-the-world/">Blueberry</a> pollen isn't very nutritious for honey bees, and they aren't adapted well to pollinating that crop. But if they have this supplemental food source, beekeepers may return to pollinating those fields since they know their bees are more likely to survive."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-bees-securing-food">Saving bees, securing food</h2>



Annual colony losses remain alarmingly high, highlighting the urgency of this breakthrough. The study demonstrated that colonies given the complete diet remained strong from spring through autumn, even during periods of transport, high-density storage, and natural pollen scarcity. 



These larger, healthier colonies are better prepared for overwintering, a key predictor of survival in temperate climates.



"We are confident that the product will positively impact <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smart-sensors-help-beekeepers-monitor-hive-health/">beekeepers</a> and growers once it's available to purchase in the U.S., targeted for mid-2026," Pilkington said. 



"We are working with WSU and the beekeeping community across the U.S. to develop the best way to make use of this new tool in agricultural settings."



By addressing nutritional gaps, this innovation could reshape pollination practices, reduce losses, and strengthen the&nbsp;food systems&nbsp;that depend on honey bees.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.3078" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</a>.



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Scientists create pollen-replacing superfood for honey bees, hoping to prevent extinction

Honey bees are at the heart of global food systems....

For decades, biologists thought isolation on islands nudged animals toward smaller bodies, tamer behavior, and shrunken brains - an energy-saving suite dubbed “island syndrome.” 



However, a new study of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/channel-island-foxes-threatened-by-low-genetic-diversity/">Channel Islands foxes</a> complicates that picture. Most of these cat-sized predators evolved relatively larger brains than their mainland gray fox cousins, suggesting that cognitive demands - more than isolation itself - can drive brain size.



The work, led by researchers at the <a href="https://dornsife.usc.edu/">USC Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences</a>, argues that brain evolution on islands is shaped by the pressures of survival on the ground.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fox-brains-break-the-mold">Fox brains break the mold</h2>



Lead author Kimberly Schoenberger argued that the results overturn a long-held assumption.



“It was most surprising to discover that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-how-darwins-giant-daisies-spread-into-distinct-niches/">island syndrome</a> isn’t one-size-fits-all," said Schoenberger. "When we looked at carnivores like Channel Island foxes, the pattern of smaller brains didn’t hold.”



That departure matters because most previous brain-size studies focused on island <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-biodiversity-benefits-from-large-herbivores-like-elephants-and-moose/">herbivores</a> - animals that face different challenges than hunters and omnivores. 



By spotlighting a small carnivore, the team shows that the “rules” of island evolution can fracture along ecological lines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-six-islands-one-natural-experiment"><a></a>Six islands, one natural experiment</h2>



The Channel Islands - an eight-island chain off Southern California - provide a rare, replicated testbed. Six islands host endemic fox subspecies. 



The researchers compared those island foxes to mainland gray foxes, their closest living relatives and probable ancestors, and also contrasted the island subspecies with one another.



If isolation or island area alone drove brain shrinkage, the team would expect a simple pattern. Instead, they found that brain-to-body ratios lined up more closely with local habitat demands than with geography.



On five islands - Santa Cruz, Santa Rosa, Santa Catalina, San Clemente, and San Miguel - the foxes had relatively larger brains despite their smaller bodies.



Those <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electrical-synapses-are-key-to-decision-making-in-animal-brains/">brains</a> showed deeper folds and ridges in regions tied to motor control and spatial processing. Such traits help the animals navigate rugged terrain, remember scattered resources, and compete for scarce shelter.



On two of those islands, foxes share space with rivals like the spotted skunk, raising the bar for fast decisions and agile movement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brains-shrink-when-survival-is-simple">Brains shrink when survival is simple</h2>



San Nicolas, the most remote and resource-limited island in the study, told the opposite story. There, foxes had smaller relative brains. With few <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-chaos-caused-a-mass-extinction-of-top-marine-predators/">predators</a>, low biodiversity, and a thin menu of foods, the researchers inferred that the foxes faced fewer cognitive demands.



Under those constraints, conserving energy for the basics - staying warm, finding enough calories - may have outweighed the payoff of maintaining larger brain tissue.



“The Channel Island foxes show that brain size reduction is not a universal feature of island life,” Schoenberger said. “It depends on the pressures each species faces.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-fox-minds-from-bones">Measuring fox minds from bones</h2>



To trace brain evolution through time, the team worked with more than 250 skulls representing six island fox subspecies and four gray fox subspecies. These specimens came from the <a href="https://nhmlac.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County</a> and the Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History.



The researchers first estimated body mass from skull measurements and validated those estimates against recorded weights from live-caught island foxes. That gave them a solid baseline for comparing brain-to-body ratios.



For brain size, they used microbeads to measure braincase volume - a reliable proxy when brains are absent. They then CT-scanned the skulls to build 3D models of the cranial cavities.



The scans confirmed the volume estimates and revealed subtle differences in the surfaces where brain folds press into bone. These patterns allowed the team to infer changes in regions linked to movement and spatial awareness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fox-brains-bend-to-fit">Fox brains bend to fit</h2>



The digital reconstructions uncovered a telling feature: island foxes had shorter, more compact frontal areas of the braincase than mainland gray foxes. The researchers linked that to the foxes’ shorter snouts, which reduce available space at the front of the skull.



To compensate, the island foxes developed slightly deeper cortical folds and more pronounced ridges in that region. This preserved space for circuitry supporting motor control and navigation - skills especially useful for climbing trees and foraging in complex terrain.



Both island and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-help-gray-foxes-coexist-with-coyotes/">gray foxes</a> are the only canids known to climb, but island foxes rely on arboreal foraging more often, likely because ground resources are leaner.



The study also found no difference in brain size between males and females. This points away from sexual selection and toward shared environmental pressures as the main driver of change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-foxes-stayed-wild-with-humans">Foxes stayed wild with humans</h2>



Genetic and radiocarbon evidence suggests foxes first reached the northern Channel Islands roughly 9,000 years ago. They may have arrived by rafting on storm debris or by swimming shorter channels when sea levels were lower.



Thousands of years later, Indigenous peoples may have helped move foxes to other islands - likely as pest control rather than pets.



Despite that long association with humans, island foxes never became truly domesticated. Unlike early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-are-evolving-to-fit-the-modern-lives-of-humans/">domestic dogs</a>, which show brain shrinkage as they grew dependent on people, island foxes retained wild-type behaviors and brain sizes befitting self-sufficient hunters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brains-matter-for-survival">Brains matter for survival</h2>



As climate change and development carve mainland habitats into island-like fragments, understanding which traits help animals cope could guide management.



The Channel Islands fox suggests that cognitive flexibility and problem-solving can be part of the survival toolkit - when ecosystems still offer enough resources to support those costly traits. 



Yet the foxes’ low genetic diversity makes them vulnerable to disease and rapid environmental shifts, underscoring the need to protect habitats that sustain both bodies and brains.



Island syndrome, it turns out, is not a single script but a library of local stories. On five Channel Islands, small bodies came paired with relatively big brains. On the sixth, the opposite prevailed. 



Together, those outcomes point to a simple conclusion with big implications: the brain follows the work that needs doing, and on islands, that work depends on the world outside the skull as much as on the DNA within it.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0328893" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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Island foxes evolved bigger brains to help them survive

For decades, biologists thought isolation on islands nudged animals toward...

A sweeping analysis of the “tree of life” finds that most living species belong to a relatively small number of lineages that diversified unusually quickly.



Across plants, animals, and other kingdoms, most branches have not grown evenly through time. Instead, a few have exploded into dense thickets of species, while many others remain sparsely populated.



The British evolutionary biologist J.B.S. Haldane is said to have quipped that any divine being evidently had “an inordinate fondness for beetles.” 



The joke contains a truth biologists have wrestled with for decades: some groups dominate the ledger of life, while others are comparatively species-poor.



More than 40 percent of extant insects are beetles, 60 percent of birds are passerines, and more than 85 percent of plants are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-of-life-created-for-flowering-plants-using-400-million-specimens/">flowering plants</a> - an unevenness that begs an explanation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spanning-earth-s-many-species">Spanning Earth's many species</h2>



To move beyond anecdotes, researchers compiled a vast cross-taxonomic dataset. They then asked whether the concentration of species in a few very large groups is a general feature of life on Earth.



The team analyzed the distribution of <a href="http://v">species richness</a> and diversification rates across clades - lineages that share a common ancestor - spanning land plants, insects, vertebrates, all animals, and a synthesis “across life.”



For land plants, the tally included 10 phyla, 140 orders, and 678 families, together representing more than 300,000 species. For insects, 31 orders and 870 families covered over one million known species.



Vertebrates made up 12 classes encompassing more than 66,000 species, while animals overall accounted for 28 phyla and 1,710 families, totaling more than 1.5 million species.



A final roll-up across 17 kingdoms and 2,545 families included more than two million species. The team compared species counts, clade ages, and diversification rates for each clade.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-diversity-comes-from-rare-explosions">Earth's diversity comes from rare explosions</h2>



“Here we show for the first time that most living species do indeed belong to a limited number of rapid radiations," said John Wiens, a professor at the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a>. "That is, they form groups with many species which evolved in a relatively short period of time.” 



“If we look among the kingdoms of life, among animal phyla, and among plant phyla, we find that more than 80 percent of known species belong to the minority of groups with exceptionally high rates of species diversification.”



The result stayed consistent no matter how researchers sliced the tree - by high-level phyla, mid-level orders, or family-level groupings. They found that most species cluster in a few branches with above-average diversification rates, while the majority of branches remain comparatively species-poor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-spark-behind-biodiversity-surges">The spark behind biodiversity surges</h2>



So-called rapid radiations can follow the opening of new ecological opportunities or the evolution of key innovations.



When a small founding flock of grassquit birds reached <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-around-the-world-are-helping-save-galapagos-iguanas/">the Galápagos</a> roughly 2.5 million years ago, it diversified into Darwin’s finches.



When powered flight evolved in early bats about 50 million years ago, it unlocked a rich set of niches. Such episodes don’t just add species; they reset the balance of diversity across the tree.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-traits-that-tip-the-scales"><a></a>Traits that tip the scales</h2>



“Our results imply that most of life's diversity is explained by such relatively rapid radiations," Wiens said. "We also suggest key traits that might explain these rapid radiations, based on our results and results of earlier studies."



“These traits include multicellularity in plants, animals, and fungi across the kingdoms of life; the invasion of land and the adoption of a plant-based diet in arthropods among animal phyla; and the emergence of flowers and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urbanization-causes-massive-decline-in-insect-pollinators/">insect pollination</a> in flowering plants among plant phyla.”



These innovations changed the rules of engagement with the environment, allowing lineages to exploit new resources, spread into new habitats, and diversify faster than their relatives.



The statistical signal is not unique to one group or one rank. It appears from the vast diversity of insects to the great branches of land plants and vertebrates.



In practical terms, most of the species we encounter - and most of the biodiversity we aim to conserve - sit within a minority of lineages. These lineages experienced unusually fast growth spurts through evolutionary time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bacteria-remain-a-vast-unknown">Bacteria remain a vast unknown</h2>



One major caveat is the kingdom <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-bacteria-get-hungry-they-turn-on-each-other/">Bacteria</a>. Scientists have formally described only about 10,000 bacterial species, yet they estimate true bacterial diversity to be in the millions to trillions.



At the same time, bacteria originated roughly 3.5 billion years ago, which spreads speciation events across immense time and implies a low overall diversification rate.



The authors point out that if bacteria actually have far more species than we currently know, then bacteria would make up most of life on Earth - very different from what their study found. They emphasized that their results mainly apply to the species we’ve already identified.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conserving-earth-s-species-diversity">Conserving Earth’s species diversity</h2>



Recognizing that most species are concentrated in a handful of fast-diversifying clades reframes both evolutionary theory and conservation practice. It sharpens questions about the ecological triggers and genetic innovations that spark radiations.



It also helps triage conservation priorities: protecting the engines of diversification may conserve not only many species today but also the capacity for future diversity.



Haldane’s quip about a deity’s “inordinate fondness for beetles” captured the pattern with wit. This analysis shows the pattern is not an exception but a rule written across much of life. The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/ecology-and-evolution/articles/10.3389/fevo.2025.1596591/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution</a>.



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Just a few explosive lineages account for most species on Earth

A sweeping analysis of the “tree of life” finds that...

Antarctica is edging toward abrupt, potentially irreversible climate shifts in its ice, oceans, and living systems. Those changes would reverberate far beyond the pole, accelerating sea level rise, altering climate, and disrupting marine life. The speed of warming means every fraction of a degree now matters.



A new study, led by researchers from the Australian National University (<a href="https://www.anu.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ANU</a>) and the University of New South Wales (<a href="https://www.unsw.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNSW</a>), working with scientists across Australia’s Antarctic research centers, pulls these strands together.



The experts warn that large, sudden changes are unfolding across the continent that interlink amplifying risks for the global climate, sea level, and ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-west-antarctica-on-the-brink"><a></a>West Antarctica on the brink</h2>



The researchers flagged the West Antarctic Ice Sheet as especially vulnerable as atmospheric carbon dioxide keeps rising. A large-scale collapse would add more than three meters (10 feet) to global sea levels, reshaping coasts and flooding cities.



According to study lead author Nerilie Abram, chief scientist at the <a href="https://www.antarctica.gov.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian Antarctic Division</a>, such a collapse would bring “catastrophic consequences for generations to come”.



“Rapid change has already been detected across Antarctica’s ice, oceans, and ecosystems, and this is set to worsen with every fraction of a degree of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctica-in-distress-the-escalating-consequences-of-global-warming/">global warming</a>,” said Abram, who carried out this work during her time as a professor of climate science at ANU.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antarctic-sea-ice-in-rapid-decline">Antarctic sea ice in rapid decline</h2>



The loss of Antarctic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarcticas-melting-ice-shelves-threaten-global-sea-levels/">sea ice</a> is another abrupt change that has a whole range of knock-on effects, including making the floating ice shelves around Antarctica more susceptible to wave-driven collapse. 



"The decline in Antarctic sea ice and the slowdown of deep circulation in the Southern Ocean are showing worrying signs of being more susceptible to a warming climate than previously thought,” Abram said.



As sea ice disappears from the ocean surface around Antarctica, it changes how much solar heat the climate system retains, intensifying warming across the region.



“Other changes to the continent could soon become unstoppable, including the loss of Antarctic ice shelves and vulnerable parts of the Antarctic ice sheet that they hold behind them," she said.



These processes feed on one another. Less sea ice means a darker ocean that absorbs more sunlight. That extra heat accelerates melt and weakens ice shelves further. A sluggish overturning traps heat and carbon at the surface, weakening the Southern Ocean’s buffer against global warming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-australia-faces-antarctic-fallout">Australia faces Antarctic fallout</h2>



Study co-author Matthew England of UNSW and the <a href="https://antarctic.org.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ARC Australian Center for Excellence in Antarctic Science</a> warns that the impacts will be felt far beyond, but especially in Australia.



"Consequences for Australia include rising sea levels that will impact coastal communities, and a warmer and deoxygenated Southern Ocean being less able to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere," he said.



Warmer, lower-oxygen waters also stress fisheries and corrode the climate’s natural safety valves, compounding heat and drought on land. Planning for coastal protection, infrastructure, and insurance will need to assume faster, higher sea level rise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antarctic-wildlife-face-extinction-risk">Antarctic wildlife face extinction risk</h2>



Ice loss is not only a physical problem. It is a biological one. “The loss of Antarctic sea ice brings heightened extinction risk for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emperor-penguins-may-disappear-in-our-lifetime/">emperor penguins</a>, whose chicks depend on a stable sea ice habitat prior to growing their waterproof feathers,” England said.



“The loss of entire colonies of chicks has been seen right around the Antarctic coast because of early sea ice breakout events, and some colonies have experienced multiple breeding failure events over the last decade.”



Ripple effects extend through the food web. Adult survival and breeding of krill, penguins, and seals are at risk. Warming and acidification strain keystone phytoplankton. As habitats contract and food chains fray, recovery becomes harder with each bad year.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-currents-falter-life-suffers">Ocean currents falter, life suffers</h2>



Another potential risk is a collapse in the Antarctic overturning circulation. That would mean vital nutrients stay at the seafloor instead of recirculating to the surface, where biological systems - including marine animals - depend on them.



A stalled conveyor would dim the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/southern-ocean-mystery-satellites-reveal-a-strange-glow/">Southern Ocean</a>’s productivity and undermine one of Earth’s great carbon sinks. 



That is why, Abram stressed, local protections remain essential - but they cannot stop warming-driven impacts alone. Efforts under the Antarctic Treaty System to reduce pressures on ecosystems fall short unless we rapidly cut the root cause - greenhouse gas pollution.



“While critically important, these measures will not help to avoid climate-related impacts that are already beginning to unfold,” she said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antarctica-s-climate-decline">Antarctica’s climate decline</h2>



There is still a chance to shape the future - the thermostat dictates the scale of abrupt change.



“The only way to avoid further abrupt changes and their far-reaching impacts is to reduce <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2023-climate-change-report-record-high-temperatures-greenhouse-gases-sea-level-rise/">greenhouse gas emissions</a> fast enough to limit global warming to as close to 1.5°C (2.7°F) as possible,” Abram said.



“Governments, businesses, and communities will need to factor in these abrupt Antarctic changes that are being observed now into future planning for climate change impacts, including in Australia.”



That means faster emissions cuts, stronger resilience plans, and sustained investment in observing systems around Antarctica. 



The message is stark but actionable: curb warming quickly, and the odds of crossing irreversible thresholds fall. Delay, and the continent’s ice, oceans, and ecosystems will lurch into states we cannot easily reverse.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09349-5">Nature</a>.



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Antarctica is approaching an irreversible climate tipping point

Antarctica is edging toward abrupt, potentially irreversible climate shifts in...

A series of hide-and-seek tests show that bonobos rely on memory to keep track of several familiar people at once, even when they’re out of sight. The results reveal mental map-making skills once assumed to be uniquely human.



The study, led by Johns Hopkins University’s <a href="https://www.social-cognitive-origins.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Social and Cognitive Origins Group</a>, documents these abilities in a bonobo named Kanzi. The findings speak to how animals manage complex social worlds and where humans and apes overlap.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-myth-of-human-only-minds">The myth of human-only minds</h2>



Study senior author Chris Krupenye is an assistant professor at Johns Hopkins who studies how animals think. 



“People think social <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/every-part-of-the-brain-works-together-to-support-intelligence/">intelligence</a> is a thing that makes humans unique," said Krupenye. 



"We have to manage so many different relationships, we might have a range of cognitive tools for doing so that will only be found in ultra-social species like humans,”



“But most of us who study apes have a strong intuition that, because the social world is so important for them too, they must, like humans, be keeping track of these critical social partners," he said. 



"They must share with us at least the foundations of our rich social intelligence.”



Humans routinely keep mental tabs on others. If a partner leaves the room, their location stays active in the mind. 



For bonobos and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-catch-yawns-from-robots-and-lie-down-to-rest/">chimpanzees</a>, who often move through dense forests where companions flicker in and out of view, such memory would be useful - perhaps essential.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-bonobo-memory-skills">Testing bonobo memory skills</h2>



Kanzi faced a simple setup with demanding implications. Two caregivers he knew well hid behind two of three identical barriers. 



An experimenter then showed Kanzi a photo of one caregiver and asked him to point to where that person was. Trials were repeated in varied orders to prevent rote guessing.



“Kanzi very quickly understood the task and performed well,” said lead author Luz Carvajal, a Ph.D. student in Krupenye's lab who studies apes' knowledge of their social relationships.



The team then removed visual cues altogether. Caregivers hid where Kanzi could not see them choose a barrier. From behind the screens they each called out, “Hi Kanzi,” letting him hear who was where. 



Only then did the experimenter show a photo of one caregiver and ask Kanzi to indicate their location.



“Here he also performed above chance, and especially well with one of his two caregivers,” Carvajal said. “He does have the capacity to use voice as a marker for identity. This face matches this voice.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-faces-and-voices-connected">Faces and voices connected</h2>



While the bonobo made mistakes - as humans do in memory tasks - the pattern was clear. Kanzi kept separate, accurate records of multiple individuals at once, and he could connect a face with a voice to a place.



“Across these studies, the results suggest that Kanzi has a memory of these individuals that brings together their vocal and visual identities - who they are and what they sound like, and where they are in space,” Krupenye said.



“If he hears them he might imagine what they look like. If he sees them, he might bring to mind an idea of what they sound like," he said. 



"We think this is one <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/built-in-memory-janitor-helps-your-brain-forget-some-things-on-purpose/">integrated memory</a>. He's using the same photo prompt to refer to an individual whether he can see them or not.”



That kind of “bound” memory - linking identity across senses and locations - helps explain how bonobos manage fission-fusion societies, where subgroups split and reunite through the day.



It suggests a shared foundation for the social cognition humans rely on to plan, coordinate, and reconnect.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobo-memory-human-insight">Bonobo memory, human insight </h2>



Field studies have long hinted that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-apes-will-suffer-through-frequent-and-extreme-climate-events/">great apes</a> mentally track groupmates and recognize familiar voices and faces even after years apart. 



Chimpanzees, for instance, can pick out known humans wearing masks. But controlled tests of tracking multiple individuals at once were missing. Kanzi’s performance fills that gap and pushes the conversation forward.



The results also broaden what “voice recognition” means in apes. Bonobos had not been tested on matching voices to specific individuals hidden from view. 



Here, voice alone guided correct choices, at rates above chance, and in some cases with striking accuracy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deep-origins-of-social-life">Deep origins of social life</h2>



The team now wants to expand the study with new questions: How many individuals can apes track at once? Does performance hold up over minutes, hours, or days? What happens when the voices are recorded, filtered, or partially masked? 



The answers could reveal the limits of these mental maps and the cues apes, including bonobos, rely on.



“These animals are rich and complex,” Krupenye said. “Even if we just want to understand ourselves better, there’s an urgency to this work - and to saving this endangered species.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-and-ape-social-minds">Human and ape social minds</h2>



The findings also blur the line between human and ape <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/having-an-active-social-life-helps-the-brain-make-better-sense-of-the-world/">social minds</a>. 



Apes are not planning cities or managing calendars, but they can bind identities across senses, track several individuals at once, and call up that knowledge on demand - much like we do.



For species that must coordinate movement, negotiate alliances, and reunite after separation, those abilities are not luxuries. They are survival tools. 



Kanzi’s success suggests the roots of our social lives run deeper than our species - and they’re still visible, if we know how to play the right game of hide-and-seek.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2025.0640" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.



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Bonobos have memory skills that were thought to be uniquely human

A series of hide-and-seek tests show that bonobos rely on...

Bandung,,Indonesia,:,People,Collect,Trash,That,Can,Be,Recycled

Efforts to hammer out a global treaty to tackle plastic pollution have once again hit a wall. After years of work and six formal negotiation rounds, talks wrapped up in Geneva without an agreement. 



Delegates from 185 countries worked past the deadline and into the early hours, but the gap between two opposing sides proved too wide to bridge.



This round of negotiations - billed as a last-chance summit after a similar breakdown in South Korea last year - was seen as a potential turning point. Instead, frustration ruled.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-holding-back-a-plastic-treaty">What's holding back a plastic treaty?</h2>



The main split was clear. One group, known as the <a href="https://hacfornatureandpeople.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">High Ambition Coalition</a>, includes countries like Canada, the UK, and members of the EU. 



They’re pushing for limits on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastics-treaty-talks-slow-progress-yet-restored-hope/">plastic</a> production and a gradual phase-out of harmful chemicals used in plastics.



On the other side, oil-producing nations grouped under the "Like-Minded Group" - including Saudi Arabia, Iran, Russia, Kuwait, and Malaysia - want a treaty focused only on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-day-of-zero-waste-a-global-commitment-to-a-sustainable-future/">waste management</a>, not production cuts. 



These countries argue that targeting production would penalize resource-rich developing nations.



"Our views were not reflected without an agreed scope, this process cannot remain on the right track and risks sliding down a slippery slope," said Kuwait.



Bahrain added that it supported a treaty that "does not penalize developing countries for exploiting their own resources."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tensions-boil-over">Tensions boil over</h2>



The emotional toll was visible. France's Ecological Transition Minister, Agnes Pannier-Runacher, didn’t mince words. "I am disappointed, and I am angry," she said. 



"A handful of countries, guided by short-term financial interests, had blocked the adoption of an ambitious treaty. Oil-producing countries and their allies have chosen to look the other way."



Tuvalu, speaking on behalf of 14 Pacific island nations, voiced deep frustration.



"For our islands this means that without global cooperation and state action, millions of tons of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-think-their-biotech-breakthrough-could-end-plastic-waste-forever/">plastic waste</a> will continue to be dumped in our oceans, affecting our ecosystem, food security, livelihood and culture."



Colombia was equally direct, nothing that the negotiations were consistently blocked by a small number of states who simply don't want an agreement.



"We have missed a historic opportunity but we have to keep going and act urgently. The planet and present and future generations need this treaty," said Cuba. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plastic-treaty-process-in-chaos">Plastic treaty process in chaos</h2>



Midweek, as talks looked increasingly fragile, the chair of the negotiations, Luis Vayas Valdivieso, issued a draft treaty based on overlapping areas. It was rejected across the board.



The High Ambition Coalition said it was too weak. The Like-Minded Group said it was too broad.



Valdivieso scrambled to salvage the talks with closed-door meetings and a revised draft. But shortly before sunrise, it was clear: no deal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-plastic-problem-by-the-numbers">The plastic problem, by the numbers</h2>



Over 400 million tons of plastic are produced globally each year. Half of that is used once and tossed.



Only 15% of plastic waste is even collected for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-recycling-day-creating-a-healthier-planet-for-all/">recycling</a>. Of that, only 9% ends up actually recycled.



Nearly half goes straight to landfills. Another 17% is incinerated. The remaining 22% ends up polluting landscapes, oceans, and waterways.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-pose-a-greater-threat-to-some-ocean-animals/">Microplastics</a> have now been found on Mount Everest and in the Mariana Trench. They’re in our lungs, our blood, and our food.



And the problem is accelerating. 



According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (<a href="https://www.oecd.org/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">OECD</a>), plastic production could nearly triple by 2060, reaching 1.2 billion tons a year. 



Plastic waste is expected to top one billion tons annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next-for-plastic-talks">What happens next for plastic talks?</h2>



No one is quite sure what happens next. Some countries called for a seventh round of talks. South Africa insisted that it cannot end here. The EU called the latest draft a "good basis for a resumed session."



Whether or not countries return to the table will depend on political pressure, shifting alliances, and the mounting cost of inaction. 



Scientists and environmental groups are urging negotiators not to let the momentum slip away.



In the meantime, national governments may move forward with their own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-packaging-is-leaking-harmful-chemicals-into-meals/">plastic</a> restrictions, bans, or recycling mandates. 



But without a global plan, the patchwork approach will struggle to keep up with a problem that knows no borders.



Consumers, too, are becoming more vocal. The failure to reach a deal may only fuel public demand for action, transparency, and accountability from industries driving plastic production.



The urgency remains. Plastic pollution isn't slowing down - and neither should the effort to stop it.



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Global plastic treaty negotiations end in failure with no solution in sight

Efforts to hammer out a global treaty to tackle plastic...

The most complete view yet of the human genome has arrived, and it tackles the messy parts scientists used to skip. 



The new work assembles nearly all of the repeat-rich, shape-shifting DNA that helps explain disease risk and drug response across different people.



It is not a single tidy sequence, but rather 65 complete genomes drawn from diverse ancestries and resolved with unusual clarity. 



That scale and quality move the field toward practical use in precision medicine, where care adjusts to each person’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/missing-parts-of-the-human-genome-have-finally-been-decoded/">genetic</a> wiring.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uncovering-dna-s-hidden-changes">Uncovering DNA’s hidden changes</h2>



The hardest regions to read are home to structural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-an-organism-that-defies-the-definition-of-life-sukunaarchaeum/">variants</a>. These include large insertions, deletions, inversions, duplications, and translocations that often change how genes work. 



If you ignore these variants, risk models fall short, and rare disease diagnoses stall. Getting them right is the difference between a vague genetic hint and a confident clinical answer.



The study was co-led by Christine Beck of The Jackson Laboratory and <a href="https://health.uconn.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UConn Health</a>, as part of the Human Genome Structural Variation Consortium (<a href="https://www.internationalgenome.org/human-genome-structural-variation-consortium/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HGSVC</a>).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-genome-map-shows">What the genome map shows</h2>



Across 130 haplotypes, the team reports closing 92 percent of the assembly gaps that lingered after earlier references and bringing 39 percent of chromosomes to telomere to telomere status. 



That level of finish lets researchers track long, tangled stretches end to end instead of guessing across voids.



The experts resolved 1,852 previously intractable complex structural variants that older methods could not untie. 



The team also validated 1,246 human centromeres - the control hubs needed for proper chromosome segregation in cell division. These regions long stymied assemblies because of their repeating DNA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sequences-that-rewire-gene-activity">Sequences that rewire gene activity</h2>



The team cataloged 12,919 insertions from transposable elements, the mobile <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ground-oaks-genetic-secrets-may-inspire-new-medicines-and-pesticides/">sequences</a> that can rewire gene activity - accounting for nearly 10 percent of all structural variation detected here. 



This catalog turns what used to be background noise into an interpretable signal for disease studies.



The research provides contiguous sequences for the immune related Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC), along with other regions that influence digestion and development. Each of those regions matters directly to diagnosis or treatment decisions in clinics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-representation-matters-in-genetics">Representation matters in genetics</h2>



For many years, genetic reference data left out large parts of the world’s population. This new study was designed to address that gap by creating a more inclusive and complete resource.



Only recently has technology advanced enough to allow scientists to sequence entire genomes without the large gaps that once limited the field. 



Using these tools, researchers estimate they can now capture more than 95 percent of structural variants within each genome they study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hard-places-practical-payoffs">Hard places, practical payoffs</h2>



The MHC carries dense immune variation associated with more than 100 human diseases, so fully charting it helps clinicians weigh risk with more nuance across populations. 



When the reference is biased or incomplete, those associations skew toward the few ancestries that dominate the data.



The study delivers complete sequences for the following genes: SMN1 and SMN2, which are the drug targets in spinal muscular atrophy. That matters because therapies like nusinersen improve infant survival, and better maps speed diagnosis and treatment eligibility.



The researchers also finished especially stubborn parts of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/y-chromosome-is-disappearing-may-already-be-causing-problems-for-men/">Y chromosome</a>, building on a 2023 effort that first produced a gapless Y sequence. 



Closing and comparing many Ys provides cleaner baselines for fertility research and forensic work that depend on those repeats and palindromes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-a-global-genome-map">Building a global genome map</h2>



This breakthrough research stands on two recent pillars. In 2022, the Telomere to Telomere Consortium published the first complete sequence of a single human genome. 



This achievement proved that full chromosomes were feasible with the latest approaches.



In 2023, the Human Pangenome Reference expanded representation by assembling 47 individuals from many ancestries - a shift from a one genome yardstick to a family of references that reflect global diversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-genome-map-and-health">The genome map and health</h2>



When reference genomes miss common variations, clinical pipelines struggle. Expanding structural variant catalogs improves read mapping, variant calling, and interpretation. 



Ultimately, this strengthens rare disease diagnosis and risk prediction across ancestries.



When a rearrangement sits next to a dosage-sensitive gene or flips an enhancer away from its target, the biological effect can be large, and it can be missed by short-read tools. This study makes those events visible at a scale that finally matches clinical need.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-moving-parts-of-genomes">The moving parts of genomes</h2>



The new assemblies also clarify how endogenous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-viruses-can-reactivate-and-fuel-cancer-development/">retroviruses</a> and other transposable elements to contribute regulatory switches.



Recent work shows that long terminal repeats from ancient viruses form distinct subfamilies with their own enhancer motifs. These motifs can rise or fall across primate lineages in ways that influence gene regulation.



At everyday scales, the finished amylase region helps connect gene dosage to diet. People from high starch diet populations tend to carry more copies of salivary amylase - an example of structural variation with clear physiological impact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-the-genome-map">What’s next for the genome map</h2>



Open methods and shared datasets mean other teams can now reach the same level of completeness. That is essential if the benefits of precision medicine are going to reach everyone, not just those already overrepresented in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-dormant-virus-punuivirus-discovered-in-algae-could-revolutionize-gene-editing/">genetic research</a>.



The muscle, immune, and neurodevelopmental regions that used to be black boxes are now spelled out with far fewer interruptions. This clarity sets a new bar for reference genomes, clinical pipelines, and the science that connects DNA to health outcomes.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.ads9164" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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New human genome map could transform medicine

The most complete view yet of the human genome has...

In the depths of&nbsp;Costa Rica’s tropical forests, a surprising story has emerged. Spectral bats - the world’s largest carnivorous bats - are not the solitary hunters many once believed them to be. Instead, these creatures lead richly social lives, filled with affection, cooperation, and care.



A new study led by Marisa Tietge at the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.museumfuernaturkunde.berlin/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Museum für Naturkunde</a> - Leibniz Institute for Evolution and Biodiversity Science&nbsp;in Germany has revealed remarkable details about their behavior. The findings, published in&nbsp;PLOS One, provide the first clear window into the private world of these elusive animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-cameras-capture-bat-lives">Hidden cameras capture bat lives</h2>



Studying bats is never simple. Their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/geomagnetic-disturbances-throw-nocturnal-birds-off-course/">nocturnal</a> lifestyle and hidden roosts make close observation challenging. 



To overcome this, the researchers installed a motion-sensitive infrared camera inside a hollow tree in Guanacaste, Costa Rica. Here, a family of four spectral bats (Vampyrum spectrum) became the focus of months-long monitoring.



These bats, with wingspans reaching up to three feet, were once thought to forage alone. But three months of footage told a different story - one of social cooperation and emotional bonds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-affection-documented">Rare affection documented</h2>



The researchers observed that the bats displayed eight distinct behaviors, ranging from grooming and vocal exchanges to playful interactions and even a unique form of greeting. 



In this greeting, one bat would wrap its wings around another in a gesture resembling a hug, a form of physical affection rarely documented in wild carnivorous species.



Beyond social gestures, food sharing also emerged as a central behavior. Adult bats returning from hunts often transferred their prey to younger members of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-have-acoustic-mental-maps-to-navigate-total-darkness/">colony</a>. 



This not only provided nourishment but also served as a form of training, allowing the younger bats to practice handling prey.



At the same time, it eased their gradual transition from relying on milk to consuming a carnivorous diet, preparing them for independence as skilled hunters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-family-cooperation-revealed">Family cooperation revealed</h2>



Surprisingly, the recordings captured instances of cooperative foraging. Adults sometimes left or returned to the roost together, and males transferred prey to females nursing young. 



These behaviors suggest teamwork, which is a rarity among carnivorous mammals. The observations also revealed a long-term family structure. 



The presence of two young bats, likely born in different years, showed that offspring may remain with parents longer than expected. This hints at extended parental care beyond what is typical for many bat species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-bonds-and-care">Complex bonds and care</h2>



The study paints a picture of spectral bats as deeply connected <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-dont-get-cancer-now-scientists-think-they-know-the-reason/">animals</a>. Both parents participate in raising the young, forming strong monogamous bonds and investing heavily in offspring survival. 



Such biparental care is uncommon in bats and especially rare among carnivorous mammals.



“Spectral bats exhibit a level of cooperative behavior and biparental care that is rarely documented in bats - a fascinating area for future research,” Tietge said. “We were astonished by how gentle and cooperative these apex predators are.” 



“The most endearing behavior was forming a tight cuddle-ball when falling asleep: each bat wrapping one wing around its nearest neighbor, all snouts touching.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spectral-bats-even-recognize-humans">Spectral bats even recognize humans</h2>



Their social complexity extended beyond family life. Tietge herself experienced something extraordinary. 



"I was astonished to find that the bats seemed to recognize me after several consecutive weeks of visiting the roost," she said. "At first, I was greeted with threat-like calls, and the bats broke their roosting formation to hide in the corners." 



"But over time, their response shifted to just a few curious looks - no <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marmosets-call-each-other-by-names-with-distinct-vocalizations/">vocalizations</a>, and they remained in a relaxed roosting formation. Even after nine months away, they appeared to recognize me immediately when I returned the following season."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-spectral-bats-teach-us">What spectral bats teach us</h2>



These findings transform our understanding of spectral bats. Rather than solitary hunters, they appear as nurturing creatures that rely on cooperation and affection.



“Rather than hunting and raising young in isolation,&nbsp;V. spectrum&nbsp;shows complex cooperation behavior, strong <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-show-signs-of-divorce-before-the-breeding-season/">monogamous pair</a> bonds, as well as extended parental investment and biparental care - traits highly unusual in carnivorous mammals, especially bats,” Tietge concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0321338" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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Spectral bats lead social lives with hugs, play, and food sharing

In the depths of&nbsp;Costa Rica’s tropical forests, a surprising story...

Slimy layered microbial mats in Shark Bay are more than seaside oddities. They are living laboratories where bacteria and archaea still work side by side, much as they may have done long ago.



A new co-culture from these mats shows a bacterium and an archaeon physically connecting through tiny tubes while trading metabolites in ways that make both partners tick. That kind of teamwork fits neatly with ideas about how complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-was-thriving-before-earths-greatest-mass-extinction/">cells</a> arose.



<a href="https://www.unsw.edu.au/staff/brendan-burns" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brendan P. Burns</a> at the University of New South Wales (UNSW) led the study with colleagues including <a href="https://profiles.uts.edu.au/Iain.Duggin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Iain G. Duggin</a> at the University of Technology Sydney.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shark-bay-microbes-survive-extremes">Shark Bay microbes survive extremes</h2>



Shark Bay, Western Australia, holds thriving stromatolites, the rock-like piles that grow when layered microbial communities trap and bind sediments in harsh, salty water. 



In Malgana language, Shark Bay is called <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/srep46160" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gathaagudu</a>, which means two waters, a name still used by Traditional Owners and regional agencies.



The southern basin can be roughly twice as salty as the open ocean, and the mats ride out heat, desiccation, and intense UV under those conditions. 



Modern mats are not time capsules, but they are useful stand-ins for ancient ecosystems where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rocks-reveal-the-turning-point-when-oxygen-changed-earth-forever/">microbes</a> built layered structures and forged partnerships that shaped the planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbial-mat-microbes-team-up">Microbial mat microbes team up</h2>



Back in the lab, researchers enriched a two-member community from those mats: the bacterium Stromatodesulfovibrio nilemahensis and a newly named Asgard archaeon, Nerearchaeum marumarumayae. 



<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5875740/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Asgard archaea</a> are widely viewed as the closest known prokaryotic relatives of eukaryotes, the lineage that includes animals, plants, and fungi.



The team sequenced both genomes and grew the partners under high-salt, low-oxygen settings that fit the mats’ tough environment. 



Each partner seems to cover what the other lacks, a classic sign of syntrophy, where two microbes share metabolic tasks to make <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/timeline-of-lifes-evolution-extended-by-nearly-1-5-billion-years/">life</a> work.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-show-nutrient-sharing">Genes show nutrient sharing</h2>



Genome analysis indicates the archaeon releases hydrogen, acetate, formate, and sulfite, while the bacterium supplies amino acids and vitamins that the archaeon needs. 



These characteristics and interactions may represent an early step in the symbiotic evolution of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/eukaryote" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eukaryotic</a> cells.



That statement does not claim a perfect replay of early evolution. It argues that the features they see line up with long-standing models that link archaeal hydrogen producers and bacterial sulfate reducers to the rise of complex cells.



Those models gained traction after the first enrichment and later formal isolation of an Asgard archaeon, <a href="https://www.microbiologyresearch.org/content/journal/ijsem/10.1099/ijsem.0.006435" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Prometheoarchaeum syntrophicum</a>, a slow-growing anaerobe that depends on partner microbes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbial-mat-shows-nanotube-connections">Microbial mat shows nanotube connections</h2>



With cryotomography, the researchers observed chains of budded vesicles attached to the archaeal cell by extracellular fibers, plus internal tube and cage-like elements inside the archaeon. 



They also saw intercellular nanotubes apparently assembled by the bacterium that contact the archaeal surface, hinting at direct physical links during resource sharing.



Archaea in other systems build similar connections, and a 2024 <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-51159-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> reported nanotubes in a co-culture that bridged cytoplasms and appeared to serve as conduits for molecular exchange. 



That study counted an average of 4.4 nanotubes per host-symbiont contact, showing how dense and structured these links can become under the microscope.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hints-at-complex-cells">Hints at complex cells</h2>



If partners swap metabolites through persistent contacts, selection can push them toward tighter dependence. 



That is the kind of ratchet some researchers think nudged early archaea and bacteria toward the cell-in-cell <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/third-state-of-existence-beyond-life-and-death-confirmed-by-scientists/">arrangement</a> that defines eukaryotes.



The new Shark Bay culture does not show one cell engulfing the other. It does, however, put plausible building blocks on the table: complementing metabolisms, physical tethers, and vesicle traffic that could knit cells into a more integrated unit over time.



That interpretation sits alongside earlier work that first enriched and then formally described Prometheoarchaeum, strengthening the case that Asgard lineages sit near the root of eukaryotic features.



More broadly, archaeal communities are <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10117752/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">known</a> to trade vesicles and tube-like structures, which can shuttle proteins, lipids, and genetic material and may help build cooperative networks in extreme habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-in-research">Next steps in research</h2>



First, replication matters. Independent teams will want to reproduce the nanotube contacts and metabolite exchanges and test whether those tubes move specific molecules in real time, not just correlate with growth.



Second, comparative context helps. Asgard cultures and co-cultures are slowly expanding, and every new system gives biologists another angle on the relationship between archaeal cell biology and eukaryotic traits.



Finally, place still matters. Shark Bay’s mats are rugged, hypersaline, sunlit, and dynamic, a mix of stresses that can reward tight microbial alliances and keep them around across seasons and storms.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2025.07.22.663070v2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bioRxiv</a>.



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Strange microbial bedfellows offer clues to how complex life evolved

Slimy layered microbial mats in Shark Bay are more than...

Platelet,In,The,Blood,And,Thrombocyte,Anatomy,Concept,As,Activated

Tiny structures in our blood called platelets are best known for helping to stop the bleeding after we get a cut or a scrape, but that is only part of the story. 



A new study reports that platelets collect bits of DNA that float around in the blood and may help the body keep inflammation in check, while also offering a fresh source of genetic clues for disease detection.



Those fragments include cell-free DNA from tumors and from a fetus during pregnancy. 



Early cancer screens often struggle because <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41392-024-02021-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">circulating tumor DNA</a> is scarce, especially when disease is small, so tapping platelet cargo could raise the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/junk-dna-found-to-play-a-powerful-role-in-the-human-body/">signal</a> when it counts most.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-platelets-clean-up-trash">Blood platelets clean up trash</h2>



This work was led by <a href="https://www.ludwigcancerresearch.org/scientist/bethan-psaila/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bethan Psaila</a> at Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a>, with first author Lauren Murphy, working with collaborators across Oxford and the <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Edinburgh</a>.



Platelets lack a nucleus, yet they are laced with an internal network of surface connected channels known as the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29442528/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">open canalicular system</a>, which helps them take up and release molecules as they circulate.



That architecture makes them well suited to encounter DNA fragments shed by cells throughout the body.



They're also abundant, with a normal adult count of roughly 150,000 to 450,000 per microliter of blood, and they turn over quickly in about a week. 



That constant traffic gives platelets countless chances each day to sample what the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/womens-egg-cells-shield-dna-from-the-effects-of-aging/">body</a> is shedding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-platelets-absorb-tumor-and-fetal-dna">Platelets absorb tumor and fetal DNA</h2>



“We found that, despite lacking a nucleus, platelets contained a repertoire of DNA fragments mapping across the nuclear genome,” wrote Murphy. 



The researchers tracked DNA moving from nucleated cells into platelets in lab co-cultures and then looked for the same phenomenon in people. 



They examined platelets from pregnant individuals and detected <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/y-chromosome-is-disappearing-may-already-be-causing-problems-for-men/">Y chromosome</a> DNA when the fetus was male, confirming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pregnancy-stress-may-have-lasting-effects-on-fetal-development/">fetal DNA</a> uptake in maternal platelets. 



In mice and in patients with very low platelet counts, plasma cell-free DNA rose, a pattern consistent with platelets normally helping clear that DNA from circulation.



The group also found tumor derived mutations inside platelets from people with advanced cancers and even from those with <a href="https://www.health.harvard.edu/diseases-and-conditions/they-found-colon-polyps-now-what" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">precancerous colonic polyps</a>. That last result points straight at early detection opportunities where today’s tests fall short.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-blood-platelets-fight-cancer">How blood platelets fight cancer</h2>



Today’s liquid biopsy tests usually analyze DNA floating in plasma after cells, including platelets, are removed, which means a chunk of useful information may be discarded at the very first step. 



If labs analyze DNA within platelets as well, they could detect low-burden disease that plasma-based methods often overlook.



Prior <a href="https://www.cell.com/cancer-cell/fulltext/S1535-6108%2815%2900349-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> already hinted that platelets act as messengers for cancer biology. 



Researchers showed that tumor educated platelets carry altered RNA profiles that can classify tumor types and key mutations, proof that these cells can encode disease signals in their cargo. 



The new paper extends that idea to DNA and positions platelets as a second reservoir of genomic material.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-big-boost-for-prenatal-screening">Big boost for prenatal screening</h2>



Noninvasive prenatal testing built on maternal plasma cell-free <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/altering-rice-dna-improves-its-growth-rate-and-could-end-world-hunger/">DNA</a> has already reshaped obstetric care over the past decade. 



One <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30067923/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">review</a> called this shift “a success story of modern genomic medicine,” noting rapid global adoption and clinical impact.



Sequencing cell-free DNA in maternal plasma now reduces invasive procedures such as amniocentesis by an estimated 50 to 70 percent worldwide, according to recent <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11711700/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">analyses</a> of clinical practice. 



If platelets also harbor fetal DNA, as the Science study shows, laboratories may be able to extract more information from the same blood draw.



Any gains would be most valuable where signal is weakest, such as early gestation or in individuals with lower fetal DNA fractions. 



Platelet based workflows will need careful controls to avoid contamination and to normalize for platelet counts and activation states, but the path is clear for method development.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aiding-immunity-and-inflammation">Aiding immunity and inflammation</h2>



Platelets are not bystanders in immunity. They sense pathogens, interact with white blood cells, and influence inflammation, a role recognized across cardiovascular and infectious disease <a href="https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.121.319821" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a>.



That biology helps explain the new findings. When platelet numbers drop, <a href="https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/thrombocytopenia" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">thrombocytopenia</a> can coincide with higher levels of cell-free DNA, which is known to stimulate immune pathways; when numbers are normal, platelets may help buffer that stimulus. 



The team also observed that platelet encapsulated DNA is shielded from external DNases (enzymes that degrade DNA by hydrolyzing the phosphodiester bonds in the DNA backbone), suggesting a protected, controlled cargo rather than debris.



Taken together, the picture is of a blood cell that patrols widely, picks up DNA fragments, and releases contents when activated at the right place. 



That's a plausible way to limit background inflammation while still enabling targeted responses at sites of injury or infection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-platelets-and-future-health">Blood platelets and future health</h2>



The technical work is now straightforward in concept but demanding in practice. 



Labs will need robust protocols for platelet isolation, DNA extraction, and bioinformatic filtering that distinguish platelet encapsulated sequences from plasma contaminants, all while keeping pre analytical variables tight across sites.



Clinical trials must show added value over existing plasma tests. That means head to head comparisons in screening cohorts with adjudicated outcomes and clear metrics like sensitivity at fixed specificity in stage I cancers or low fetal fraction pregnancies.



None of this diminishes the central insight. Platelets may be more than clot makers and immune sentinels, they could be practical, easy to isolate biosensors that carry DNA signals from across the body, ready to be read out in a standard blood draw.



The full study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adp3971" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Blood platelets play a critically important role in the body that was unknown until now

Tiny structures in our blood called platelets are best known...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



-----



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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