Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Maize does not stand quietly when fields get crowded. New work shows that plants packed close together release linalool - an airborne cue that prompts neighbors to change what their roots release, reshaping soil life and stiffening defenses against pests.



The response comes with a catch. Stronger defense can shave off growth, so the same chemistry that deters attackers can also slow the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/maize-plant-genetics-shape-root-health-and-growth/">plant</a> itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-maize-signals-neighbors">Maize signals neighbors</h2>



The research team reports that a dense canopy raises linalool in the air to a threshold that neighboring plants notice. Once that signal lands, roots ramp up jasmonate signaling, which is a well studied stress pathway in plants.



“High planting density boosts crop yields but also heightens pest and pathogen risks,” wrote study lead author Dongsheng Guo of <a href="https://www.zju.edu.cn/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zhejiang University</a>.



The team's coordinated experiments linked signals above ground to changes below ground in a simple chain, ran field plots at different densities, then tracked the chemistry in the air and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/maize-samples-found-in-brazil-may-rewrite-the-crops-history/">soil</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-roots-change-soil-microbes">Roots change soil microbes</h2>



After jasmonate switches on in roots, plants exude more benzoxazinoids, a class of indole-based defense metabolites that maize makes naturally. 



These molecules leak into the soil zone around roots, the rhizosphere microbiome, where they can favor some microbes and sideline others.



One key benzoxazinoid in this story is HDMBOA-Glc. It is a major member of the benzoxazinoid family in maize roots and exudates that has been tracked for more than a decade.



Microbial communities do not change randomly. Prior work has shown that benzoxazinoids help assemble specific root bacteria and fungi, and those communities then echo back into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-cover-crops-may-be-the-future-of-sustainable-farming/">plant</a> traits in the next growth cycle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stronger-defense-makes-plants-smaller">Stronger defense makes plants smaller</h2>



The dense inner rows of the field plots suffered less herbivore damage than edge plants, but they also stayed smaller. That trade is consistent with a long line of <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4168297/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> showing that investment in immunity can pull resources away from growth when conditions demand it.



Plants juggle these priorities through hormone cross-talk. Jasmonate tends to organize responses to chewing insects and tissue damage, while salicylic acid often coordinates responses to biotrophic pathogens. The two pathways can compete or reinforce each other depending on context.



The study shows that the microbial shift in linalool-conditioned soils pushes subsequent plants toward stronger salicylic acid signaling. This pattern matches the classic growth defense tension documented across species under stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-speed-and-specificity">Speed and specificity</h2>



Timing matters in fields where pests can spike quickly. A related <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40811559/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">perspective</a> notes that the high-density response emerged after only three days of maize growth, which is fast enough to matter for early herbivore pressure.&nbsp;



The experiments also showed breadth. Soils conditioned under dense maize reduced not only insect damage but pressure from nematodes and pathogens in later plantings. This finding indicates a broad-spectrum tilt in defensive readiness that outlived the first crop.



The authors pinpointed the sequence from airborne cue to root exudate to microbial shift to hormone state. The sequence sets a clear set of targets for breeding and management without assuming one silver bullet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-means-for-farmers-nbsp">What this means for farmers&nbsp;</h2>



Farmers have leaned on denser planting to drive yield per acre, but density can make a field more vulnerable to outbreaks. Using an internal warning cue like linalool to pre-set defenses could help reduce losses without heavy chemical inputs if the growth costs can be managed.



There is a second lever in the soil legacy. Field studies show that benzoxazinoid-conditioned soils can lift the yield of the next crop under the right conditions, even when overall fertilizer inputs remain unchanged.



“A yield increase of 4 percent may not sound spectacular, but it is still significant considering how challenging it has become to enhance wheat yields without additional inputs,” explained Matthias Erb, professor at the University of Bern. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-plant-defense-research">Future of plant defense research </h2>



Plant breeders could select lines that tune linalool output at useful thresholds, or lines that change root exudation patterns with minimal penalties. 



Microbial inoculants that mimic the linalool legacy effect are another route already being explored in other crops.



Agronomists will need to map when the costs outweigh the benefits. Heat, water stress, and pathogen loads can all shift how salicylic acid and jasmonate signals interact, so prescriptions will likely be seasonal and region specific rather than one size fits all.



For now, the study offers a clear lesson. Packed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetic-fixes-may-save-crops-from-climate-stress/">fields</a> are not just noisier in scent, they are also busier below ground, and that bustle can be steered toward resilience when we understand who sends which signal and when it lands.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adv6675" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Maize plants signal neighbors when it's time to boost defenses

Maize does not stand quietly when fields get crowded. New...

Over the last 12,000 years, the Atlantic’s great heat mover - the AMOC - stayed mostly on an even keel. Scientists now have a quantitative picture of that long stretch, and the story mixes calm background with a few sharp bends. 



The AMOC is the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation, a system of currents that transports heat and freshwater between the tropics and higher <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/slowing-ocean-currents-could-dry-out-the-tropics/">latitudes</a>.



The new research focuses on the Holocene, the relatively mild period that began about 11,700 years ago and continues today.



The reconstruction comes from an international team led by Lukas Gerber and Jörg Lippold at <a href="https://www.uni-heidelberg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Heidelberg University</a>, working with collaborators at the <a href="https://www.unibe.ch/index_eng.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bern</a> and partners in Germany and Brazil. 



The team combined geochemical measurements from six North Atlantic sediment sites with an Earth system model to turn isotope ratios into actual flow rates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-atlantic-circulation-matters">Why Atlantic circulation matters</h2>



The AMOC moves warm water north and returns colder, denser water south at depth, with the Gulf Stream as a major surface component that influences European <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cold-spot-in-the-atlantic-could-signal-big-trouble-for-global-climate/">climate</a>. 



That large, steady transport helps moderate temperature gradients and shapes rainfall patterns across the Atlantic basin.



Because the AMOC affects weather and climate on both sides of the ocean, scientists track its strength and structure closely. Long records help separate natural fluctuations from human-driven change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-mud-records-past-changes">Ocean mud records past changes</h2>



The researchers used the ratio of protactinium and thorium isotopes, buried in deep sea mud, to infer past circulation. This proxy responds to how vigorously the deep Atlantic exports protactinium relative to thorium, and it has become a key tool for reconstructing overturning <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/critical-ocean-current-may-be-more-stable-than-previously-thought/">changes</a>.



Flow rates are expressed in Sverdrups, a unit equal to one million cubic meters per second, which oceanographers use to describe basin scale transport. In practical terms, the study reports a late Holocene mean near 18 Sv for the modern-like-state.



To turn these isotope ratios into flow, the team used the Bern3D model, which embeds the isotope ratio physics. This enabled the team to convert multi-site records into a single time series of overturning strength through the Holocene.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-history-shows">What history shows</h2>



The analysis reveals a post-Ice Age recovery of overturning, followed by a marked slowdown between roughly 9,200 and 8,000 years ago.



About 6,500 years ago, the circulation stabilized and reached a preindustrial state close to 18 Sv.



That early Holocene dip lines up with bursts of meltwater from the waning North American ice sheet, which climate models and proxy evidence identify as a trigger for temporary AMOC weakening. 



The well-known 8,200-year cold event appears sharply in Greenland ice cores, while marine records tend to smooth over its shorter fluctuations.



From about 6,500 years ago to the preindustrial era, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-warming-could-reduce-ocean-currents-amoc-and-cause-massive-flooding-in-the-us/">record</a> points to low variability around a stable mean. That long plateau provides a valuable baseline for assessing modern change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-circulation-stabilized-during-the-holocene">Circulation stabilized during the Holocene</h2>



One Bermuda Rise core shows a short-lived increase in these isotope ratios around 4,200 years ago, a timing that overlaps with a widely discussed climate episode. 



The authors argue that local bottom processes likely amplified the isotope signal through intense nepheloid layers, particle rich waters near the seafloor that can scavenge isotopes and mimic circulation changes.



Large compilations of global proxy data also suggest the 4.2 ka event was not uniformly expressed worldwide, which supports caution when tying a single marine signal to a basin scale overturning shift. 



Together, these lines point to a stable large scale AMOC through the mid to late Holocene.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-lies-ahead">What lies ahead</h2>



Climate models participating in <a href="https://repository.library.noaa.gov/view/noaa/30634" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CMIP6</a> point to a 21st century slowdown of the overturning. An emergent constraint analysis suggests a decline of roughly 6 to 8 Sv by 2100 when models are calibrated against present-day observations.



“Anthropogenic climate change may result in an AMOC slowdown unprecedented for most of the ongoing Holocene interglacial,” wrote Gerber. This conclusion rests on comparing the new 12,000 year baseline with modeled futures under different emissions paths.



The paper also explains why some short-lived events are difficult to detect in sediment records. Bioturbation and limited sampling resolution smooth the signal, making perturbations lasting less than about 180 years hard to discern in the isotope ratios.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-atlantic-circulation">Significance of the Atlantic circulation</h2>



A weaker overturning reduces northward ocean heat transport, shifts storm tracks, and can alter rainfall belts. 



Multi-model studies connect AMOC weakening to shifts in tropical Atlantic rainfall, with implications for food security, water resources, and regional climate extremes.



For roughly 6,500 years, the Atlantic’s overturning remained near a steady state, but model projections suggest it could leave that range within our lifetimes.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-61793-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Atlantic circulation may become unstable after 6,500 steady years

Over the last 12,000 years, the Atlantic’s great heat mover...

Some wild birds can develop the body of one sex while carrying the DNA of the other. New evidence suggests this happens more often than scientists realized, and it may matter for species already under pressure.



Researchers led by the <a href="https://www.usc.edu.au/">University of the Sunshine Coast</a> (UniSC) examined nearly 500 birds from five familiar species and found that up to 6% showed a mismatch between their physical sex and their genetic sex.&nbsp;



The work points to a hidden source of error in bird studies and a potential risk for threatened populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-females-with-male-reproductive-organs">Females with male reproductive organs </h2>



“This indicates that sex determination in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-wild-bird-is-expecting-again-at-74/">wild birds</a> is more fluid than we thought - and can persist into adulthood,” said co-author Dominique Potvin, an associate professor at UniSC.&nbsp;



The birds - including magpies, kookaburras, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pigeons-exhibit-same-behavior-as-humans-by-following-the-gaze-of-others-in-their-flock/">pigeons</a>, and lorikeets - were examined after death at wildlife hospitals in southeast Queensland.&nbsp;



Each bird’s reproductive organs were identified, and DNA tests determined genetic sex.&nbsp;



“One of the key findings was that 92% of sex-reversed birds were genetically female but had male reproductive organs,” Potvin said.



A single case demonstrated how dramatic the reversal can be. “We also discovered a genetically male kookaburra who was reproductively active with large follicles and a distended oviduct, indicating recent egg production.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-team-defined-sex-reversal">How the team defined sex reversal</h2>



The team classified sex-reversed birds in three ways. Some were genetic males with a complete feminine phenotype. Some were genetic females with a complete masculine phenotype. Others showed a mix of ovarian and testicular features. 



Importantly, the mismatches were not limited to juvenile birds. Many were adults, meaning the reversal had persisted beyond early development.



Sex reversal is not a new idea in biology. It is well documented in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-fish-use-the-moon-cycle-to-manipulate-their-offsprings-sex/">fish</a>, amphibians, and reptiles. But it has rarely been confirmed in wild birds and mammals.&nbsp;



This study offers a baseline for Australian birds, showing that the phenomenon is present across multiple species living in the same region.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sex-reversal-and-bird-conservation">Sex reversal and bird conservation</h2>



“Understanding how and why sex reversal occurs is vital for conservation and for improving the accuracy of bird research,” Potvin said.&nbsp;



If a population carries more functional males than its DNA suggests - or vice versa - managers could misjudge breeding potential. That matters for small or declining groups, where every breeding season counts.



Lead author Clancy Hall, a UniSC doctoral student. warned about the demographic effects. “This can lead to skewed sex ratios, reduced population sizes, altered mate preferences, and even <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-are-declining-fastest-where-they-were-once-common/">population decline</a>,” he said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distinguishing-male-from-female">Distinguishing male from female</h2>



Traditional cues like plumage, size, and behavior can mislead. DNA tests are often treated as the gold standard. The new results show that even genetic markers do not always match a bird’s functional sex.&nbsp;



“The ability to unequivocally identify the sex and reproductive status of individuals is crucial across many fields of study,” Hall said. “We've now established that DNA evidence does not always reflect the suspected sex.”



“Bird researchers often take small DNA samples from blood or feathers and make decisions based on the results showing male or female, but this actually could be wrong up to 6% of the time.”



That error rate might seem small. It is not, if it clusters in particular species or habitats, or if census sizes are low. For threatened birds, a few percentage points can tip the balance between stability and decline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-causes-sex-reversal">What causes sex reversal?</h2>



The study did not pin down causes. The authors highlight several possibilities for future investigation. 



Endocrine-disrupting chemicals can interfere with hormones needed for sex development. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chronic-stress-disrupts-gut-bacteria-and-fuels-cancer-progression/">Chronic stress</a> can elevate hormone levels and shift development, too. 



The environment around some birds suggests exposure is also plausible. For example, the reproductively active, genetically male kookaburra was found in a peri-urban agricultural zone, where such chemicals may accumulate.



More research will be needed to sort out timing and triggers. Does reversal arise in the egg, during nestling growth, or later in life? Are some species more susceptible than others? Do heat waves or drought play a role through stress pathways?&nbsp;



The answers to these questions will help conservationists target the most effective protections.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



The immediate step is methodological. Field biologists may need to pair DNA testing with direct examination of reproductive anatomy when possible, or develop noninvasive hormonal assays that better reflect functional sex.&nbsp;



Museum and hospital specimens, like those used here, can anchor the science, even as live-animal tools improve.



The broader step is ecological. If sex reversal is common enough to shift local sex ratios, managers will need to account for it when modeling population growth, setting harvest limits, or designing recovery plans.



The study’s message is clear and practical. Birds do not always fit neatly into genetic boxes. Their bodies - and their populations - can be more fluid. Recognizing that reality will make research more accurate and conservation more effective.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/epdf/10.1098/rsbl.2025.0182" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology Letters</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Sex reversal is more common in wild birds than expected

Some wild birds can develop the body of one sex...

Human civilization depends on ecosystems that quietly maintain the conditions of life. Plants capture sunlight, cycle water, balance carbon, and nourish soils. These processes allow agriculture, forests, and rivers to thrive. 



Yet today, pressures from human activity are overwhelming many of these natural systems. Scientists warn that when ecological thresholds are crossed, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-what-were-really-fighting-for/">nature</a>’s ability to stabilize the planet begins to falter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-functional-biosphere-integrity">Functional biosphere integrity</h2>



A new study has mapped the planetary boundary of “functional biosphere integrity” in both space and time. The results reveal that 60 percent of global land areas are already outside the safe zone, with 38 percent in the high-risk category. 



The research, led by the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research (PIK) with <a href="https://boku.ac.at/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BOKU University</a> in Vienna, is published in the journal One Earth.



Functional biosphere integrity refers to the plant world’s ability to co-regulate Earth’s systems. Through photosynthesis, vegetation captures energy that sustains the flows of carbon, water, and nitrogen essential for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-honors-success-in-clean-energy-and-wildlife-recovery/">ecosystems</a>. 



Alongside biodiversity loss and climate change, this integrity is one of the “core boundaries” that define a safe operating space for humanity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mounting-strain-on-the-biosphere">Mounting strain on the biosphere</h2>



“There is an enormous need for civilization to utilize the biosphere - for food, raw materials and, in future, also for climate protection,” said Fabian Stenzel, lead author and <a href="https://www.pik-potsdam.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PIK</a> researcher.



“After all, human demand for biomass continues to grow - and on top of that, the cultivation of fast-growing grasses or trees for producing bioenergy with carbon capture and storage is considered by many to be an important supporting strategy for stabilizing climate."



"It is therefore becoming even more important to quantify the strain we’re already putting on the biosphere - in a regionally differentiated manner and over time - to identify overloads. Our research is paving the way for this.”



This growing strain highlights the urgency of tracking how different regions are approaching or exceeding ecological limits. Without such knowledge, society risks eroding the very systems it relies upon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-health-of-earth-s-ecosystems">The health of Earth's ecosystems </h2>



The researchers used two methods to measure how healthy Earth’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-may-have-three-million-undiscovered-animal-species/">ecosystems</a> are. The first, called HANPP, shows how much plant energy humans take away or reduce through farming, forestry, and land use.



The second, called EcoRisk, looks at how much ecosystems are being disturbed. This method tracks changes in plants and in important natural cycles of water, carbon, and nitrogen.



If HANPP is high, it means people are taking too many resources, which can harm wildlife. If EcoRisk is high, it means ecosystems are becoming unstable, which can trigger bigger problems in nature.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-thresholds-and-transgressions">Thresholds and transgressions</h2>



Scientists compared these indicators with ecological benchmarks to determine safe, risky, and high-risk zones. 



The analysis shows that by 1900, humanity had already crossed safe boundaries for biosphere integrity, largely due to expanding agriculture.



By 1990, global averages had entered the high-risk zone. Fertilizer use, deforestation, and climate-driven changes accelerated the trend throughout the 20th century.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-regional-differences-and-historical-context">Regional differences and historical context</h2>



The data show that mid-latitude regions began to experience strain as early as 1600. By 1900, 37 percent of land had already breached local safety thresholds, with 14 percent in high-risk zones. Today, those numbers stand at 60 and 38 percent. 



Europe, Asia, and North America are the most affected due to centuries of agricultural expansion and forest clearing. 



Even relatively untouched regions such as the Arctic and high mountains now show ecological stress driven by climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biosphere-protection-and-climate-action">Biosphere protection and climate action</h2>



“This first world map showing the overshoot of the boundary for functional integrity of the biosphere, depicting both human appropriation of biomass and ecological disruption, is a breakthrough from a scientific perspective, offering a better overall understanding of planetary boundaries,” said Johan Rockström, PIK Director.



“It also provides an important impetus for the further development of international climate policy. This is because it points to the link between biomass and natural carbon sinks, and how they can contribute to mitigating climate change. Governments must treat it as a single overarching issue: comprehensive biosphere protection together with strong climate action.”



The study shows that keeping nature healthy is key for Earth’s balance. We must protect ecosystems and avoid taking too much from them. These actions are necessary to keep both people and the planet safe.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/one-earth/fulltext/S2590-3322(25)00219-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">One Earth</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Human pressures are pushing the biosphere out of balance

Human civilization depends on ecosystems that quietly maintain the conditions...

In 2024, the planet faced more hot, sticky days than ever before. The American Meteorological Society reported that humid heat days over land rose by 35.6 compared to the 1991-2020 average. That broke the previous record from 2023 by nearly 10 days.



This is not just about hotter summers. Humidity is climbing to levels that make normal cooling impossible. 



When air holds too much moisture, sweat doesn’t evaporate. The body keeps the heat inside, which quickly becomes dangerous.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-our-body-struggles-in-humid-heat">Our body struggles in humid heat</h2>



Kate Willett from the UK <a href="https://www.metoffice.gov.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Met Office</a> explained the risk clearly. “Your body starts to really struggle to offload heat, and so it can be really dangerous."



Meteorologists track this with a “wet bulb temperature.” They cover a thermometer with a wet cloth. 



Normally, evaporation cools the reading. In muggy conditions, that effect fades, and the wet bulb temperature rises close to the dry one. It represents how oppressive the air feels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humid-heat-around-the-world">Humid heat around the world</h2>



A warmer atmosphere holds more water. That means heavier rains, stronger storms, and more humid days. Willett said 2024 was “exceptionally” humid, second only to 2023.



The numbers tell the story. In the Middle East, South-East Asia, and eastern China, wet bulb temperatures often surpassed 29°C (84°F). 



Some places even touched 31°C (88°F). At that point, being outside for long periods is unsafe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-much-heat-can-humans-take">How much heat can humans take?</h2>



For years, scientists believed survival ended at 35°C (95°F) wet bulb temperature. But research in 2022 lowered the limit. The real danger may begin around 31°C (88°F). 



“30°C and above is where your body is really struggling,” Willett said. That means the danger line is much closer than many assumed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-america-s-muggiest-summer">America’s muggiest summer</h2>



The United States faced its own climate crisis as the summer of 2025 began. More than 70 million people endured what scientists have called the muggiest start to a summer in recorded history. 



Across much of the eastern half of the country, the air felt thick and heavy for weeks, with heat combining with record-breaking humidity.



Data showed that parts of 27 states, along with Washington, D.C., experienced an unusual number of days with dew points above 65°F. 



Meteorologists often use this mark as the point when the air shifts from merely noticeable humidity to levels that feel uncomfortable and oppressive for most people. In simple terms, the air felt more like a tropical zone than a typical American summer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humidity-rises-in-u-s-cities">Humidity rises in U.S. cities</h2>



Some cities felt it worse than others. Philadelphia reported 29 separate days when dew points soared beyond 75°F, creating air that many residents described as suffocating. Washington, D.C., had 27 days at this extreme level, while Baltimore experienced 24. 



To put that in perspective, even the National Weather Service office in Tampa, a city used to sticky summers, classifies dew points of 75°F and above as “oppressive.” 



“This has been a very muggy summer. The humid heat has been way up,” said Bernadette Woods Placky from Climate Central.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dew-points-rising-fast">Dew points rising fast</h2>



Dew point measures moisture in the air. It’s the most accurate way to explain humidity. In cities like Washington, Baltimore, and St. Louis, dew points this summer were about six degrees higher than the 1951–2020 average.



Cameron Lee, a climate scientist at <a href="https://www.kent.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kent State University</a>, measured dew points of 82°F at his home in Ohio. 



“There are parts of the United States that are experiencing not only greater average humidity, especially in the spring and summer, but also more extreme humid days,” Lee said. 



The data shows that what used to happen once a year is now happening several times a summer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nights-stay-hotter-with-humid-heat">Nights stay hotter with humid heat</h2>



High humidity keeps heat trapped at night. Normally, the body cools off while we sleep. But this summer, cities from the Ohio Valley to the Atlantic broke records for the hottest overnight lows. 



“What really impacts the body is that nighttime temperature,” said Zack Taylor from the <a href="https://www.weather.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Weather Service</a>. Without cooling, the body doesn’t recover from the day. The strain builds day after day.



Meteorologists link these conditions to both climate change and shifting weather patterns. Persistent high-pressure systems trapped heat, while heavy rains added more moisture. Missing were the cooler air fronts that once offered relief.



“Summers now are not your grandparents’ summers,” noted Marshall Shepherd, a professor at the <a href="https://www.uga.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Georgia</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Humid heat days are a growing threat to public health

In 2024, the planet faced more hot, sticky days than...

A new study watching whales and dolphins together suggests play is not rare and not always one-sided. The team sifted through videos and images from around the world to classify exactly what each animal did during these encounters 



The research lands at a moment when millions of people are capturing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whales-now-migrate-weeks-early-signaling-big-ocean-changes/">wildlife</a> on their phones, and scientists are turning that stream into data. The project was led by Dr. Olaf Meynecke of <a href="https://www.griffith.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Griffith University</a>’s Whales &amp; Climate Program .



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-study-tracked">What the study tracked</h2>



The dataset covered 199 independent events involving 19 species and documented 425 baleen whales and an estimated 1,570 dolphins. 



Humpback whales accounted for most whale <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-whale-with-razor-sharp-teeth-discovered-in-australia/">observations</a>, while bottlenose dolphins were the most frequently recorded dolphins.



The researchers coded where dolphins positioned themselves relative to the whales, how both sides moved, and which age classes were present. 



The analysis treated each shift in position or behavior as a datapoint rather than only counting a whole event.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-footage-of-whales-and-dolphins">Footage of whales and dolphins</h2>



The team combined publicly shared footage, tourism operator videos, and research clips, and then applied verification checks to confirm identities and avoid duplicates. 



Two whale-mounted camera tags added a view from the whales themselves and showed dolphins staying engaged below the surface as well.



Baleen whales belong to the group Mysticeti - the massive filter feeders that include <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-orca-day-2025-saving-the-oceans-top-predators/">humpbacks</a>, fin whales, and blue whales. Dolphins, on the other hand, are members of the Delphinidae family - known for their complex social lives and swift, agile movements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whale-and-dolphin-interactions">Whale and dolphin interactions</h2>



In most events, dolphins favored the whale’s head region, the rostrum, where pressure waves can help them move with less effort. This positioning lined up with widespread reports of bow riding, when dolphins surf the wave in front of a moving body.



Humpbacks often responded with slow, oriented <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whales-are-giving-birth-where-we-least-expected/">movements</a>, pectoral fin gestures, rolling, and belly presentations. The researchers said that tail slaps and signs of aggression were rare and made up only 5% of the whale-dolphin interactions.



“And in particular for humpback whales, we found that for one third of the events the behavioral responses towards the dolphins appear positive," said Meynecke.



"The humpback whales were rolling from side to side, undertaking belly presentation and other behaviors that are associated with courtship or friendly socializing."



The experts suggested that not only do whales and dolphins coexist - but also seem to seek each other out. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-play-matters-in-marine-life">Why play matters in marine life</h2>



Animal play is more than a-feel-good idea. A leading framework describes play as voluntary, rewarding, and different in form from serious behavior, often occurring when an animal is not stressed.



Scientists also split play into categories, including locomotor play, object play, and social play. 



When two species interact, researchers refer to it as interspecific social play - mutual, cooperative behavior that displays typical play signals, though sometimes the interaction may be one-sided.



Energetics add another layer to the story of dolphins near whale heads. A 2024 study found bow riding dusky dolphins had significantly lower respiration rates at the same travel speeds than free-swimming dolphins, supporting the idea that this position can save energy while the animals move.



That does not mean every close pass is playful or efficient. Context matters, and the same behaviors can carry different meanings during feeding, traveling, or social bouts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-for-patterns-in-the-data">Looking for patterns in the data</h2>



Reports of whales and dolphins in close contact go back decades, but systematic counts across many species and places have been rare. 



One well documented case described humpback whales lifting bottlenose dolphins out of the water, a striking interaction debated as play, caregiving, or a response to harassment.



Those events were unusual, yet they helped shape today’s questions about intent and reciprocity. The new analysis builds on that history by treating many everyday encounters as data rather than curiosities.



Social media and drone clips now extend the reach of field observations without replacing traditional surveys. With consistent verification, these sources can reveal patterns that were hard to see when studies were limited to a few sites and seasons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-dolphin-whale-interactions">Future of dolphin-whale interactions</h2>



Play and tolerance across species hint at flexible social rules in the open ocean. If whales and dolphins often meet without conflict, those interactions could influence how they share space, find food, or learn about each other over time.



Future work can test whether specific whale behaviors invite or discourage close approaches and whether local conditions change the odds that play turns mutual. 



Tag videos, UAV footage, and standardized ethograms will help sort those possibilities with fewer gaps and fewer assumptions.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s44338-025-00099-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Discover Animals</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Whales and dolphins seek each other out to play

A new study watching whales and dolphins together suggests play...

When we talk about mental health, traits like resilience or neuroticism usually dominate the discussion. Yet, another trait quietly shapes how people experience the world: sensitivity. 



For some, it brings creativity, empathy, and awareness. For others, sensitivity comes with challenges such as overstimulation and vulnerability to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/traffic-noise-exposure-increases-mental-health-risks/">stress</a>.



A new study shows sensitivity strongly affects mental health. After reviewing 33 studies, researchers found links to depression and anxiety. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sensitivity-and-its-nature">Sensitivity and its nature</h2>



Sensitivity, sometimes described as environmental sensitivity, reflects how people perceive and respond to their surroundings. About 31% of the population fall into the highly sensitive category. These individuals notice subtle details, feel <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/living-near-nature-and-greenspaces-shown-to-reduce-mental-health-issues-by-60-percent/">emotions</a> deeply, and process experiences more intensely than most.



Scientists view sensitivity as biologically rooted, influenced by genetics and brain activity in regions tied to empathy and reflection. 



The Highly Sensitive Person Scale (HSPS) is the main tool used to measure it, with three core subdimensions: Ease of Excitation, Low Sensory Threshold, and Aesthetic Sensitivity. Each reveals how differently sensitivity can influence mental well-being.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sensitivity-and-mental-health">Sensitivity and mental health</h2>



The systematic review found clear links between sensitivity and a wide range of conditions. Depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, agoraphobia, and avoidant personality disorder all showed associations with higher sensitivity.



Mechanisms behind this include a tendency toward overstimulation, emotional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-worms-could-change-how-we-test-mental-health-drugs/">reactivity</a>, and deeper cognitive processing. 



For example, highly sensitive individuals may dwell on negative experiences longer, which can lead to rumination. They may also become quickly overwhelmed, creating feelings of helplessness and reinforcing anxiety.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strong-links-confirmed">Strong links confirmed</h2>



“This is the most extensive systematic review on sensitivity and mental health in adolescents and adults to date, and is the first ever meta-analysis on the topic to estimate the impact of this relationship,” noted Tom Falkenstein, a psychotherapist and PhD student at Queen Mary University of London. 



“We found positive and moderate correlations between sensitivity and various mental health problems such as depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, agoraphobia and avoidant personality disorder." 



According to Falkenstein, the team's findings suggest that sensitivity should be considered more in clinical practice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-better-treatment-for-sensitive-people">Better treatment for sensitive people</h2>



“In addition, our findings could help improve treatment for these individuals. Around 31% of the general population are considered highly sensitive, and, as our findings show, are more likely to respond better to some psychological interventions than less sensitive individuals,” said Falkenstein.



“Therefore, sensitivity should be considered when thinking about treatment plans for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-mental-disorder-called-solastalgia-linked-to-environmental-climate-distress/">mental health</a> conditions." 



"Our work shows it is crucial that the awareness of sensitivity is improved among mental health care professionals, so clinicians and practitioners can recognize the trait in their patients, and tailor treatment to their sensitivity.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vulnerability-to-anxiety-and-depression">Vulnerability to anxiety and depression </h2>



The review’s meta-analysis revealed a medium correlation between sensitivity and both depression (r = .36) and anxiety (r = .39). 



This suggests sensitivity significantly shapes vulnerability to these conditions. While results varied across studies, the overall evidence was consistent.



Importantly, not all aspects of sensitivity contribute equally. Ease of Excitation and Low Sensory Threshold showed stronger links to distress, while Aesthetic Sensitivity often had weaker or inconsistent effects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mental-health-of-highly-sensitive-people">Mental health of highly sensitive people </h2>



Study co-author Michael Pluess is a professor of developmental psychology at University of Surrey and visiting professor at <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>.



“This is the first meta-analysis providing robust evidence that highly sensitive people are more prone to common mental health problems,” said Pluess.



“However, it is important to remember that highly sensitive people are also more responsive to positive experiences, including psychological treatment." 



Professor Pluess noted that the results provide further evidence that sensitive people are more affected by both negative and positive experiences and that the quality of their environment is particularly important for their well-being.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-perspective-and-future-work">Broader perspective and future work</h2>



The researchers argue that sensitivity could serve as a transdiagnostic factor. Because it influences multiple conditions, treatment should prioritize emotional regulation, mindfulness, and relaxation techniques. 



Early education about sensitivity could also help young patients see it not as a weakness, but as part of their unique makeup.



Future studies will explore how sensitivity interacts with gender, age, and upbringing. Evidence already suggests supportive environments reduce risks, while negative ones amplify them. This highlights the importance of tailoring therapy to the individual.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/21677026251348428" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Clinical Psychological Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Sensitive people are more likely to develop mental health issues

When we talk about mental health, traits like resilience or...

In a new analysis from the Dog Aging Project, researchers have built the first large-scale comorbidity map for companion dogs using owner-reported health histories from 26,614 pets across the United States.



The result is a network that highlights which illnesses tend to cluster and, when timing is available, which ones usually come first.



The goal is practical. If certain conditions line up in a common sequence, veterinarians can screen earlier, counsel dog owners more clearly, and manage risks with fewer blind spots.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-dogs-and-diseases">Studying dogs and diseases</h2>



Pet <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-suffer-from-the-january-blues-just-like-humans/">dogs</a> share our homes, daily environments, and many age-related illnesses, which makes them strong models for understanding how multiple diseases stack up over time in real-life settings. 



Dogs often receive consistent veterinary care, so their medical records can reveal surprisingly insightful patterns.



The comorbidity study was led by Antoinette Fang of the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Chicago</a>, with colleagues from Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, <a href="https://www.tamu.edu/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Texas A&amp;M University</a>, and Tufts University.



“Because <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-dogs-binge-watch-television-everyday/">pet</a> dogs share our homes, environments and many of our age-related diseases, mapping how their illnesses cluster and cascade offers a powerful window into the same multimorbidity processes that erode human health and points to earlier detection and prevention strategies for people too,” said Fang.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-dog-disease-map-reveals">What the dog disease map reveals</h2>



The team constructed an undirected comorbidity network that flags statistically significant condition pairings after adjusting for age, sex and reproductive status, weight, and mixed-breed versus purebred status.



Connections involving otitis externa - a condition marked by inflammation of the outer ear canal - reflect a familiar reality: allergies are a frequent underlying cause of ear problems and infections in dogs.



The network also linked proteinuria - an excess of protein in the urine - to anemia in the setting of chronic kidney disease. This connection is consistent with the biology of kidney-driven anemia in dogs.



The analysis highlights associations such as protein in the urine alongside low red blood cell counts, which may signal more advanced kidney disease. This connection demonstrates the importance of monitoring red blood cell production early.



A parasite cluster pattern was also found in the data, which aligns with clinical experience that many parasitic infections co-occur in the same animal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-timing-matters">Why timing matters</h2>



To examine the sequence in which conditions arise, the team incorporated reported onset dates and built a directed network to estimate which condition is more likely to precede another within a 12-month period.



This guide becomes useful when a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-head-shape-influences-dog-behavior/">dog</a> shows an early sign and a clinician needs to decide what to check next.



One example stands out from everyday ophthalmology. In dogs, diabetes is strongly associated with cataracts, and about 75 percent of diabetic dogs develop blinding cataracts within two years of diagnosis. This pattern aligns with the network’s diabetes-before-cataracts signal. 



The network also places keratoconjunctivitis sicca - commonly known as dry eye, where inadequate tear production leaves the eye unprotected - before corneal ulceration, a painful condition in which the cornea develops open sores. 



This sequence aligns with the way insufficient tears can leave the cornea vulnerable to injury and infection.



A cardiovascular example points the same direction. The ordered map shows hypertension preceding chronic kidney disease in older dogs, which matches consensus guidance that sustained high blood pressure damages target organs, including the kidneys. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dog-diseases-change-with-age">Dog diseases change with age</h2>



As dogs age, disease webs change shape, with more connections concentrating around a smaller set of hubs in senior dogs according to the authors’ age-stratified analyses. 



The shift lines up with what many owners see, a long stretch of minor problems, then a steeper cascade later in life.



Body size complicates this picture in useful ways. In Dog Aging Project <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38232117/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">data</a>, larger dogs carry higher lifetime prevalence for several categories like orthopedic, endocrine, and cancer, while smaller dogs show higher prevalence in some eye and cardiac categories, patterns that can shape size-aware screening choices. 



A veterinarian who knows a patient’s size risks can use this network as a clinical overlay rather than a one size fits all checklist.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-vets-can-use-the-map">How vets can use the map</h2>



For primary care, the value is anticipatory. If a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-followed-the-first-farmers-through-the-americas/">dog</a> presents with a new diagnosis that sits at the center of a cluster, a vet can plan targeted tests, schedule follow-up at tighter intervals, and talk with owners about what to watch for. 



The lesson for owners is to share detailed histories. Reporting onset dates, even approximately, helps transform a static problem list into a timeline that can guide critical decisions. 



“Mining owner-reported data from the Dog Aging Project, we built the first large-scale canine comorbidity network, confirming that diabetes often occurs before cataracts and revealing that health problems tend to cluster around a few key diseases as dogs age,” said Fang. 



Such a map can guide practical clinical trials, refine breed- and size-specific screening guidelines, and improve how veterinarians and owners discuss health risks well before they escalate into a crisis.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/ploscompbiol/article?id=10.1371/journal.pcbi.1012728" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Computational Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Mapping disease patterns in dogs can reveal what's ahead

In a new analysis from the Dog Aging Project, researchers...

Men who lose the Y chromosome in many immune cells face higher risks of narrow blood vessels. Narrowed vessels are a key driver of heart disease. This conclusion comes from a study analyzing more than 30,000 people.



“Loss of Y is killing a lot of men,” said Kenneth Walsh at the <a href="https://www.virginia.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Virginia</a>, who wasn’t involved in the study. “Men live six years shorter than females, and an enormous amount of that mortality is due to their sex chromosome instability.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-y-chromosome-loss-occurs">How Y chromosome loss occurs</h2>



As men grow older, some of their cells start losing the Y chromosome. This usually happens in white blood cells, which protect the body from infections. 



When new blood cells are made, small mistakes can occur, and more cells lose the Y chromosome over time. By age 70, about 4 out of 10 men have this loss.



In 2014, researcher Lars Forsberg found that men with Y loss lived about five years less than those without it. Later, Kenneth Walsh linked this loss to a higher risk of heart <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-tool-that-determines-your-heart-age-as-compared-to-your-actual-age/">disease</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-y-chromosome-loss-and-heart-disease">Y chromosome loss and heart disease</h2>



The Swedish CArdioPulmonary Bioimage Study (SCAPIS) offers one of the largest datasets for exploring cardiovascular risk. 



The researchers studied over 30,000 participants aged 50 to 64, including detailed imaging of their coronary and carotid arteries.



Men with substantial Y loss in blood cells showed stronger links to coronary atherosclerosis than men without it. 



This included more severe narrowing of arteries, greater numbers of affected vessel segments, and higher levels of calcified plaque.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-y-chromosome-loss-and-heart-arteries">Y chromosome loss and heart arteries</h2>



The researchers found that when men lose the Y chromosome in their blood cells, it links strongly to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-disease-kills-differently-now-than-five-decades-ago/">heart problems</a>, especially in the coronary arteries, which supply blood to the heart. 



But this same loss does not seem to affect the carotid arteries in the neck in the same way. The reason may be that these two types of arteries develop disease for different reasons.



Coronary artery disease is mainly caused by fat and cholesterol building up inside the blood vessels. This buildup, combined with inflammation, leads to plaque that blocks blood flow to the heart. 



Losing the Y chromosome seems to make these processes worse, increasing the chances of clogged or narrowed heart arteries.



Carotid artery disease, on the other hand, is more often linked to high blood pressure and the stress of blood flow against artery walls. Because of this, the Y chromosome loss may not play as large a role in the carotids.



This difference shows that Y chromosome loss may affect some parts of the body more than others. It also helps explain why men, who are more likely to lose the Y chromosome, often have higher risks of heart disease compared with women.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-y-loss-harms-cells">How Y loss harms cells</h2>



Researchers have observed that immune cells lacking Y often show disrupted gene regulation and impaired function. 



In animal models, Y loss triggered fibrosis in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cycling-daily-reduces-cancer-risk-by-50-percent-and-boosts-heart-health/">heart</a> and lung tissue, driven by heightened TGF-β signaling. Blocking this pathway reversed damage, suggesting a direct mechanistic role.



In humans, men with Y loss display fibrotic disease patterns and an increased risk of both pulmonary and cardiac complications. 



Together, these findings imply that Y loss contributes to plaque formation, fibrous cap buildup, and calcification - features linked with coronary disease severity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-y-loss-raises-heart-risk">Y loss raises heart risk</h2>



Losing the Y chromosome is more than just a sign of aging. It directly raises men’s risk of heart disease, leading to earlier and more severe artery problems. 



This risk stays even when factors like smoking, weight, diabetes, or cholesterol are considered.



Kenneth Walsh notes that more proof is needed, but evidence from scans, genetics, and lab studies strongly suggests Y loss makes men more vulnerable to heart disease.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-y-loss-for-treatment">Testing Y loss for treatment</h2>



Researchers envision a simple blood test to identify men with significant Y loss. This could help guide preventative strategies, such as closer monitoring, targeted therapies, or lifestyle interventions.



“It might identify patients who will particularly benefit from specific treatments,” said Thimoteus Speer.



The emerging view is that Y chromosome loss reshapes immune cell behavior, driving both fibrotic and atherosclerotic pathways. This dual effect could explain men’s shorter lifespans and higher rates of heart disease. 



As understanding deepens, detecting and managing Y loss may become central in men’s cardiovascular care.



Scientists believe this finding could change how doctors treat men’s heart health. If doctors test for Y loss early, they could spot which men are at higher risk. 



With that knowledge, doctors could watch these patients more closely, suggest healthier habits, or create treatments to lower the danger.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2025.07.10.25331326v1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">medRxiv</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Men’s heart health tied to Y chromosome loss with age

Men who lose the Y chromosome in many immune cells...

On the remote Rēkohu Chatham Islands, an ancestral duck that arrived hundreds of thousands of years ago evolved into a sturdier, more terrestrial bird with shortened wings and elongated legs. 



Within a few hundred millennia, it was already on the road toward giving up flight. The now-extinct species adds a vivid chapter to the story of how islands reshape animals.



The new research, led by the <a href="https://www.otago.ac.nz/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Otago – Ōtākou Whakaihu Waka</a>, combines <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-dna-reveals-37000-years-of-hidden-human-infections/">ancient DNA</a> with detailed bone measurements to describe a previously unknown shelduck. 



The species carries the scientific name Tadorna rekohu and the common name Rēkohu shelduck, both given by the <a href="https://www.moriori.co.nz/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hokotehi Moriori Trust</a>, guardians of the islands’ plants and animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-island-life-favors-walkers">Island life favors walkers</h2>



“In that time, the Rēkohu shelduck evolved shorter, more robust <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-once-had-hands-but-evolution-turned-them-into-wings/">wings</a> and longer leg bones, indicating it was going down the pathway towards flightlessness,” said co-lead author Nic Rawlence, an associate professor and director of the Otago Palaeogenetics Laboratory.



Those changes make ecological sense on Rēkohu. Food was plentiful. Ground <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/well-built-fences-keep-predators-from-harming-livestock/">predators</a> were scarce. Winds were strong, and flying wasn’t the safest or most efficient choice.



“Flight is energetically expensive, so if you don’t have to fly, why bother?” said co-lead author Pascale Lubbe, a postdoctoral fellow at the University of Otago. 



“The longer leg bones are more robust to support more muscle and create increased force for takeoff  - necessary when you have smaller wings.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-dna-and-bones-tell-the-story">Bird DNA and bones tell the story</h2>



Researchers pieced together the bird’s story from two lines of evidence. First, they sequenced ancient mitochondrial DNA from Chatham Islands fossils and compared it with living relatives. 



Second, they analyzed the shapes and proportions of skull, wing, and leg bones, looking for consistent differences.



Together, the genetic tree and the measurements confirm that the Rēkohu shelduck was most closely related to the pūtangitangi paradise shelduck (Tadorna variegata) of mainland Aotearoa New Zealand, yet distinct in form.



The family tree also helps time the split. The best estimate is that the ancestor of the Rēkohu shelduck colonized the islands about 390,000 years ago during the Late Pleistocene.



That is enough time, on an isolated archipelago, for natural selection and island living to reshape a bird’s body - shorter wing bones with chunkier ends and longer, more robust legs - without making it fully flightless.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-on-a-windy-archipelago"><a></a>Life on a windy archipelago</h2>



The Chathams sit roughly 785 kilometers (488 miles) east of mainland New Zealand and have long been a crucible of endemic bird life. Before people arrived, at least eight species of waterfowl bred there, from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-nesting-ducks-are-at-risk-from-climate-and-land-use-changes/">ducks</a> to swans and mergansers.



Island isolation and a different predator scene often push birds toward a classic “island syndrome:” reduced flight, stronger legs, and more time on the ground. 



The Rēkohu shelduck fits that rulebook. It had a longer, narrower cranium, proportionally shorter forelimbs, and longer hindlimbs than its mainland cousin - signatures of a bird that spent more time walking and foraging on foot.



Genetically, Tadorna rekohu is the sister taxon to T. variegata. Morphologically, it diverged in ways that matter for survival on Rēkohu. Ratios of limb bones show a slight tilt toward leg power over wing power.



 Analyses that compare <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-flight-feathers-may-reveal-which-dinosaurs-could-fly/">flight</a> capability across ducks suggest the Rēkohu shelduck was flight-reduced rather than fully flightless - a sensible compromise when winds are fierce and terrestrial food is reliable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-overhunting-sealed-the-bird-s-fate">Overhunting sealed the bird's fate</h2>



Archaeological clues indicate the Rēkohu shelduck did not survive into the 19th century. Its bones appear in early Moriori middens, pointing to overhunting as the likeliest cause of extinction, later compounded by habitat change and introduced predators. 



That fate mirrors many island birds that evolved with few enemies on the ground. Yet discovery still carries meaning. 



“This discovery is great for Rēkohu as a whole and helps connect imi Moriori with miheke (treasure) of the past,” said Levi Lanauze, Hokotehi Moriori Trust CEO.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-window-into-rapid-evolution">A window into rapid evolution</h2>



Describing Tadorna rekohu does more than add a name to a list. It shows how quickly island environments can nudge anatomy and behavior. 



It clarifies that the Chathams hosted a richer waterfowl community than survives today. And it underscores the value of pairing ancient DNA with careful measurements to resolve long-standing taxonomic puzzles.



Each new species described from Rēkohu helps sharpen the timeline of colonization, adaptation, and loss on an archipelago where evolution works fast.



The Rēkohu shelduck also illustrates how science and community can work together. The bird’s names acknowledge guardianship and genealogy that bind people, place, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-report-disturbing-details-about-the-state-of-earths-wildlife/">wildlife</a>.



As researchers continue to study bones, genomes, and sediments from the islands, more stories like this are likely to surface - reminding us how landscapes shape species, and how quickly those species can vanish without careful stewardship.



The study is published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article/204/3/zlaf069/8212055" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society</a>.



Image credit: Sasha Votyakova, Te Papa CC BY 4.0



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Extinct duck reveals how island life reshapes birds

On the remote Rēkohu Chatham Islands, an ancestral duck that...

For many people, mornings don’t really begin until the first sip of coffee. That drink doesn’t just wake the body - it flips a switch in the mind. Researchers at Bielefeld University and the University of Warwick wanted to know why coffee feels so uplifting in the morning compared with the afternoon.



The team followed young adults in Germany for several weeks. Each person tracked their mood and reported whether they had consumed caffeine in the last 90 minutes. 



The results were clear. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-coffee-may-reduce-frailty-in-aging-adults/">Coffee</a> and other caffeinated drinks boosted happiness and enthusiasm. The effect was strongest within two and a half hours of waking. Later in the day, the effect weakened.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-morning-coffee-resets-our-mood">Morning coffee resets our mood</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coffee-helps-bacteria-resist-antibiotics-in-your-gut/">Caffeine</a> didn’t only improve positive feelings. It also reduced negative ones like sadness and being upset. But that change was smaller and less reliable. Unlike the morning lift in happiness, this effect didn’t depend on the time of day.



The difference may lie in how caffeine works. It blocks adenosine receptors in the brain. This lifts energy and increases dopamine activity. 



Dopamine is tied to alertness and mood. Together, these changes explain why the morning cup feels like such a mental reset.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-do-people-react-differently">Do people react differently?</h2>



The team expected to see differences based on mental health, anxiety, or caffeine habits. But they didn’t. 



"We were somewhat surprised to find no differences between individuals with varying levels of caffeine consumption or differing degrees of depressive symptoms, anxiety, or sleep problems," noted Justin Hachenberger from <a href="https://www.uni-bielefeld.de" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bielefeld University</a>.



"The links between caffeine intake and positive or negative emotions were fairly consistent across all groups."



This result suggests that caffeine’s emotional effects are widely shared. People who react badly to caffeine may avoid it, so they were not strongly represented in the study. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-withdrawal-question">The withdrawal question</h2>



Scientists also debated whether the morning boost is real or simply relief from overnight withdrawal. 



"<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coffee-may-help-you-live-longer-if-you-drink-it-this-way/">Caffeine</a> works by blocking adenosine receptors, which can increase dopamine activity in key brain regions - an effect that studies have linked to improved mood and greater alertness," explained Professor Anu Realo from the <a href="https://warwick.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Warwick</a>.



"Even people with moderate caffeine consumption can experience mild withdrawal symptoms that disappear with the first cup of coffee or tea in the morning." 



In other words, coffee may feel good not only because of brain chemistry but also because it takes away the drag of going without caffeine during sleep.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mood-changes-depend-on-coffee-use">Mood changes depend on coffee use</h2>



The research showed that tiredness and social setting also change how caffeine feels. When people were more tired than usual, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-caffeine-slow-down-aging-yeast-may-hold-the-answer/">caffeine</a> gave them a bigger mood boost. 



When people were around others, the effect weakened. Social interactions may have already shaped mood, leaving caffeine less noticeable.



Negative feelings like worry didn’t shift much. Researchers think these emotions are tied to long-term stress or life events. That makes them harder to change with one drink. Positive emotions, on the other hand, respond more quickly to stimulation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-link-between-coffee-and-mood">Global link between coffee and mood </h2>



"Around 80 percent of adults worldwide consume caffeinated beverages, and the use of such stimulating substances dates far back in human history," said Professor Sakari Lemola from Bielefeld University, the study’s senior author. 



"Even wild animals consume caffeine; bees and bumblebees prefer nectar from plants that contain caffeine."



Coffee is more than a drink. It is part of daily routines across cultures. Yet researchers warn against drinking too much. High doses can disturb sleep and increase dependence. Over time, stopping suddenly can trigger headaches, irritability, and fatigue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mood-boost-from-morning-coffee">Mood boost from morning coffee</h2>



The study shows caffeine works best early in the day. It makes people feel happier, more awake, and more enthusiastic. But the effect doesn’t grow stronger with each cup. It fades as the day goes on.



For most people, moderation is the key. That first cup can brighten the morning, but too much can backfire. 



Coffee may not solve deeper worries or stress, but it can lift the mood enough to start the day with energy.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-14317-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Mood boost: How coffee makes us happier in the morning

For many people, mornings don’t really begin until the first...

In 2024, the world’s climate continued to break records, with greenhouse gas concentrations and global temperatures reaching unprecedented highs.



The oceans absorbed more heat than ever before. Sea levels climbed to their highest point on record, and glaciers shed more ice than in any prior year.



This year’s State of the Climate report, published by the <a href="https://www.ametsoc.org/ams/">American Meteorological Society</a>, brought together 589 scientists from 58 countries. 



The experts used data from satellites, weather stations, ocean buoys, and ice-core records. For decades, this report has been the go-to snapshot of Earth’s climate - tracking key changes and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2024-confirmed-as-earths-hottest-year-in-recorded-history/">extreme events</a> across the globe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greenhouse-gases-hit-highest-levels">Greenhouse gases hit highest levels</h2>



Carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide all set new records in 2024. Average CO2 levels reached 422.8 parts per million, up 52% from pre-industrial times. The jump from 2023 matched the fastest increase seen in the past 60 years.



Fossil fuel burning and agriculture remain the biggest sources. Rising greenhouse gases are locking in more heat, driving stronger feedback loops like higher water vapor in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-extremes-in-2024-what-have-we-learned/">atmosphere</a> and changes in how land stores carbon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heat-breaks-climate-records-again">Heat breaks climate records again</h2>



For the second year in a row, the planet broke its surface temperature record. Readings were up to 0.72°C (1.30°F) above the 1991-2020 average. 



A strong El Niño that began in mid-2023 and ended in spring 2024 helped push temperatures higher.



Heat extremes weren’t limited to the tropics. Europe, Asia, and South America saw their hottest years yet. Heatwaves lasted longer and struck at times of year when they used to be rare.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-rain-and-drought">Extreme rain and drought</h2>



Warmer air holds more moisture, and in 2024 it showed. The atmosphere carried record levels of water vapor. One in five areas on Earth hit all-time highs, double the share from 2023.



Heavy rain events set records too. Dubai saw 250 mm in one day - three times its yearly average. While some places were drowning, others faced persistent droughts and extreme heat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-heating-breaks-climate-records">Ocean heating breaks climate records</h2>



From January through June, sea surface temperatures refused to budge from record-breaking highs. 



The global average edged past the 2023 mark by 0.06°C (0.11°F) - a small number on paper, but significant in climate terms. A potent El Niño, layered on top of decades of steady warming, drove the surge.



Vast stretches of ocean endured marine heatwaves - bleaching coral reefs, pushing fish into new territories, and unsettling entire food webs. On average, the seas sweltered through 100 heatwave days in 2024, while cold spells were rare - just nine days across the year.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sea-levels-keep-rising">Sea levels keep rising</h2>



Oceans absorb over 90% of excess heat from greenhouse gases. In 2024, heat content down to 2,000 meters (6,562 feet) reached its highest ever. 



Global sea level hit a new high for the 13th year straight - over 10 centimeters (3.94 inches) above 1993 levels.



Warmer water expands, and melting ice from Greenland, Antarctica, and glaciers adds more volume. The result is higher flood risks and saltwater intrusion into freshwater supplies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-record-heat-at-the-poles">Record heat at the poles</h2>



The Arctic experienced its second-warmest year on record, with autumn setting an all-time high for temperatures.



In August, parts of the North American Arctic endured record high temperatures, and Norway topped 30°C (86°F) in September for the first time that late in the year.



Antarctica’s sea ice stayed far below average. Minimum and maximum extents were the second lowest ever recorded, continuing a run of poor ice years since 2016.



For the second consecutive year, all 58 reference glaciers lost ice in 2024. It was the worst year for glacier loss in the 55-year record. Venezuela lost its last glacier. In Colombia, the Conejeras Glacier vanished completely.



These losses threaten water supplies for farming, hydropower, and drinking water in many mountain regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-storms-bring-destruction">Storms bring destruction</h2>



There were 82 named tropical cyclones in 2024, fewer than average but still deadly. Hurricane Helene flooded parts of the U.S., killing more than 200 people. 



Hurricane Milton hit Florida less than two weeks later - setting a state record for the shortest gap between two major hurricanes.



In Asia, Super Typhoon Yagi tore through China and Vietnam, leaving more than 800 dead. Many storms intensified unusually quickly, fueled by warmer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astonishing-global-heat-in-january-2025-defied-climate-expectations/">ocean</a> waters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-our-changing-climate-reality">Our changing climate reality</h2>



“The State of the Climate report is an annual scientific landmark,” said American Meteorological Society President David J. Stensrud. 



"It is a truly global effort, in which hundreds of researchers from universities, government agencies, and more come together to provide a careful, rigorously peer-reviewed report on our planet’s climate."



"High-quality observations and findings from all over the world are incorporated, underscoring the vital importance of observations to monitor, and climate science to understand, our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-is-just-three-years-away-from-dangerous-carbon-milestone/">environment</a>." 



According to Stensrud, the results affirm the reality of our changing climate, as global temperatures continue to reach record highs.



The research is published in the <a href="https://www.ametsoc.org/ams/publications/bulletin-of-the-american-meteorological-society-bams/state-of-the-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

State of the Climate 2024: Record heat and rising seas

In 2024, the world’s climate continued to break records, with...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



—–



Like what you saw and read?&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a>&nbsp;for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



—–



Check us out on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth.com</a>.



—–

Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



-----

What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"]</div>



Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

News coming your way