Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Ever wonder about how life starts? Most of us know it has something to do with eggs, sperm, and maybe proteins, but the exact choreography that sees these partners meet and merge has remained somewhat of an enigma.



This fascinating tale is far from over, as researchers utilizing Google’s spectacular AlphaFold technology discovered a surprising new twist.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-egg-connecting-to-sperm">Egg connecting to sperm</h2>



Typically, opposites attract. In this context, you cannot find a pair more diverse than the egg and the sperm. 



One is a microscopic champion swimmer, always on the go, while the other is a stationary, voluminous entity, the blueprint for life. Their union forms the bedrock of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stress-enhances-sperm-performance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sexual reproduction</a>, spanning across every species on planet Earth.



The "how" behind this vital fusion has always remained shrouded in mystery, until now. A breakthrough study enlightens us; an interlocked trio of proteins opens the doors to this bond, making the sperm and egg recognize and stick together.



Evidently, this threesome protein bundle is a shared heritage across species - from fish to mammals, and most definitely humans too.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genesis-of-sperm-egg-and-protein">Genesis of sperm, egg and protein</h2>



Picture life's opening scene - a sperm navigating its way to an awaiting egg. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/semen-has-its-own-microbiome-and-it-may-be-the-cause-of-infertility/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sperm</a> and egg then create a bond, recognizing each other almost instantly. 



Within fractions of a second, the head of the sperm plunges into the egg, like stepping through an open doorway. This fusion brings to life a zygote, the starting point of a new creature.



Past studies had identified four "star" proteins on the sperm - with memberships in both mammalian and fish sperm clubs - that are crucial for fertilization. Yet, the exact nature of their teamwork and their modus operandi remained elusive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-egg-sperm-and-proteins">Egg, sperm, and proteins</h2>



Taking up this challenge, Andrea Pauli, a renowned molecular and developmental biologist at the Research Institute of Molecular Pathology (<a href="https://www.imp.ac.at" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IMP</a>) in Vienna, alongside her brilliant team, questioned how these sperm proteins might collaborate during the crucial fertilization process.



For this mission, they enlisted the prowess of AlphaFold, an artificial intelligence tech prodigy that bagged the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. AlphaFold can predict the shape of a protein, an essential attribute when dealing with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-testicles-created-in-a-lab-will-eventually-produce-sperm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cellular functions</a>. 



Armed with this AI, the researchers compared the four sperm proteins common to mammals and fish to about 1,400 other proteins on the zebrafish's testes' cell surfaces. They were hoping to find potential allies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proteins-on-the-super-team">Proteins on the super team</h2>



“We wanted to find something that we knew would be at the right place and at the right time,” said Victoria Deneke, a postdoctoral researcher in Dr. Pauli’s lab. It took weeks of analyzing and crunching data to finally predict which proteins might form this super team.



The results were remarkable. AlphaFold proposed two of the original proteins would bind with each other and a third, previously unknown protein. The trio, together, would form the team they were looking for.



Subsequent testing confirmed AlphaFold's prediction. In both zebrafishes and mice missing the newfound third protein, the males were infertile. 



Their sperm, even though mobile, couldn't fuse with an egg without the protein. Further evidence revealed that this trio of sperm proteins worked as a unit in both zebrafish and humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-and-lock-mechanism">Key and lock mechanism</h2>



Think of the trio of proteins as a "key" that opens a "lock" on the egg cell. For fish, this lock is a protein appropriately named 'Bouncer.' Without the Bouncer protein, the sperm cannot gain entry into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-body-prevents-multiple-sperm-from-fertilizing-an-egg/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">egg</a>.



Interestingly, though, the mammalian lock in this story is not Bouncer; it's an unrelated protein named Juno. 



This suggests that at some point in our evolutionary journey, different egg proteins evolved to bind with the sperm protein bundle. The mystery that baffles Dr. Pauli's team is how the lock changed while the key on the sperm remained the same.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-exciting-step-forward">An exciting step forward </h2>



Amber Krauchunas, a reproductive biologist at the <a href="https://www.udel.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Delaware</a>, views this research as exciting and a big step forward. 



Earlier in the year, another research group independently used AlphaFold, and they predicted the existence of the same three-protein bundle in mammals. The fact that two groups arrived at the same conclusion significantly boosts confidence in the findings.



Yet, the curtain hasn't completely lifted on the mystery of egg, sperm, protein and eventual fertilization. Some sperm proteins, known to be common across mammals and fish, are not part of this trio. It raises the question - what roles do they play?



“This is such a fundamental question with so few molecular answers,” Dr. Pauli said. “It’s amazing.” For now, we can relish the fact that we are a bit closer to understanding one of life's greatest mysteries.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(24)01093-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell</a>.



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How life begins: Egg, sperm, and a covert team of proteins

Ever wonder about how life starts? Most of us know...

Severe space weather can leave a lasting mark in tree rings, offering clues that might help scientists prepare for future disruptive events that threaten communication satellites and astronauts.&nbsp;



Amy Hessl, a geography professor at <a href="https://www.wvu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">West Virginia University</a>’s Eberly College of Arts and Sciences, is leading research that examines how ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-largest-ever-solar-storm-discovered-through-tree-rings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree rings</a> record evidence of extreme space weather, such as geomagnetic storms and solar radiation bursts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-space-weather-through-tree-rings">Tracing space weather through tree rings</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/space-weather-poses-significant-risks-to-railway-safety/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Space weather</a> includes a range of phenomena, such as the geomagnetic storms that produce auroras near the poles. These events can sometimes be intense enough to disrupt modern technology. According to Hessl, ancient tree rings have provided evidence of such extreme occurrences in the distant past.&nbsp;



“If one of these events were to happen today and you were on a high latitude flight flying to Norway, you’d probably receive your lifetime dose of radiation on the plane,” Hessl explained. “And if you were in space, it potentially could kill you.”



Hessl recently received over $202,000 in funding from the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Science Foundation</a> to further investigate the connection between tree rings and space weather. Her research focuses on how solar energetic particles interact with the Earth’s atmosphere, producing radiocarbon that is absorbed by trees.&nbsp;



As trees grow, they use carbon from the atmosphere to form their rings, effectively preserving a record of past solar activity. By analyzing these tree rings, researchers can trace back significant events, such as the rare and severe “Miyake events.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-solar-storms-recorded-in-trees">Extreme solar storms recorded in trees</h2>



Miyake events are characterized by rapid increases in atmospheric radiocarbon and have been detected in tree rings dating back centuries. The first of these events, occurring in 774 AD and 993 AD, was identified 12 years ago. Since then, scientists have discovered seven more events over the past 14,000 years.&nbsp;



“Some of these events were really extreme and would be incredibly disruptive to our telecommunications system now,” Hessl said. “It’s a very rare event, but it’s not out of the question. We’re dependent on satellites, and if it did happen again, it would probably wipe out most of our telecommunications, taking 15 years to recover. It’s that powerful.”



While most solar energetic particle events originate from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/second-strongest-solar-flare-since-2019-prompts-geomagnetic-storm-alert/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar flares</a>, some particles also come from galactic cosmic rays outside the solar system, often triggered by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernova explosions</a>.&nbsp;



Although the sun is considered the primary source of Miyake events, Hessl hopes that tree ring data from around the world can help the scientific community pinpoint the exact causes and assess the severity of these occurrences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interpreting-tree-ring-data">Interpreting tree ring data</h2>



Interpreting radiocarbon levels in tree rings is not always straightforward. “Until recently, scientists have assumed that trees take up radiocarbon evenly,” Hessl noted. “We’ve been treating trees as if they’re scientific instruments. But they’re not. They’re potentially very biased in the way they take up the radiocarbon.”&nbsp;



To improve the accuracy of the data, Hessl and her team are investigating why different species of trees, or trees in different locations, might absorb radiocarbon differently. Understanding these variations can help scientists better assess how reliable these natural recorders are.



Research into Miyake events also suggests that some trees store carbon and allocate it at a later time, making them less consistent as recorders of past atmospheric conditions.&nbsp;



To address these inconsistencies, Hessl is collaborating with Maria Carbone from <a href="https://nau.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northern Arizona University</a> and Rachael Filwett from <a href="http://v/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Montana State University</a>.&nbsp;



Together, they are studying how different tree species record atmospheric radiocarbon on an annual basis, focusing on three locations in the U.S. with wood that dates back to the last three major Miyake events.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-tree-species-for-consistency">Comparing tree species for consistency</h2>



Hessl’s team is comparing three species with different strategies for wood production: the long-lived bristlecone pine from Utah, the deciduous bald cypress in North Carolina, and oak trees preserved in the riverbeds of Missouri.&nbsp;



The bristlecone pine, the longest-living tree species in the world, has been particularly important in constructing a timeline of past radiocarbon levels. “They live for several thousand years and they’re the backbone of what we know about past radiocarbon in the atmosphere,” Hessl explained.



The research involves taking core samples the size of a pencil - or cross sections if the tree is dead - and using a technique called cross-dating to confirm the year each ring formed.&nbsp;



By matching tree rings with known Miyake events, the team can examine how different species record these extreme events. However, Hessl expects variations in how well different trees capture the details of these episodes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-for-future-space-weather-events">Preparing for future space weather events</h2>



The goal of this research is to better understand the magnitude and timing of past space weather events and to assess the reliability of trees as recorders of atmospheric radiocarbon.&nbsp;



“We’re trying to define how extreme those events were,” Hessl said. “When did they occur, exactly? How long did the radiocarbon last in the atmosphere? We need to be sure we’re using reliable recorders, so that’s what we’re trying to figure out.”



By studying how different trees record past events and how they respond to radiocarbon changes today, Hessl hopes to prepare for potential future space weather events that could threaten critical infrastructure, including communication networks.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-extreme-solar-storms">Rare, extreme solar storms</h2>



While a Miyake event is considered rare and unlikely, Hessl emphasizes the importance of preparation.&nbsp;



“Some stuff gets a little overblown, but we saw what happened during the pandemic in terms of initial panic,” she noted.&nbsp;



“So it’s very reasonable to try and figure out what the upper end bookmark of these things are, and then communicate that to the IT community so our technologies can be protected.”



In conclusion, Hessl’s research into tree rings and their ability to record severe space weather provides a window into understanding rare but potentially catastrophic solar events.&nbsp;



By looking to the past, scientists hope to better prepare for the future, ensuring that modern technology is more resilient to the powerful forces of space weather.



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Ancient tree rings help predict extreme solar storms

Severe space weather can leave a lasting mark in tree...

By now, you've heard of dark matter, but have you heard of dark comets? Probably not. "Dark comets" are comets that don't reflect much light, making them potential hazards for our planet because they are very difficult to detect with Earth-based telescopes.



According to new research, roughly 60% of all near-Earth objects are "dark" comets.



These mysterious celestial bodies orbit our sun and might have been key sources of water as Earth was forming billions of years ago.



These dark comets likely hold or used to hold ice, which raises some intriguing questions about their role in forming our planet and how water came to be on Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-dark-comets">Studying dark comets</h2>



Important new findings from a study led by Aster Taylor from the <a href="https://umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan</a> have backed up this fascinating theory. Taylor's curiosity drove his team to explore the chilly mysteries of the asteroid belt, a region full of potential.



For those unfamiliar, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/10-billion-mile-long-dust-belt-found-in-the-beta-pictoris-planetary-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asteroid belt</a> is located deep in our solar system between Jupiter and Mars. It’s home to a bunch of rocky asteroids, each with its own unique story.



Taylor's discoveries support a long-held suspicion that has been around since the 1980s: these asteroids might just have subsurface ice.



The implications of these findings are huge, not just for our understanding of the solar system but also for exploring potential resources for future space missions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dark-comets-connected-to-earth-s-water">Dark comets connected to Earth's water?</h2>



Taylor, through their study, could not confirm if these dark comets indeed delivered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-earth-get-its-water-new-clues-discovered-in-an-asteroid-sample/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water to Earth</a> but highlighted that this could be another path to bring ice from other parts of the solar system to Earth.



"We don't know if these dark comets delivered water to Earth. We can't say that. But we can say that there is still debate over how exactly the Earth's water got here," Taylor said. 



"The work we've done has shown that this is another pathway to get ice from somewhere in the rest of the solar system to the Earth's environment."



Despite dozens of studies, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-other-planets-collected-first-water-from-unexpected-source-planetesimals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">some very recent</a>, it boggles the mind that to this day, scientists are still unravelling how Earth got its water?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dark-comets-vs-normal-comets">Dark comets vs. normal comets</h2>



Dark comets, somewhat enigmatic bodies, unite features of both asteroids and comets. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/god-of-darkness-asteroid-apophis-prepares-for-visit-from-osiris-apex/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Asteroids</a> are close enough to the Sun to vaporize any ice they might carry in a process called sublimation, thus categorizing them as rocky bodies sans ice.



They tend to have more stable and predictable orbits and lack the characteristic cometary coma or tail.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/did-a-cosmic-airburst-set-the-world-on-fire-12800-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Comets</a>, on the other hand, display a distinctive fuzzy cloud enveloping them, known as a coma, which is created as the sublimating ice carries along dust.



This gives them a characteristic glowing appearance when viewed through telescopes or even to the naked eye in some cases. They generally have more elongated orbits that can take them far from the Sun and then close again.



Fun fact, they exhibit slight accelerations not due to gravity, but courtesy of this sublimation process! These non-gravitational forces can cause changes in their orbits over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cracking-the-code">Cracking the code</h2>



Taylor's study took a detailed look at seven dark comets and estimated that anywhere between 0.5 and 60% of all near-Earth objects could be these unique bodies.



They are devoid of comae (or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/devil-comet-is-visible-in-the-northern-hemisphere/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cometary dust clouds</a>) but endowed with nongravitational accelerations, likely resulting from minor amounts of sublimating ice.



According to their findings, these dark comets probably originate from the asteroid belt.



"We think these objects came from the inner and/or outer main asteroid belt, and the implication of that is that this is another mechanism for getting some ice into the inner solar system," Taylor said.



"There may be more ice in the inner main belt than we thought. There may be more objects like this out there. This could be a significant fraction of the nearest population. We don't really know, but we have many more questions because of these findings."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmic-carousel">Cosmic carousel</h2>



Taylor explained that our near-Earth environment is a chaotic place, dynamically evolving over a mere ten million years. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/27500-hidden-near-earth-asteroids-discovered-using-google-cloud/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Near-Earth objects</a> don’t maintain their orbits very long and are continuously replenished by a larger extraneous source.



To figure out the home of these mysterious dark comets, Taylor's research team developed dynamical models and followed their path for a whopping 100,000 years. 



Most ended up right where dark comets are today, with the main asteroid belt being their most probable birthplace.



"Near-Earth objects don't stay on their current orbits very long because the near-Earth environment is messy," they said. 



"They only stay in the near-Earth environment for around 10 million years. Because the solar system is much older than that, that means near-Earth objects are coming from somewhere -- that we're constantly being fed near-Earth objects from another, much larger source."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-origins-and-destinies-of-dark-comets">Origins and destinies of dark comets</h2>



One of the observed dark comets, 2003 RM, likely came from Jupiter's family of comets by being drawn inward from its orbit. 



The rest possibly emerged from the inner band of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-carbon-ices-discovered-objects-beyond-neptune-kuiper-belt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asteroid belt</a>, suggesting that ice is likely present in the inner main belt.



But why are these dark comets so tiny and rapidly spinning? Taylor explains that an acceleration-inducing off-gassing process occurs when comets get bumped within the ice line. This, added with continuous ice loss, results in even smaller, quickly rotating bodies.



"These pieces will also have ice on them, so they will also spin out faster and faster until they break into more pieces," Taylor said.



"You can just keep doing this as you get smaller and smaller and smaller. What we suggest is that the way you get these small, fast rotating objects is you take a few bigger objects and break them into pieces."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-dark-comets-shape-our-solar-system">How dark comets shape our solar system</h2>



To sum it all up, dark comets are still a mystery, but the work of Aster Taylor has uncovered more details that could help us spot them in the future, while providing more clues to the origin of Earth's water.



Dark comets are potentially very dangerous because their low reflectivity (or albedo) makes them harder to spot, yet they could still pose a significant impact threat to Earth.



By utilizing advanced telescopes and cutting-edge technology, they have uncovered crucial information about these mysterious objects, their origins, and their impact on our cosmic neighborhood. It's a reminder that our knowledge of the universe is still expanding, just like the universe itself.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0019103524002677" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Icarus</a>.



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Invisible "dark comets" account for 60% of all near-Earth objects

By now, you've heard of dark matter, but have you...

Wake up in your dreams: Exploring the world of lucid dreaming

Have you ever realized you’re dreaming while still asleep? That’s...

On the perpetual quest to understand Alzheimer’s, an unexpected breakthrough has been made, shedding light on ithe elusive nature and phases of the disease.



New research has led to the intriguing hypothesis that Alzheimer’s disease may wreak havoc on the brain in two distinct and destructive phases, fundamentally altering our understanding of its progression.



This fascinating and potentially game-changing discovery was funded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and made possible through advanced brain mapping tools.



The research could revolutionize the way we perceive, diagnose, and ultimately treat Alzheimer’s disease, offering renewed hope for patients and caregivers alike.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alzheimer-s-first-phase">Alzheimer’s first phase</h2>



The preliminary phase of Alzheimer’s disease sneaks in subtly. Before anyone detects <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/memory-clutter-speeds-up-aging-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory lapses</a> or disorientation, this quiet intruder is already at work, silently assaulting a select few cell types.



This silent destruction is the prelude, setting the stage for more noticeable and widespread damage.



“One of the challenges to diagnosing and treating Alzheimer’s is that much of the damage to the brain happens well before <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-why-some-brains-resist-alzheimers-disease-symptoms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">symptoms</a> occur," noted Dr. Richard J. Hodes, director of NIH National Institute on Aging.



"The ability to detect these early changes means that, for the first time, we can see what is happening to a person’s brain during the earliest periods of the disease."



It is this early detection that provides a glimmer of hope. The ability to glimpse into the initial stages of the disease provides a time window of potential intervention. It empowers scientists to comprehend and, possibly, influence the progression of this devastating disorder.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-second-phase-of-alzheimer-s">Second phase of Alzheimer's</h2>



The second phase is where the disease truly flexes its muscle. This phase encapsulates most of the changes traditionally seen during the progression of Alzheimer’s disease.



It is during the second phase that symptoms become evident, and the brain experiences rapid accumulation of Alzheimer's hallmarks - plaques and tangles.



In this study, researchers analyzed 84 brains in fine detail, focusing on the middle temporal gyrus - a region responsible for language, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-brains-create-three-copies-of-every-memory-we-make/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory</a>, and vision. This area is highly vulnerable to Alzheimer's disease.



By comparing data from regular donors with data from Alzheimer’s patients, an enlightening genetic and cellular timeline of the disease emerged.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-targets-of-alzheimer-s-phases">Targets of Alzheimer's phases</h2>



Alzheimer's transformation of the brain was found to occur in two "epochs." The first phase, gradual and quiet, includes the slow accumulation of plaques, activation of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alcohol-use-affects-the-brains-immune-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain's immune system</a>, and damage to cellular insulation which aids neuron signal transmission.



Most surprising was the discovery that the disease targets a particular kind of cells called SST inhibitory neurons during this phase, contradicting the traditional belief that Alzheimer’s primarily damages excitatory neurons.



This finding was unexpected because inhibitory neurons are responsible for sending calming signals to other cells, while excitatory neurons send activating signals.



The researchers hypothesize that the loss of these calming SST inhibitory neurons may set off a domino effect leading to disorders in the brain's neural circuitry, igniting the onset of the disease.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-resilience-against-alzheimer-s">Potential resilience against Alzheimer's </h2>



Parallel to this study, another NIH-funded research project at <a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a> suggested there is a potential protective factor.



A gene named REELIN, found in star-shaped brain cells called astrocytes, may offer some resilience against Alzheimer's disease. Astrocytes might be capable of resisting the harm inflicted by the disease.



These findings resulted from studying over 3.4 million <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-cells-communicate-to-support-decision-making/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain cells</a> from donors at various stages of Alzheimer's disease, utilizing tools developed by the NIH's BRAIN Initiative - Cell Census Network (BICCN). 



The tissue samples were obtained from the Adult Changes in Thought study and the University of Washington Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



“This research demonstrates how powerful new technologies provided by the NIH’s BRAIN Initiative are changing the way we understand diseases like Alzheimer’s," stated Dr. John Ngai, director of The BRAIN Initiative.



As the fight against Alzheimer's phases and other dementias continues, the findings offer a new lens to look at the disease, potentially guiding the development of targeted diagnostic tools and treatments for specific stages of Alzheimer's.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41593-024-01774-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Neuroscience</a>.



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Alzheimer’s disease attacks the brain in two separate phases

On the perpetual quest to understand Alzheimer’s, an unexpected breakthrough...

For years scientists have puzzled over the purpose of the unique ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs) produced by rats. Many of them have assumed these sounds to be a form of rats social communication, a subtle courtship ritual, much similar to the exquisite songs rendered by birds.



This comparison, however, might not be entirely accurate, as a new perspective suggests rodents could be using these sounds to enhance their olfactory world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unconventional-proposal">Unconventional proposal</h2>



An innovative proposition from an expert in bioacoustics from the <a href="https://www.buffalo.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University at Buffalo</a> presents a new perspective. 



The study, published in the journal Neuroscience &amp; Biobehavioral Reviews, indicates that rats might not be communicating through these sounds as we assumed but are using them to stir their environment.



This stirring affects how tiny particles are inhaled into their noses, implying that sound could be an essential tool in enhancing their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-nose-is-a-clever-smell-prediction-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sense of smell</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-molecular-interactions-of-particles">Controlling molecular interactions of particles</h2>



"This phenomenon has never been observed before, or I believe even suspected, in any animal," said Dr. Eduardo Mercado III, a professor of psychology in the UB College of Arts and Sciences. "They're creating new pathways of information by manipulating their environment and controlling the molecular interactions of particles around them."



This means that these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-that-rats-have-an-imagination/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rats</a> might not be flirting but surveying their surroundings using a process that could revolutionize our understanding. 



"It's so far off the scale of what we know that it's like we're observing 'Jedi' rats," said Mercado. "It almost seems like magic."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rats-identify-others-through-sound">Rats identify others through sound</h2>



Rodent exploration involves stroking surfaces with their whiskers, visually scanning, and perpetually <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-sniff-the-air-and-ground-to-track-the-source-of-a-scent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sniffing</a>. 



Mercado discovered that rodents consistently sniffed right after producing each USV. This observation led to the hypothesis that ultrasound could be used to manipulate particles, a technique known in the field of vibroacoustics.



Artificially produced ultrasonic vibrations, or vibroacoustics, cause airborne particles to cluster. With this in mind, rodents might be using USVs to create "<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tricking-animals-with-odor-could-save-plants-from-browsing-damage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">odor</a> clusters," thereby enhancing the reception of pheromones.



This indicates that the rats' sounds are making it easier for them to detect and identify friends, strangers, and competitors in their surroundings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-manipulating-nanoparticles-with-sound">Manipulating nanoparticles with sound</h2>



Rodent vocalizations have critical implications in research related to various human disorders, especially those relating to communication, social behavior, and emotional processing. These include conditions such as anxiety, depression, schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease, and autism. 



But, if this new hypothesis stands the test, it will necessitate a reevaluation of findings from these studies.



"Rodents, especially rats and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mummified-mice-found-on-volcano-summits-were-extreme-mountaineers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mice</a>, are the unsung heroes of the scientific world," said Jessica Zhou, a student researcher at Harvard University and co-author of the paper.



From an evolutionary perspective, there is evidence to suggest that the use of smell in exploration drove the evolution of attention and memory. This new understanding can also potentially lead to groundbreaking technologies. 



"The fact that we were oblivious to anything like this being possible means we don't have the understanding yet for how nanoparticles might be sonically manipulated for complex uses," said Mercado. But, if nature has already solved the problem for us, it could give us a significant head start.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rats-using-ultrasonic-sound">Rats using ultrasonic sound</h2>



The discovery of rodents using ultrasonic vocalizations to manipulate their environment could pave the way for groundbreaking innovations in both biology and engineering.



This newfound mechanism has the potential to inspire the development of technologies in fields such as particle manipulation, nanotechnology, and even air filtration systems.



The ability of rats to influence particles through ultrasonic sound waves suggests that similar principles could be applied in designing devices to control or cluster particles.



This could lead to advancements in areas like air quality monitoring, where precise manipulation of particles is crucial, or in developing odor detection technologies for security or medical applications.



Additionally, the findings open the door for further exploration of how other animals might use sound in unexpected ways to interact with their surroundings. 



Future research may reveal similar phenomena in other species, prompting a reevaluation of how animals engage with their environments and the role of sound in sensory processing.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0149763424003774" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neuroscience &amp; Biobehavioral Reviews</a>.



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'Jedi rats' manipulate sound to supercharge their sense of smell

For years scientists have puzzled over the purpose of the...

Atmospheric rivers form worldwide as narrow bands of moisture that bring heavy rain and storms. Notably, these rivers are moving toward higher latitudes, which is changing weather patterns globally.



Over the past four decades, atmospheric rivers have moved about 6 to 10 degrees towards both poles. When these systems reach the Arctic, the melted sea ice impacts the climate across the entire globe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-atmospheric-rivers-impact-our-world">How atmospheric rivers impact our world</h2>



From the fertile lands of California and Southeast Asia to the coasts of Spain and Portugal, atmospheric rivers supply over half of the yearly runoff. In California, they can deliver up to 50% of the annual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rainfall-is-increasingly-unpredictable-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainfall</a>.



A series of <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/winter-storm-triggers-deadly-flooding-in-brazil/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">winter storms</a> from these rivers can bring enough rain and snow to end a drought, as seen in parts of the region in 2023. These rivers draw moisture from the tropics, curving toward the poles due to shifts in the jet stream.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-behavior-of-atmospheric-rivers">Behavior of atmospheric rivers</h2>



As with all natural phenomena, no two atmospheric rivers are identical. However, their collective behavior greatly interests climate scientists who study these patterns closely.



These systems are often observed in the extratropics, a region that sits between 30 and 50 degrees latitude in both the northern and southern hemispheres.



Over the past four decades, river activity has shifted away from 30 degrees, with more intense activity now seen along 50 degrees latitude. 



Notably, this shift means more atmospheric rivers bringing heavy rain to places like British Columbia and Alaska, increasing the risk of flooding and changing local weather patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-atmospheric-rivers">Shifting atmospheric rivers </h2>



So, why are atmospheric rivers moving poleward? The primary reason is the cooling tendency of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-are-substantially-changing-the-seasons-of-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea surface temperatures</a> in the eastern tropical Pacific since 2000.



Associated with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/australian-bushfires-triggered-rare-multi-year-la-nina/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">La Niña</a> conditions, this cooling effect influences atmospheric circulation worldwide, pushing the rivers towards the poles.



As atmospheric rivers drift poleward, they impact local climates significantly. In the subtropics, where these rivers are becoming less common, more prolonged droughts and water scarcity might become the norm.



Simultaneously, higher latitudes might experience more extreme rainfall and flooding. If atmospheric rivers frequent the Arctic more often, we might witness a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/79-n-glacier-northeast-greenland-melting-rapidly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rapid melting of sea ice</a>, exacerbating global warming and affecting arctic fauna.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-for-what-s-to-come">Preparing for what's to come</h2>



While the shifts so far largely reflect natural phenomena, human-induced global warming also plays a role.



As the world gets warmer, the atmosphere can hold more moisture, which makes atmospheric rivers happen more often and with greater intensity.



Predicting these future changes is challenging, mostly because it’s hard to predict the swings between El Niño and La Niña, which greatly influence where these atmospherric rivers go.



At the University of California, Santa Barbara, scientists like Qinghua Ding have been closely studying the poleward shift of atmospheric rivers. By understanding these changes, they hope to improve climate models and better predict future rainfall and water supplies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-wildlife">Implications for wildlife</h2>



The poleward shift of atmospheric rivers doesn’t just impact people - it also affects ecosystems and wildlife.



As more rain moves into northern regions, plants and animals that aren’t used to such heavy rain might face big challenges. 



For example, in Arctic areas, changes in rain can alter plant growth, which may disrupt the local balance of nature. This shift could also threaten animals like migratory birds, which need stable habitats for nesting and feeding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unpredictable-ecosystem-changes">Unpredictable ecosystem changes </h2>



In areas where atmospheric rivers are becoming less frequent, ecosystems that rely on steady rain might experience longer dry spells. 



Forests in warmer regions, for example, could face more drought, increasing the chances of wildfires and harming biodiversity. Aquatic habitats could suffer too, as less reliable water sources make it harder for fish and other creatures to thrive.



To help protect nature, conservation efforts must adjust to these changes. Protecting vulnerable plants and animals in areas experiencing shifts is essential to maintaining biodiversity. 



Ongoing research will play a key role in understanding these impacts and guiding strategies to help ecosystems cope with a changing climate.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adq0604" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory 



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Atmospheric rivers are shifting, with global climate impacts

Atmospheric rivers form worldwide as narrow bands of moisture that...

Music might be the secret key to easing patients' recoveries after surgery. According to research presented at the American College of Surgeons Clinical Congress 2024, the soothing influence of music extends beyond the soul and eases physical discomfort too.



Researchers at the <a href="https://medicine.cnsu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">California Northstate University College of Medicine</a> have found compelling connections between music and post-operative recovery.



Where did this fascinating theory come from? It started with a meticulous examination of 3,736 studies on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-has-the-power-to-change-the-mood-of-our-memories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">music</a>'s role in post-surgery recovery. 



From this massive repository, 35 research papers were narrowed down - each revealing a unique narrative about patient outcomes such as pain, anxiety, heart rate, and opioid use.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-benefits-of-music-post-surgery">Benefits of music post surgery</h2>



So, how does listening to music impact a recovering patient? The results of the collective studies provide some interesting insights.



There was a noticeable decrease in self-reported pain levels among patients who tuned into music after surgery. The Numeric Rating Scale and Visual Analogue Scale showed 19% and 7% reductions in pain respectively.



The analysis also revealed a 3% decrease in patient-reported anxiety levels. Furthermore, an intriguing reversal was observed in the use of morphine. Patients who listened to music used less than 50% of the painkiller on the first day after surgery.



A decrease in heart rate (around 4.5 fewer beats per minute) was noted among the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/similar-patterns-music-language-found-across-all-cultures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">music-listening</a> patients, promoting effective circulation of oxygen and nutrients, which aids in recovery. Besides, a lower heart rate means a reduced risk of tachycardia, a condition that can lead to dangerous heart rhythms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-music-reduces-stress-after-surgery">Music reduces stress after surgery</h2>



“When patients wake up after surgery, sometimes they feel really scared and don’t know where they are,” said Dr.&nbsp;Eldo Frezza, senior author of the study and a professor of surgery at California Northstate University College of Medicine.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/live-music-evokes-stronger-emotions-than-streamed-music/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Music</a> can help ease the transition from the waking up stage to a return to normalcy and may help reduce stress around that transition.”



Another interesting observation was made at this juncture. Unlike other therapies like meditation or Pilates, which require considerable effort and concentration, listening to music is a passive experience. It can be adopted instantly after surgery without any cost or extra effort.



“Although we can’t specifically say they’re in less pain, the studies revealed that patients perceive they are in less pain, and we think that is just as important,” said Shehzaib Raees, first author of the study and a third-year medical student.



“When listening to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/classical-music-orchestrates-a-mood-lifting-dance-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">music</a>, you can disassociate and relax. In that way, there’s not much you have to do or focus on, and you can calm yourself down.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-music-in-surgeries">Future of music in surgeries</h2>



As we look to the future, the intersection of music and medicine holds the promise of groundbreaking advancements. 



Emerging technologies, such as personalized music therapy playlists and AI-curated sessions, are on the horizon, offering tailored treatments based on an individual's specific conditions and preferences. 



The growing body of empirical evidence supporting music's efficacy in healthcare settings is likely to pave the way for more comprehensive clinical guidelines that incorporate music as a non-invasive, cost-effective therapeutic option. 



This innovative approach could revolutionize patient care, positioning music not merely as an adjunctive therapy but as an integral part of holistic, patient-centered treatment strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-listening-to-music-to-promote-recovery">Listening to music to promote recovery</h2>



The researchers discovered that the hormone cortisol could be the invisible maestro orchestrating this therapeutic effect. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-can-boost-brainpower-and-productivity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Listening to music</a> reduces cortisol levels, aiding recovery. However, some variables, like the duration of music-listening, were not controlled in the analysis.



Moving forward, a pilot program is being planned to scrutinize the application of music in the surgical setting and intensive care unit.



So, the next time you are heading for surgery, don't forget to pack your favorite playlist alongside your essentials. Remember Dr. Frezza's advice - listen to whatever music you enjoy.



The researchers are not advocating for one type of music over another. They believe that different tunes may help different people post-surgery, as music can comfort and provide a sense of familiarity.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/jicm.2022.0803" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Integrative and Complementary Medicine</a>.



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Music can reduce pain and anxiety after surgery

Music might be the secret key to easing patients' recoveries...

Have you ever heard tales of the full moon's mysterious power, casting a spell over everything from werewolves to mischievous spirits? Well, there's a new story in town, and it has its roots in reality. New research suggests that moonlight deeply impacts the behavior of tropical animals.



The new findings reveal a startling truth: around half of the mammal species in tropical forests alter their behaviors in sync with the moon's phases and the resulting changes in light levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-degradation-and-tropical-animals">Habitat degradation and tropical animals</h2>



The study was led by Lydia Beaudrot, an ecologist at Michigan State University (<a href="https://msu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MSU</a>) who specializes in tropical ecology and conservation. Beaudrot was part of a global team of researchers taking part in this enlightening study.



With human development aggressively intruding on some of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-mammals-live-depends-more-on-climate-than-human-activities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">darkest corners of our planet</a> - including the shadowy underbellies of tropical forests - scientists are hustling to understand what's happening in these ecosystems when the sun goes down.



“This research has implications for how habitat degradation may impact some tropical animals,” Beaudrot said.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-photography">Role of photography</h2>



To grasp how tropical animals respond to natural moonlight changes, the research team had a look at over 2.1 million photos. These snapshots were captured by automatic wildlife cameras installed across 17 protected forests spread over three continents.



The bulk of these images were sourced from the Tropical Ecology &amp; Assessment and Monitoring network (TEAM), which Beaudrot describes as an "incredible resource for the scientific community."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moonlight-impact-on-tropical-animals">Moonlight impact on tropical animals</h2>



By pouring over these images, the researchers teased out how 86 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammal-evolution-kicked-off-with-daring-experiments/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammal species</a> altered their nocturnal habits based on changing nighttime light levels. What they found was that around half of the species examined changed their activity levels, timing, or both in response to fluctuations in light levels.



Among the 86 species studied, 12 remarkably avoided moonlight, while three were more likely to come out when the moon was lighting up the night.



Richard Bischof, a professor at the Norwegian University of Life Sciences (<a href="https://www.nmbu.no/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NMBU</a>) and a first author on the paper, said these species exhibited the most pronounced reactions. 



"For tropical forest animals that are awake at night, not all nights are the same. In fact, which species are active depends a lot on the moon,” explained Professor Bischof. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-responses-to-lunar-phases">Responses to lunar phases</h2>



Interestingly, about half of the species studied showed some change in behavior in response to lunar phases. Overall, 30% of species steered clear of the moonlight, while around 20% seemed attracted to it.



Increased illumination might make food easier to find and terrain simpler to navigate. But it also makes an animal more visible - a disadvantage for species that rely on the cover of night to move around undetected.



The startling impact of light even in the dim forest understory raises concerns about how habitat degradation and fragmentation might reshape forest communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moonlight-and-mammal-evolution">Moonlight and mammal evolution </h2>



As we hunt deeper into the moon's impact on tropical mammals, it's important to consider the evolutionary adaptations that may have shaped these responses. 



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/its-official-earth-now-has-two-moons-captured-asteroid-2024-pt5/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon</a> has been a consistent presence over millennia, casting its glow upon the earth and subtly influencing the survival strategies of nocturnal creatures. 



Animals that have evolved under these conditions may possess heightened sensitivities to changes in lunar luminosity, enabling them to make crucial decisions about movement and activity. 



Such adaptations could confer advantages in predator avoidance and resource acquisition, but they also underscore the delicate balance these species maintain with their environment. 



Understanding these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-mammals-have-evolved-over-66-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary nuances</a> provides invaluable insight into the intricate web of life within tropical ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study">Broader implications of the study</h2>



With the compelling evidence of the moon's role in shaping nocturnal behaviors, it becomes imperative for conservation efforts to consider lunar influences when devising strategies to protect tropical wildlife. 



As human encroachment continues to fragment these delicate ecosystems, safeguarding areas that preserve natural light cycles is crucial. 



Effective conservation plans must address the dual threats of habitat degradation and artificial light pollution, which can further disrupt these natural patterns. 



Collaborating with local communities to enhance awareness and involvement is key to promoting sustainable practices that harmonize human activities with ecological preservation. 



Only through concerted global efforts can we ensure that the moon's timeless dance with the tropical night continues to guide the rhythms of its inhabitants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moon-mammals-and-mankind">Moon, mammals, and mankind</h2>



As human activity continues to degrade and fragment habitats, biodiversity may hang in the balance. With forests cleared and natural resources plundered, pollution poses ominous threats to soil, water, and air. 



Even our nocturnal animal friends, relying on darkness for safety and stealth, find their sacred night disrupted.



In these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-geographic-isolation-shaped-global-species-habitat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">transformed environments</a>, thinned forest canopies provide less cover from natural light, and artificial light sources throw natural cycles off balance.



The result of these changes? Some animals may miss crucial opportunities to find food or explore new locations. Consequently, many species might struggle to adapt, and entire ecological communities could suffer a loss.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.0683" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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Tropical animals change their behavior in response to moonlight

Have you ever heard tales of the full moon's mysterious...

It is an unsettling yet undeniable truth that slimy biofilms - congregations of bacteria - do not discriminate when it comes to their settlement.



These bacteria colonies can be found in a diverse array of environments ranging from hot springs to plant roots, and even on your household surfaces like bathtub and fridge. They also lurk in impending wounds and on medical devices such as catheters.



Biofilms, although primarily composed of different bacterial species, have left scientists wondering how these species harmoniously coexist.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bacteria-in-biofilms">Bacteria in biofilms</h2>



In a new study, <a href="https://home.dartmouth.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dartmouth</a> scientists have investigated this microcosm of bacterial biofilm species - primarily focusing on how three distinct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-and-imprint-new-era-dna-transformation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacterial species</a> coexist. The researchers also explored a surprising dynamic - when do the bacteria choose to discontinue their shared living?



The researchers spotted an interesting pattern. One species, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, known for its versatility and formidable resistance to antibiotics, had an upper hand over two other bacterial species.



However, when the growth became overcrowded, instead of wrestling for domination, this species chose to relocate in search of less crowded areas. This strategic departure allowed the other members of the bacterial colony to flourish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biofilms-as-a-community">Biofilms as a community </h2>



"Pseudomonas' dispersal behavior allows for the three species to coexist where otherwise they would not," explained corresponding author&nbsp;<a href="https://biology.dartmouth.edu/people/carey-davis-nadell" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Carey Nadell</a>, an assistant professor of biological sciences at Dartmouth.



"This is the first case of showing explicitly that dispersal has very important ecological consequences when you're thinking about biofilms as a community."



The scientists scrutinized a triad of bacterial species, including P. aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, and Enterococcus faecalis.



These bacteria often act as opportunistic pathogens and are frequently isolated from catheter-associated urinary tract infections. This particular selection of species would help in understanding these infections better.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-biofilms-support-diverse-bacteria">How biofilms support diverse bacteria</h2>



Uncovering the mystery of peaceful cohabitation in such a competitive environment spurred their experiment. 



Study first author Jacob Holt is a graduate student in Nadell's research group who led the study.



"We wanted to know how biofilms can support a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-bacteria-makes-flowers-more-attractive-to-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity of species</a> or strains because we know that bacteria are really good at killing each other," said Holt.



"So that was a big motivation - if they're so good at these antagonistic behaviors, how do they coexist in these tightly associated communities?"



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cycle-of-bacteria-in-biofilms">Cycle of bacteria in biofilms</h2>



To explore this, the bacteria were grown on a glass surface viable for biofilm development and also in a liquid culture, with equal proportions of each species. 



Utilizing fluorescence microscopy, the scientists tracked the change in population over time. When grown in the liquid culture, P. aeruginosa outcompeted the other two species after about three days. Fascinatingly, in a biofilm environment, the dynamics were atypical.



In the biofilm conditions, E. faecalis and E. coli initially propagated faster than P. aeruginosa. However, a few days later, P. aeruginosa drastically multiplied, displacing the other species. 



Again, as the biofilm region became overly crowded, the P. aeruginosa numbers declined, allowing the resurgence of the other two species. After that, P. aeruginosa began its domination again. This cycle kept repeating.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-equation-of-coexistence">Equation of coexistence</h2>



In their quest to decode these cycles, the team tested different theoretical models. The one that held water was surprisingly simple. 



"The fundamental mechanism is very straightforward," said Holt. "When a dominant species gets to a very high abundance, it selectively removes itself from the system, which permits the other species to stick around."



This hypothesis was further tested by an experiment involving a genetically engineered P. aeruginosa strain, unable to disperse due to a lack of the required traits. 



In this scenario, P. aeruginosa bacteria completely dominated the biofilm, resonating with the results seen in the liquid culture, thereby affirming their model's findings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



The scenario-based approach of this study emphasizes the need for more realistic research settings. 



"It's important to push for more ecological realism. The inferences you gain from well-mixed liquid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-use-biological-clocks-to-predict-and-survive-cold-weather/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacterial cultures</a> often may not apply to biofilm environments, which are much more common in the real world," said Professor Nadell.



"It points to the importance of studying these communities in a context with a little bit of added realism."



Planning to step up the game of realism, the team is now working towards growing Vibrio cholera, the bacteria causing cholera, on shrimp shells, which is their natural habitat in the marine environment.



This might just be the first step in understanding the complex world of bacteria and biofilms, but it has certainly paved the way for future investigations. 



After all, isn't it fascinating to learn how even the tiniest of creatures display such complex survival strategies?



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/abstract/S0960-9822(24)01017-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Bacteria coexist in shared spaces by 'playing nice'

It is an unsettling yet undeniable truth that slimy biofilms...

Every tick of the clock is crucial when it comes to heart attacks, where swift diagnosis can mean the difference between life and death. 



Now, a new blood test has emerged that can diagnose heart attacks in mere minutes instead of agonizing hours.



This revolutionary tool not only holds promise for immediate application by first responders but could also potentially be adapted for home use, offering a lifeline to those far from medical facilities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-detection-of-heart-attacks">Early detection of heart attacks</h2>



Heart attacks demand immediate medical attention to enhance patient outcomes. However, early diagnosis, despite its criticality, often poses significant challenges, especially outside a clinical environment. And that is where this new, inventive technology comes into play.



According to Peng Zheng, an assistant research scientist at <a href="https://peabody.jhu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins University</a> and the lead author of the study, the team was able to invent a new technology that can quickly and accurately establish if someone is having a heart attack.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-leap-forward-in-biophotonics">A leap forward in biophotonics</h2>



The technology is the brainchild of scientists at Johns Hopkins University, who specialize in developing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-intelligence-proves-very-useful-to-doctors-when-diagnosing-patients/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diagnostic tools</a> via biophotonics - a method of detecting biomarkers through laser light. 



In this instance, the researchers harnessed the technology to identify the earliest indicators of a heart attack in a patient’s blood.



This is a vital accomplishment considering that heart attacks, which affect over 800,000 individuals annually in the United States, are notoriously tricky to detect early due to varying symptoms and subtle biological signals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-swift-diagnosis-of-heart-attacks">Swift diagnosis of heart attacks</h2>



Today, people suspected of suffering heart attacks undergo a series of tests, like electrocardiograms, to confirm the diagnosis – a process which could take considerable time. This is where the newly invented <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-blood-test-accurately-predicts-cardiovascular-heart-disease-risk-30-years-into-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">blood test</a> offers a significant breakthrough.



It provides quick results within approximately five to seven minutes and boasts greater accuracy and affordability than existing methods.



Designed for speedy diagnostic work in clinical settings, this novel test presents a promising prospect for adaptation into a handheld tool for first responders or even for home use. 



"We’re talking about speed, we’re talking about accuracy, and we’re talking of the ability to perform measurements outside of a hospital," noted Ishan Barman, a bioengineer in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at Johns Hopkins.



The ultimate goal is for the test to be fashioned into a handheld tool capable of instant detection through a single drop of blood, similar to Star Trek's tricorder.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-behind-the-innovation">Science behind the innovation</h2>



The core of this pioneering invention is a tiny chip featuring a groundbreaking nanostructured metasurface. 



This metasurface amplifies electric and magnetic signals during the analysis process, allowing heart attack biomarkers to be spotted in seconds, even in ultra-low concentrations. 



The test's sensitivity is superior to existing tests. It can detect biomarkers that are either undetectable or detected too late in the course of a heart attack.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-heart-attacks">Beyond heart attacks</h2>



While it's optimized for diagnosing heart attacks, this innovative technology has the potential to be modified for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/better-cancer-tests-produce-better-cancer-treatments/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">detecting cancer</a> and infectious diseases as well.



Its commercial potential is enormous, and the researchers noted that "there's nothing that limits this platform technology." Looking ahead, the team is set to refine the blood test and pursue larger clinical trials.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-access-to-life-saving-diagnostics">Access to life-saving diagnostics</h2>



One of the most exciting prospects of this new blood test technology is its potential to democratize <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/simple-blood-test-can-now-predict-risk-of-heart-attack-within-six-months/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heart attack diagnosis</a>. 



Traditionally, advanced diagnostics have been confined to hospitals or well-equipped medical centers, but this innovation opens the door for decentralized, accessible healthcare. 



The simplicity of the test, combined with its portability, means that remote communities, underserved areas, or regions with limited healthcare infrastructure could benefit from rapid diagnosis. 



This test could redefine heart attack care, making accurate diagnosis available not only in emergency rooms but also in ambulances, rural clinics, and even homes. 



As the world moves toward more personalized, accessible healthcare, tools like this could become pivotal in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/every-year-of-education-reduces-mortality-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reducing mortality rates</a>, especially in high-risk populations or those who struggle to access immediate care.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/advs.202405910" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Advanced Science</a>.



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New blood test diagnoses heart attacks in minutes, not hours

Every tick of the clock is crucial when it comes...

The fight against pain may have a new player in its ranks - gender. The findings from a recent study indicate that men and women resort to different biological mechanisms for pain relief. But what does this mean?



A team of researchers at the <a href="https://ucsd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California San Diego</a> School of Medicine has unmasked an intriguing reality - pain management is not a one-size-fits-all solution. 



The way <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-men-and-women-react-differently-to-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">men and women</a> experience and combat pain varies significantly, pointing to key biological differences in their responses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gender-differences-in-pain-management">Gender differences in pain management </h2>



Men tend to rely on the release of endogenous opioids, which are the body's natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-learn-how-to-activate-the-bodys-natural-pain-killers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pain relievers</a>. These substances act similarly to prescription opioids like morphine, binding to opioid receptors in the brain to dampen the perception of pain. 



In contrast, women appear to utilize alternative, non-opioid pathways. These channels bypass the body's opioid system entirely, meaning that the pain relief mechanisms at play in women may be less reliant on the body’s internal opioids.



This finding suggests there is a biological reason for why women might not respond as well to opioid-based treatments.



The research highlights a major distinction in how pain relief strategies should be tailored based on gender, potentially altering the way we approach pain management altogether.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-opioids-may-not-help-women-in-pain">Opioids may not help women in pain</h2>



Powerful synthetic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-discovery-offers-hope-for-tackling-opioid-addiction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">opioid</a> drugs such as morphine and fentanyl are the leading painkillers at our disposal today. 



By adhering to the same receptors as endogenous opioids, these synthetic molecules pack a potent punch. However, this characteristic also primes them for a high risk of addiction.



One of the profound peculiarities of opioid therapy is the subpar response exhibited by women. 



"Dependence develops because people start taking more opioids when their original dosage stops working," explained Dr. Fadel Zeidan, an expert at the UC San Diego Sanford Institute for Empathy and Compassion.



"Although speculative, our findings suggest that maybe one reason that females are more likely to become addicted to opioids is that they’re biologically less responsive to them and need to take more to experience any pain relief.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-approach-to-pain-management">A new approach to pain management </h2>



The research was based on data from two clinical trials consisting of 98 participants, including healthy individuals and chronic lower back pain sufferers.



According to Dr. Zeidan, the results underscore the need for more sex-specific pain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-therapy-can-reduce-pain-stress-and-anxiety/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">therapies</a>, because many of the treatments we use do not work nearly as well for women as they do for men.



The implications of the study are immense. For one, the findings could revolutionize the way we approach pain management.



Tailoring treatment to an individual’s gender could improve patient outcomes and decrease opioid reliance and misuse. 



After all, it is clear disparities exist in pain management between genders, and these results provide the first tangible evidence that sex-based differences in pain processing need to be considered more seriously when developing and prescribing treatment for pain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pain-treatment-for-women">Pain treatment for women </h2>



This research highlights a crucial issue that's been overlooked in healthcare - how men and women experience pain differently. Traditionally, pain treatments have followed a standardized approach, but this study suggests a shift in thinking is needed.



If men and women utilize different biological pathways for pain relief, it stands to reason they might need distinct treatments. The findings also explain why women have a greater prevalence of chronic pain. 



For women, who appear less responsive to opioids, exploring alternative methods that align with their unique pain pathways becomes important. Options like anti-inflammatory drugs, nerve blockers, or innovative approaches like mindfulness-based <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mindfulness-meditation-is-a-powerful-weapon-against-chronic-pain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pain management</a> could offer better results.



Furthermore, the study points out a pressing concern: women might face a higher risk of opioid addiction due to the need for larger doses to achieve pain relief. This insight could shed light on the alarming rates of opioid misuse among women. 



As we move forward, it's evident that doctors will need to carefully consider painkiller prescriptions, possibly adopting gender-specific guidelines to safeguard women from the risks of dependency.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/pnasnexus/advance-article/doi/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgae453/7821498" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PNAS Nexus</a>.



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Why women experience more chronic pain than men

The fight against pain may have a new player in...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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-----

Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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