Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

A new study finds that even kids as young as three can tell whether a short, wordless music tune sounds happy, sad, calm, or scary - and they get better at it as they grow.



The researchers also looked at how certain personality traits, like low empathy or limited emotional expression, might affect this skill. 



The findings reveal that, while most preschoolers have a natural ear for musical emotions, some patterns make certain feelings harder to recognize.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kids-match-music-to-moods">Kids match music to moods</h2>



Rebecca Waller and colleagues at the <a href="https://psychology.sas.upenn.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Pennsylvania’s</a> School of Arts and Sciences tested 144 preschoolers using five-second instrumental clips and a forced-choice task that asked them to match each clip to one of four emotion faces.



The design let the team separate two basic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-felt-emotions-in-unusual-body-parts/">emotion dimensions</a>, valence and arousal. Valence ranges from positive to negative, while arousal reflects low to high energy in the music.



Performance was better than chance: overall accuracy was 36 percent compared with a 25 percent chance level on the four-option task, and the age trend favored older preschoolers.



High-energy emotions were easier to recognize. Recognition was higher for clips conveying high-arousal states, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-does-happiness-come-from-it-depends-on-who-you-are/">happiness</a> and fear, than for low-arousal states, such as calmness and sadness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kids-with-emotion-reading-difficulties">Kids with emotion-reading difficulties </h2>



Children rated higher on callous-unemotional traits showed poorer recognition overall, with the clearest drop in positive, low-arousal music. Fear recognition, by contrast, did not differ in these children.



This pattern aligns with previous work which links callous traits to broader emotion-reading difficulties. These include problems recognizing distress in faces, as well as a higher risk for aggression and rule-breaking in youth.



In Western tonal music, mode and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-brain-doesnt-just-hear-music-it-becomes-the-rhythm/">harmony </a>often carry affective color. A major key is usually judged as brighter or happier, while minor often lands as darker, though cultural context shapes these mappings.



In the new data, children were more accurate when clips were in a major key, while tempo showed no main effect on accuracy in this sample, consistent with the broader finding that high-arousal cues drive performance at these ages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-musical-emotion-is-important">Musical emotion is important</h2>



By the early school years, kids typically get better at mapping music to emotion categories - a trend documented across ages five, eight, and eleven in earlier lab studies using unfamiliar excerpts.



Because callous-unemotional traits carry elevated risk for externalizing problems, any channel that strengthens emotion knowledge could be useful in prevention or early support.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-family-and-culture-shape-listening">Family and culture shape listening</h2>



Early exposure to varied musical styles could help strengthen a kid’s ability to recognize emotions in music. Familiarity with a range of tempos, keys, and cultural traditions may broaden the cues they can pick up on, potentially improving accuracy beyond what age alone predicts.



Environmental factors such as family listening habits, preschool <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-music-education-helps-young-people-thrive/">music programs</a>, or even background music in public spaces might contribute to these abilities. 



This opens the possibility that targeted musical activities in early childhood settings could have lasting effects on social-emotional learning.



Even very short, lyric-free clips can communicate basic feelings to preschoolers, which suggests simple listening tasks may be informative in classrooms and clinics.



Other recent work finds that five-year-olds can sort musical feelings along valence and intensity, hinting at a fast-maturing sense for emotional contours in sound.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-empathy-and-musical-connections">Empathy and musical connections</h2>



Music does not only communicate emotion, it can elicit it. In one study of five- to six-year-olds, above-chance recognition coexisted with stronger felt responses among kids whose parents reported higher <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/empathy-can-be-taught-through-simple-reward-training/">empathy</a>, especially for sad music.



Beyond individuals, coordinated musical activity has been tied to social bonding through interpersonal synchrony and endorphin release in group contexts such as singing or dancing.



“We show that children are good at matching emotion faces to the ‘correct’ emotion music, even at age three,” said Waller.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



The present work used a community sample with low overall levels of callous-unemotional traits, so a logical next step is testing clinic-referred children who score higher on these traits. 



Longer music excerpts and a wider set of emotions could also clarify how specific musical features, beyond valence, arousal, key, and tempo, shape recognition in early childhood.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://srcd.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cdev.70024" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Child Development</a>.



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Kids pick up emotions in music long before they can read

A new study finds that even kids as young as...

What was once pruned and burned in vineyards could soon wrap your groceries - then vanish without a trace. Scientists have developed a biodegradable film from grapevine prunings that mimics plastic but breaks down in just over two weeks.



The breakthrough comes from <a href="https://www.sdstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">South Dakota State University</a> (SDSU), led by Associate Professor Srinivas Janaswamy, in collaboration with grapevine expert Anne Fennell. 



The latest results show that films cast from cellulose extracted out of grapevine canes are transparent, tough, and fast to biodegrade. The team harvested canes from SDSU’s research vineyard and followed a protocol to turn them into packaging-grade films.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-plastic-problem">The plastic problem</h2>



Most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whats-the-most-sustainable-packaging-the-answer-will-surprise-you/">packaging</a> is used once and tossed, and it is made from petroleum. It lingers in landfills and oceans for centuries. Only a sliver is recycled. Micro- and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nanoplastic-particles-have-infiltrated-the-oceans-food-web-at-the-most-important-levels/">nanoplastics</a> break off and spread.



People and wildlife inhale and ingest them, and they have recently turned up everywhere, including inside the human body. The long-term health effects are still unclear. The “Great Pacific Garbage Patch” is the emblem of that crisis.



Perhaps the worst offender in daily life is the thin retail bag. It is light, cheap, and convenient. It is also hard to recycle and easy to litter. Replacing that bag with a material that behaves like plastic but rapidly decomposes could change the waste stream.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cellulose-packaging-vision">The cellulose packaging vision</h2>



Janaswamy’s lab targets that problem using agricultural byproducts. He has extracted cellulose from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cave-discovery-of-ancient-avocados-could-rescue-a-global-crop/">avocado</a> peels, soy hulls, alfalfa, switchgrass, spent coffee grounds, corncobs, and banana peels. 



The recovered polymer is then used for films that mimic familiar wraps and liners. "By extracting cellulose from agricultural products, value-added products can be created,” Janaswamy said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-grapevines-transformed-into-packaging">Grapevines transformed into packaging</h2>



The grapevine idea began after a campus talk. Fennell, a professor of agronomy, horticulture, and plant science, knew canes are cellulose-rich and produced in bulk each winter. However, most are mulched, composted, or burned.



“Every year we prune the majority of the yearly biomass off the vine. The pruned canes are either mowed over, composted and reapplied to the soil, or burned in some areas,” Fennell said. “My thought was, why not use this for value-added films?”



“Several of the materials that Janaswamy previously used had a high water content. In contrast, the winter pruning yields a cellulose-dense material with low water content, making it an abundant and ideal material to work with.”



The team dried and milled the canes. Afterwards, they extracted a cotton-like cellulose residue, solubilized it, and cast it onto glass plates to form thin, uniform sheets. The result looked like clear packaging film.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-built-strong-breaks-down-fast">Built strong, breaks down fast</h2>



Tests showed a standout mix of traits. The grapevine films were transparent, which matters on store shelves.



“High transmittance in packaging films enhances product visibility, making them more attractive to consumers and facilitating easy quality inspection without the need for unsealing,” Janaswamy said. “These films demonstrate outstanding potential for food packaging applications.”



They were strong, too. In tensile tests, they outperformed common plastic bags. Moreover, in soil, the films <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-future-of-plastic-biodegradable-durable-and-even-edible/">biodegraded</a> within 17 days and left no harmful residue. 



That is the kind of decay window that makes sense for single-use packaging. It gives an item enough life to do its job, then it returns to the earth.



Cellulose is the most abundant organic polymer on the planet. It is the load-bearing material in plant cell walls, reinforced by hydrogen bonds in chains of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/glucose-the-sweet-secret-to-a-younger-brain/">glucose</a>. 



Since cotton is mostly cellulose and wood is rich in it, such feedstock is common, renewable, and often wasted. Using byproducts adds value without claiming more land or water.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-packaging-designed-to-biodegrade">Packaging designed to biodegrade</h2>



The films bring Janaswamy closer to a retail bag that will not persist in the environment. They also point to a flexible platform. 



By choosing different plant sources, the lab can tune clarity, strength, and handling. Grapevine canes - dry, cellulose-dense, and plentiful - hit a sweet spot for performance and processing.



“Using underutilized grapevine prunings as a cellulose source for packaging films enhances waste management in the field and addresses the global issue of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-pollution-is-harming-our-health-not-just-the-planet/">plastic pollution</a>,” Janaswamy explained.



“Developing eco-friendly films from grapevine cellulose represents a practical approach to sustainability, helping to conserve the environment and its resources and contributing to the circular bioeconomy.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-for-grapevine-packaging">Next steps for grapevine packaging</h2>



Scaling up will require a steady feedstock, efficient extraction, and film lines that meet food-contact standards. Retailers will want consistency, while consumers will want price parity and a familiar feel. Luckily, the early data is encouraging.



Since packaging still leans on fossil inputs, recycling rates remain low, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/airborne-microplastics-where-they-come-from-and-where-they-go/">microplastic</a> concerns are growing, the need for alternatives is high. 



Packaging film made from grapevines that vanishes in 17 days is not a cure-all, but it is a concrete step toward cleaner shelves, cleaner bins, and cleaner oceans.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/fb/d5fb00211g" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sustainable Food Technology</a>.



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Grapevines could offer a breakthrough alternative to plastic packaging

What was once pruned and burned in vineyards could soon...

A new analysis explains why common cuff-based blood pressure checks can be wrong. It shows that the artery beneath the cuff stays closed longer than expected, which makes systolic pressure appear lower than it is.



The study also points to simple tweaks that could sharpen readings and detect more cases of hypertension.



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a> built a physical model to test the mechanics behind the error. Their findings suggest protocol changes could improve accuracy without replacing standard cuffs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cuff-readings-hidden-flaw">Cuff readings’ hidden flaw</h2>



Most blood pressure measurements use the auscultatory method. A cuff inflates around the upper arm until it blocks <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-increases-blood-flow-to-the-brain/">blood flow</a>. 



As the cuff deflates, a clinician listens for tapping sounds while watching the gauge. The first taps mark systolic pressure, and the last taps indicate diastolic pressure.



“The auscultatory method is the gold standard, but it overestimates diastolic pressure, while systolic pressure is underestimated,” said co-author Kate Bassil from Cambridge’s Department of Engineering.



“We have a good understanding of why diastolic pressure is overestimated, but why systolic pressure is underestimated has been a bit of a mystery.”



“Pretty much every clinician knows blood pressure readings are sometimes wrong, but no one could explain why they are being underestimated - there’s a real gap in understanding,” said co-author Anurag Agarwal, a professor at Cambridge’s Department of Engineering.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solving-the-systolic-mystery"><a></a>Solving the systolic mystery</h2>



Earlier bench setups used rubber tubes to mimic arteries. Those tubes did not fully collapse under cuff pressure, which masked the source of the systolic error.



The team designed a simplified rig to recreate what happens in the arm below the cuff. Inflate the cuff, and the downstream segment becomes very low pressure. 



That drop keeps the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/poor-diet-can-damage-our-blood-vessels/">blood vessel</a> walls pressed together for longer as the cuff pressure falls. Reopening is delayed, and the tapping begins later than it should. At that moment, the gauge reads too low for systolic pressure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reproducing-real-blood-flow">Reproducing real blood flow</h2>



Instead of round rubber tubes, the researchers used flat-laying tubes that close completely under load. That substitution was key. It reproduced the low downstream pressures seen in the body. 



The experimental method also revealed how cuff deflation timing interacts with vessel collapse and reopening.



In this setup, the delayed reopening showed up clearly. The physical mechanism matched what clinicians observe. Systolic pressure is biased down, while diastolic skews up. Together, those shifts can hide disease, especially when true systolic pressure is high.



“We are currently not adjusting for this error when diagnosing or prescribing treatments, which has been estimated to lead to as many as 30 percent of cases of systolic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-link-between-insomnia-and-hypertension-in-women/">hypertension</a> being missed,” Bassil said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-making-the-cuff-work-better">Making the cuff work better</h2>



The study points to low-cost changes. One idea is to raise the arm before measuring. That could set a more predictable downstream pressure. If the underestimation then becomes predictable, clinicians can account for it.



“You might not even need new devices, just changing how the measurement is done could make it more accurate,” Agarwal said.



If new monitors are developed, they could ask for added inputs. Age, BMI, or tissue characteristics may correlate with downstream pressure.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lasers-and-light-replace-the-cuff-in-blood-pressure-breakthrough-scos/">Devices</a> could use those signals to tailor the correction for each person. The goal is the same: reduce bias at the moment when the taps first appear.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-pressure-accuracy-saves-lives">Blood pressure accuracy saves lives</h2>



Hypertension is the leading modifiable risk for early death worldwide. Missed systolic disease delays treatment, raising the odds of heart attack, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stroke-risk-is-elevated-by-air-pollution-and-traffic-noise/">stroke</a>, and heart failure. Even small gains in accuracy can shift outcomes at the population scale.



More reliable readings also protect patients from the opposite error: overestimation, which can lead to unnecessary medications and side effects.



Getting both numbers right helps clinicians set appropriate treatment targets and helps patients trust the plan.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-blood-pressure-readings">Improving blood pressure readings </h2>



The Cambridge team is preparing for clinical trials to test the correction in real-world settings and across diverse populations.



Partnerships with clinicians and industry will be essential. Better calibration models will require broad validation, and training and workflow updates will also be important.



The promise is practical: keep the cuff, change the protocol, and understand the physics in the artery beneath the fabric. With these changes, routine checks could flag true risk more often, and the path from diagnosis to prevention could become much clearer.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/pnasnexus/article/4/8/pgaf222/8222934" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PNAS Nexus</a>.



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Why your blood pressure reading might be wrong

A new analysis explains why common cuff-based blood pressure checks...

For decades, the search for life beyond Earth has centered on one key ingredient: water. If a planet didn’t have it, scientists tended to cross it off the list of potentially habitable worlds.



But that assumption may be far too narrow. A new study suggests that life might not need water at all. 



Instead, an entirely different type of liquid - one that behaves very differently from water - could provide a safe haven for living chemistry on planets where water can barely exist.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-habitability-without-water">Rethinking habitability without water</h2>



Researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (<a href="http://mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a>) have been exploring the possibilities of ionic liquids - fluids made of salts that remain liquid below 100 degrees Celsius. 



The team's experiments show that these liquids could form naturally from chemicals already expected on some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rocky-planets-a-new-target-in-the-search-for-extraterrestrial-life/">rocky planets</a> and moons.



In the lab, the researchers found that mixing sulfuric acid with certain nitrogen-containing organic compounds produced an ionic liquid. 



Sulfuric acid is a common byproduct of volcanic activity, while nitrogen-based organics have been detected on asteroids and planets in our solar system - suggesting they may also exist elsewhere in the galaxy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-hosts-for-simple-life-forms">Potential hosts for simple life forms</h2>



Unlike water, ionic liquids don’t evaporate easily. They can remain stable in hotter, lower-pressure conditions - the kinds of environments that would destroy liquid water. 



Even more intriguing, some proteins can remain stable in these liquids, making them potential hosts for simple forms of life.



Rachana Agrawal led the study as a postdoc in MIT’s Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences.



“We consider water to be required for life because that is what’s needed for Earth life. But if we look at a more general definition, we see that what we need is a liquid in which metabolism for life can take place,” said Agrawal. 



“Now if we include ionic liquid as a possibility, this can dramatically increase the habitability zone for all rocky worlds.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-accidental-discovery-in-the-lab">Accidental discovery in the lab</h2>



The discovery came by accident. The team had been studying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/is-there-life-on-venus-the-possibility-cant-be-ruled-out/">Venus</a> - a planet shrouded in clouds of sulfuric acid - as part of ongoing efforts to search for life in its atmosphere. 



If a spacecraft collects samples from these clouds, scientists would need to evaporate the acid to search for any leftover organic compounds.



Agrawal and fellow researcher Sara Seager were testing ways to do this when they stumbled on something unexpected. They mixed sulfuric acid with glycine, an organic compound, and tried to evaporate it under low pressure. 



Most of the sulfuric acid disappeared - but a stubborn layer of liquid stayed behind. The team soon realized this was no ordinary residue. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ionic-liquids-on-exoplanets">Ionic liquids on exoplanets </h2>



The acid had reacted with glycine, swapping hydrogen atoms and producing a liquid mixture of salts, or an ionic liquid, that stayed stable over a wide range of temperatures and pressures.



“From there, we took the leap of imagination of what this could mean,” said Agrawal. “Sulfuric acid is found on Earth from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-are-volcanoes-in-indonesia-so-dangerous/">volcanoes</a>, and organic compounds have been found on asteroids and other planetary bodies." 



"So, this led us to wonder if ionic liquids could potentially form and exist naturally on exoplanets.”



On Earth, ionic liquids are mostly made in industrial settings. Naturally occurring examples are rare. One exception is when the venoms of two rival ant species mix. But could they form elsewhere in space?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-in-non-water-liquids">Life in non-water liquids</h2>



The team tested over 30 nitrogen-containing organics with sulfuric acid under different temperatures and pressures. They even mixed the ingredients on basalt rock, a common type of planetary crust.



“In high school, you learn that an acid wants to donate a proton. And oddly enough, we knew from our past work with sulfuric acid (the main component of Venus’ clouds) and nitrogen-containing compounds, that a nitrogen wants to receive a hydrogen," noted Seager. "It’s like one person’s trash is another person’s treasure.”



The results were surprising. Ionic liquids formed at temperatures up to 180 degrees Celsius and under pressures far lower than Earth’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-shrinking-earths-atmosphere-and-thats-bad-for-satellites/">atmosphere</a>. Even when excess acid seeped into the rock, a droplet of ionic liquid remained.



“We were just astonished that the ionic liquid forms under so many different conditions,” said Seager. 



“If you put the sulfuric acid and the organic on a rock, the excess sulfuric acid seeps into the rock pores, but you’re still left with a drop of ionic liquid on the rock. Whatever we tried, ionic liquid still formed.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-oases-for-alien-life">Tiny oases for alien life?</h2>



The findings open the door to a striking possibility: planets that are too hot and dry for water could still have patches of liquid - small “oases” where life might emerge.



“We’re envisioning a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planet-identified-that-is-more-suitable-for-life-than-earth/">planet</a> warmer than Earth, that doesn’t have water, and at some point in its past or currently, it has to have had sulfuric acid, formed from volcanic outgassing,” explained Seager. 



“This sulfuric acid has to flow over a little pocket of organics. And organic deposits are extremely common in the solar system.”



Those pockets could last for years or even millennia, providing stable environments where ionic-liquid-based life might survive.



“We just opened up a Pandora’s box of new research,” Seager said. “It’s been a real journey.”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2425520122">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



Image Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech.



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Rocky planets may not need water to host alien life

For decades, the search for life beyond Earth has centered...

A newly identified species of ancient whale reveals how the first baleen relatives hunted, sensed their world, and grew.&nbsp;The compact predator, named Janjucetus dullardi, lived about 26 million years ago and combined big forward-facing eyes with slicing teeth. 



The discovery offers a rare window into the early evolution of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baleen-whales-cannot-escape-human-noise/">baleen whales</a>, long before they became filter-feeding giants.



Scientists at <a href="https://museumsvictoria.com.au/research-institute/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Museums Victoria’s Research Institute</a> have described the species from a partial skull found near Jan Juc on Wadawurrung Country along Victoria’s Surf Coast. 



The fossil was discovered in 2019 by local resident Ross Dullard, who donated it to the museum; the species name honors his find.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-predator-with-slicing-teeth">Small predator with slicing teeth</h2>



Janjucetus dullardi was little more than two meters long. It looked nothing like the gentle titans that glide through oceans today. With a short snout, large forward-looking eyes, and razor-sharp, slicing teeth, it likely chased agile prey in warm, shallow seas.



The animal belongs to mammalodontids. These are early whale relatives restricted to the Oligocene, roughly 30 to 23 million years ago. This is the third mammalodontid from Victoria and only the fourth known worldwide.&nbsp;



Unlike most finds, this specimen preserves both well-formed teeth and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/inner-ears-of-neanderthals-reveals-catastrophic-population-event-during-their-evolution/">inner ear</a> structures. Those features are crucial for decoding how early whales fed, heard, moved, and behaved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-specimen-and-whale-evolution">Ancient specimen and whale evolution </h2>



The fossil is a partial skull with ear bones and teeth. Its journey began on a winter beach walk in June 2019. Recognizing its importance, Dullard turned it over to the museum, where specialists carefully prepared and studied it.



“This kind of public discovery and its reporting to the museum is vital,” said senior author Erich Fitzgerald, a curator of vertebrate palaeontology at Museums Victoria Research Institute.&nbsp;



“Ross’ discovery has unlocked an entire chapter of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baleen-whales-rewriting-the-evolutionary-history-of-the-largest-animals-ever/">whale evolution</a> we’ve never seen before. It’s a reminder that world-changing fossils can be found in your own backyard.”



MicroCT scans mapped the internal passages of the ear region, including the cochlea. Those delicate structures help scientists infer hearing range and sound processing.&nbsp;



In predators, hearing cues support navigation, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-hawks-evolved-super-hearing-abilities-to-locate-prey/">prey detection</a>, and communication. Here, they add new data on how early baleen relatives sensed their environment.



“This fossil opens a window into how ancient whales grew and changed, and how evolution shaped their bodies as they adapted to life in the sea,” Fitzgerald said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shark-like-cousin-of-baleen-whales">Shark-like cousin of baleen whales</h2>



The study identifies the specimen as a juvenile, just over two meters long. Its anatomy points to fast, visually guided hunting rather than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-jawless-fish-rhinopteraspis-dunensis-filter-feeders/">filter feeding</a>. The big eyes suggest high reliance on sight. The slicing dentition indicates grasping and cutting prey.



“It’s essentially a little whale with big eyes and a mouth full of sharp, slicing teeth,” said lead author Ruairidh Duncan, a PhD student at the Museums Victoria Research Institute and Monash University.&nbsp;



“Imagine the shark-like version of a baleen whale - small and deceptively cute, but definitely not harmless.’



Because the inner ear is preserved in detail, researchers can test ideas about how these early whales tracked sound and balanced during quick maneuvers. 



Teeth plus ear anatomy in one juvenile skull is rare. Together, they allow fine-grained comparisons with other early whales and with living baleen species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-whales-in-warm-oceans">Ancient whales in warm oceans</h2>



The fossil comes from the Jan Juc Formation, deposited during a time of global warmth and rising seas. Southern Australia is emerging as a key stage for early whale evolution. Repeated discoveries from this coast are building a picture of experimentation and transition in whale anatomy.



“This region was once a cradle for some of the most unusual whales in history, and we’re only just beginning to uncover their stories,” Fitzgerald said.



The setting matters for today as well. Ancient whales that thrived in warmer oceans provide clues to how marine life responds when seas heat up. Anatomy, behavior, and distribution can all shift. Fossils like Janjucetus dullardi help calibrate those responses across deep time.



“We’re entering a new phase of discovery,” Fitzgerald said. “This region is rewriting the story of how whales came to rule the oceans, with some surprising plot twists!”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-contributions-to-evolutionary-research">Contributions to evolutionary research </h2>



Each new specimen can reframe long-standing evolutionary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/luca-last-universal-common-ancestor-progenitor-all-life-on-earth/">questions</a>, especially when it preserves rarely seen structures.



“The findings demonstrate the power of our collections to unlock stories that change the way we understand life on Earth,” said Lynley Crosswell, the CEO and Director of Museums Victoria.&nbsp;



“Thanks to the generosity of the public and the expertise of our scientists, Museums Victoria Research Institute is making globally significant contributions to evolutionary research. Discoveries like Janjucetus dullardi remind us that our collections are not just about the past - they’re shaping the future of science.”



Teams continue to survey Victoria’s coastline. They are also re-examining older specimens in the Museums Victoria State Collection with fresh tools and questions. The expectation is simple.



More fossils are out there. Some are already sitting in drawers. Together, they promise to sharpen the narrative of how small, sharp-toothed hunters gave rise to the largest animals that have ever lived.



The study is published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article/204/4/zlaf090/8231955" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society</a>.



Image Credit: Artwork by Ruairidh Duncan. Source - Museums Victoria



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Ancient whale with razor-sharp teeth discovered in Australia

A newly identified species of ancient whale reveals how the...

The Great Barrier Reef has just faced its largest single-year loss of live coral since surveys began nearly four decades ago. Australian authorities say the losses were driven mostly by a major bleaching event last year linked to climate change.



Still, despite the heavy toll, overall coral cover remains close to the long-term average. That’s because coral growth in recent years - especially since 2017 - had boosted the reef’s health before this latest setback.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-increasing-frequency-of-coral-bleaching">Increasing frequency of coral bleaching </h2>



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.aims.gov.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian Institute of Marine Science</a> report that 2024’s live coral cover was the highest recorded in 39 years of surveys, and this made the recent losses all the more striking.



Mike Emslie, who heads the institute’s long-term monitoring program, explained that starting from a strong base meant the reef was somewhat cushioned against the worst effects of climate damage. But that cushion is shrinking.



"These are substantial impacts and evidence that the increasing frequency of coral bleaching is really starting to have detrimental effects on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-bleaching-has-reached-catastrophic-levels-on-the-great-barrier-reef/">Great Barrier Reef</a>," Emslie said. "While there's still a lot of coral cover out there, these are record declines that we have seen in any one year of monitoring."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coral-loss-on-the-great-barrier-reef">Coral loss on the Great Barrier Reef </h2>



The reef stretches 1,500 kilometers (900 miles) along the Queensland coast and is divided into three main regions: north, central, and south. 



According to the survey, the south lost nearly a third of its living coral in just 12 months, the north lost about a quarter, and the central region experienced a 14% decline.



The Great Barrier Reef’s struggles are part of a much wider problem. Since early 2023, the world has been in the grip of its largest recorded <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/60-percent-global-coral-reefs-face-bleaching-rising-temperatures/">mass coral bleaching event</a>. 



It’s only the fourth such global crisis ever documented, but it has already affected nearly 84% of the planet’s coral reef areas, according to the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Coral Reef Watch.



This event, which began in January 2023 and was declared a crisis in April 2024, has surpassed the previous worst bleaching period from 2014 to 2017, when 68.2% of reefs were affected.



In Australia, aerial surveys of 281 reefs in the Torres Strait and northern Great Barrier Reef confirmed widespread bleaching. Of those, 78 reefs had more than 30% of their coral bleached.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-heat-hurts-coral">Why heat hurts coral</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microscope-reveals-coral-health-in-unprecedented-detail/">Coral</a> can cope with short bursts of warm water, the kind that might pass after a few days. But when the heat lingers for weeks, it’s a different story. 



The coral gets stressed and pushes out the tiny algae living inside its tissues. These algae are more than just tenants - they give coral its color and, more importantly, most of its food.



Without them, the coral turns ghostly white in a process known as “bleaching.” Bleached coral isn’t necessarily dead right away, but it’s weakened. It’s like losing your main source of food - you can survive for a while, but your strength fades, and you’re more likely to get sick.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-frequent-coral-bleaching-events">Frequent coral bleaching events</h2>



If the water cools down soon enough, the algae can return and the coral can recover. But when the heat stays for too long, the coral can starve and die. Even when coral survives, it tends to regrow more slowly and becomes less resilient to future stress.



What makes today’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-heatwaves-escalate-coral-bleaching-threats/">bleaching</a> events so alarming is how often they’re happening. In the past, a reef might have had a decade to bounce back between big bleaching events. 



Now, the gap can be just a few years - not nearly enough time for full recovery. And each time it happens, the reef loses a little more of its strength.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-fragile-future-for-coral-reefs">A fragile future for coral reefs </h2>



The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change warns that tropical coral reefs are among the most vulnerable ecosystems to rising temperatures. 



In 2018, the panel said they face “very high risk” at just 1.5°C of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/limiting-global-warming-to-1-5-degrees-celsius-would-save-billions-of-lives/">global warming</a>, with most evidence suggesting they could largely disappear beyond that threshold.



The world has already warmed 1.3°C since pre-industrial times. And past back-to-back bleaching events on the Great Barrier Reef suggest that scientists may have underestimated the risks.



"Warm water (tropical) coral reefs are projected to reach a very high risk of impact at 1.2°C, with most available evidence suggesting that coral-dominated ecosystems will be non-existent at this temperature or higher. At this point, coral abundance will be near zero at many locations," the researchers concluded.



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Great Barrier Reef suffers record coral loss after years of growth

The Great Barrier Reef has just faced its largest single-year...

In space, even breathing can become a mission challenge. A new analysis of nearly two decades of medical logs from 71 International Space Station (ISS) crew members finds that sinus and nasal issues are among the most common health complaints in orbit - affecting 85 percent of astronauts. 



Most dealt with at least one bout of congestion, and those who ventured outside the station on spacewalks reported even more trouble.



Spacewalks appeared to pile on, with those who performed them logging more complaints than their stay inside peers. 



The study also shows that astronauts leaned on common over-the-counter remedies, but it is not clear that Earth-based solutions always translate well in orbit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-astronauts-health-troubles-in-space">Astronauts' health troubles in space</h2>



The work was led by Dr. Masayoshi Takashima, chair of the Department of Otolaryngology at <a href="http://Houstonmethodist.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Houston Methodist</a>. 



His team pulled de-identified events and medication records from NASA’s Lifetime Surveillance of Astronaut Health (LSAH) program to map symptoms across long missions.



Microgravity is to blame for breathing issues in space. In weightlessness, about two liters of fluid shift from the legs toward the head - a headward push that makes faces puffy and noses stuffy.



That shift is not just cosmetic. It raises pressure in head and neck vessels and can narrow the nasal airway, which explains why many astronauts feel congested early in flight.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-iss-data-shows">What the ISS data shows</h2>



Across nearly 40 years of cumulative mission time, the logs captured 754 ear, nose, and throat events. General <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-making-allergy-season-worse-and-longer-lasting/">nasal congestion</a> dominated the count, and 60 of the 71 astronauts reported at least one sinonasal event during their mission.



Medication records showed heavy use of decongestants. Pseudoephedrine was recorded 95 times, and oxymetazoline spray 51 times, with congestion listed as the top indication.



Astronauts whose records mentioned spacewalking logged, on average, 9.19 more sinonasal events than those without such mentions.



“Astronauts are typically among the fittest individuals on the planet, yet this study shows that even they experience substantial sinonasal complaints in space. Imagine what happens when civilians with preexisting conditions start traveling to space,” said Dr. Takashima.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sinus-pressure-in-suits">Sinus pressure in suits</h2>



Extravehicular activity (EVA) means stepping into a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-is-testing-spacesuit-materials-for-future-missions-to-mars/">spacesuit</a> that operates at lower pressure than the station cabin. The current U.S. suit runs at about 4.3 psi on 100 percent oxygen, a setup that requires careful pre-breathing to manage decompression risk.



Russia’s Orlan suit runs higher, around 5.8 psi, and uses a different approach to operations and maintenance.



Pressure shifts place stress on the Eustachian tube, the small airway that equalizes pressure between the middle ear and the throat.



When it fails to open properly, barotrauma can follow. This can cause ear pain, muffled hearing, and a feeling of fullness - symptoms the study found often occurred around <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/civilian-spacewalk-is-a-giant-leap-in-space-exploration/">spacewalk</a> days.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-space-meds-for-astronauts">Space meds for astronauts </h2>



On airplanes back home, a single 120 mg dose of pseudoephedrine taken before flight reduces the rate of ear barotrauma compared with a placebo.



A head-to-head trial found that oxymetazoline nasal spray performed little better than a placebo for that same problem. This raises a fair question about its role as a go-to prophylaxis for spacewalks.



Space adds uncertainty because medication use is often self-treated and inconsistently recorded, and because drug behavior can change off-planet.



Reviews of space pharmacology note that absorption, distribution, and elimination may shift in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microgravity-causes-big-problems-with-human-gene-expression/">microgravity</a>. The data are still limited, which complicates dosing decisions for common drugs like decongestants.



“This is about maintaining peak performance," said Dr. Takashima. "If you're not sleeping well because you can't breathe, your cognitive function, reaction time and mission performance can suffer, and those things are absolutely critical in space."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sinus-relief-in-space">Sinus relief in space</h2>



One countermeasure aims lower, not higher. Thigh cuffs called Braslet M sequester blood in the legs, reducing headward shifts and easing congestion early in flight.



Station life also means living with airborne particles that linger longer because there is little sedimentation. The ISS relies on HEPA-class filtration and regular vacuuming to keep particle counts down around vents.



Better documentation would help too. Studies show crew members are allowed to self treat common ailments and often do, which makes it hard to judge real-world effectiveness of decongestants or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/allergy-medication-may-be-sabotaging-your-exercise-gains/">antihistamines</a> in flight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-astronaut-health">The future of astronaut health</h2>



As commercial flights and lunar work increase, pre-flight screening for nasal obstruction and treatable sinus disease becomes practical risk management. 



NASA’s astronaut medical standards already call for ongoing selection and recertification to ensure medical conditions are compatible with mission tasks.



Future protocols could lean more on objective measures for congestion, standardized reporting for meds, and tailored prophylaxis before EVAs. 



There is a need to evaluate different astronaut suit pressure settings, optimize pre-breathe protocols, and compare oral and topical interventions, focusing on meaningful outcomes such as sleep quality and reaction time in orbit.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/lio2.70229" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Laryngoscope Investigative Otolaryngology</a>.



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85% of all astronauts share the same health complaints about living in space

In space, even breathing can become a mission challenge. A...

On January 1, 1995, an approximately 84-foot wall of water struck the Draupner platform in the North Sea, leaving behind the first reliable open-ocean record of a rogue wave. That single event kicked off a scientific hunt to understand how such rare giants can arise without breaking any rules of physics.



Francesco Fedele, an associate professor in Georgia Tech’s School of Civil and Environmental Engineering (<a href="https://ce.gatech.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GT</a>), led a new analysis that tackles this question head-on.



Scientists typically define a rogue wave as a crest whose height is greater than twice the significant wave height, the average of the highest one-third of nearby waves. They note that such waves can arrive from unusual directions and catch mariners off guard.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-extreme-waves-at-sea">Tracking extreme waves at sea</h2>



The team assembled 27,500 half-hour wave records spanning 2003 through 2020 at the Ekofisk platform in the central North Sea. They then compared how often extreme crests occur under different sea states.



The experts found that the statistics of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-waves-can-get-much-bigger-taller-than-we-ever-imagined/">largest crests</a> match ordinary processes once you account for direction, frequency spread, and how steep the waves get as storms intensify.



For years, many researchers considered modulational instability, an effect that can amplify one wave at the expense of its neighbors in long, one directional wave trains, to be a leading explanation for rogue waves. 



In the open ocean, however, waves distribute energy across multiple directions. Analysis of the North Sea records indicates that third-order resonant interactions have an insignificant role in the formation of large waves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-angles-shape-rogue-waves">Angles shape rogue waves</h2>



Directional spreading plays a central role in how wave energy is distributed in the open ocean. 



When waves travel in multiple directions, the chances of sustained energy transfer from one wave to another diminish. This limits the potential for a single wave to grow disproportionately large. 



In contrast, when waves are confined or closely aligned, their concentrated energy along a narrow track allows modulational instability to play a greater role.



In the North Sea, measurements consistently show a diverse range of incoming wave angles, even during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rapid-antarctic-sea-ice-loss-is-causing-severe-storms-around-the-world/">severe storms.</a> This multidirectional environment disperses wave energy and disrupts the formation of conditions necessary for modulational instability to dominate. 



As a result, other mechanisms - such as linear focusing and second order bound nonlinearities - emerge as the primary drivers behind the largest observed waves in these waters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-forces-behind-ocean-giants">Two forces behind ocean giants</h2>



Two common, well-understood effects explain these ocean giants. The first is linear focusing, in which waves align in time and space, combining to create larger waves.



The second is second-order bound nonlinearities, which sharpen crests and flatten troughs. The authors estimate these can boost already tall waves by roughly 15 to 20 percent relative to linear predictions.



The Andrea rogue wave, recorded near Ekofisk in 2007, has served as a benchmark for testing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-extreme-rogue-waves-ever-recorded-ucluelet-draupner/">extreme wave</a> statistics and encounter probabilities in realistic seas.



That work showed how often such crests could be encountered by a fixed platform or a moving ship over a given area. It was a step toward turning folklore into engineering numbers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-records-refine-rogue-wave-science">Records refine rogue wave science</h2>



The North Sea dataset was large enough to separate young, wind-forced seas from older, more mature seas without mixing apples and oranges. 



Young seas with strong winds displayed higher skewness and larger bound, not dynamic, kurtosis. This is exactly what you would expect if bound nonlinearities, not modulational instability, dominate under real storm conditions.



If rogue waves stem from rare alignments and bound effects, detection becomes a pattern recognition problem, not a physics search.



A 2024 <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-66315-3.pdf">study</a> trained a neural network on buoy records and reported correct classification of roughly 75 percent of rogue events one minute ahead. Accuracy was about 70 percent five minutes ahead. The findings suggest that short-fuse warnings are feasible when instruments are in place.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-design-operations-and-safety">Design, operations, and safety</h2>



Forecast offices already analyze wave and circulation models several times per day to anticipate wind waves and swell. Researchers are extending that toolkit toward extremes as data and methods improve.



The takeaway for ships and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/britain-approves-controversial-oil-and-gas-field-in-the-north-sea/">offshore structures</a> is straightforward yet profound: be prepared for extremes driven by everyday physics.



In addition, place sensors and algorithms where they can spot the telltale setup before a crest peaks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-myths-about-rogue-waves">Myths about rogue waves</h2>



The folklore that rogue waves are rare beyond belief does not hold up to modern records and careful statistics.



Official guidance still reminds mariners that a single extreme crest can come from an unexpected direction. Events higher than about twice the local sea’s significant wave height fall into the rogue category, a sober framing that aligns with the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/valleys-in-the-north-sea-hold-a-record-of-melting-ice-sheets/">North Sea</a> analysis.



Bigger, cleaner datasets will help quantify how directional spread, current shear, and depth modulate the chance of constructive alignment without invoking special mechanisms. 



Combining radar, buoy networks, and ship-based observations could sharpen short-term warnings. This data could also improve design criteria for platforms and long routes that cross energetic seas.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-07156-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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What creates monster rogue waves? Scientists identify a pattern

On January 1, 1995, an approximately 84-foot wall of water...

After years of digging across Africa, scientists have built a clearer picture of life just before Earth’s worst die-off. New fossils reveal bustling ecosystems in southern Pangea, from burrowers to tusked plant-eaters to saber-toothed hunters. 



The fossils show which species thrived before the “Great Dying” and hint at why so many vanished. A team led by researchers at the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a> and the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/ujvp20/45/sup1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Field Museum</a> pulled together this record in a 14-paper collection. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-perspective-on-mass-extinctions">A new perspective on mass extinctions </h2>



The research spans more than 15 years of field seasons and lab study, and it focuses on the late Permian, which ran from 299 to 252 million years ago.



Christian Sidor is a UW professor of biology and curator of vertebrate paleontology at the UW Burke Museum of Natural History &amp; Culture.



“This mass extinction was nothing short of a cataclysm for life on Earth, and changed the course of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-gene-families-pangenome-influence-called-revolutionary/">evolution</a>,” said Sidor. "But we lack a comprehensive view of which species survived, which didn’t, and why."



"The fossils we have collected in Tanzania and Zambia will give us a more global perspective on this unprecedented period in our planet’s natural history.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-hunt-across-southern-pangea">Fossil hunt across southern Pangea</h2>



The study centers on three basins rich in fossils and extinction records in southern Africa: the Ruhuhu Basin in southern Tanzania, the Luangwa Basin in eastern Zambia, and the Mid-Zambezi Basin in southern Zambia.



Most specimens came from month-long expeditions over the past 17 years. Others were museum pieces collected decades ago and newly analyzed.



“These parts of Zambia and Tanzania contain absolutely beautiful fossils from the Permian,” Sidor said. “They are giving us an unprecedented view of life on land leading up to the mass extinction.”



Fieldwork began in 2007. The team, which included students and postdoctoral researchers, made five trips to the Ruhuhu Basin and four to the Mid-Zambezi and Luangwa basins. The work was conducted in partnership with the Tanzanian and Zambian governments.



Crews hiked between distant sites, stayed in villages, and sometimes camped under the stars. One night, they awoke to the ground quaking from a nearby elephant herd. All collected fossils will return to Tanzania and Zambia after study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-challenging-old-extinction-records">Fossils challenging old extinction records</h2>



The Permian Period closed the Paleozoic Era. During this time, life that first evolved in the oceans spread onto land and built complex food webs. By the late Permian, amphibian and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reptile-ancestors-appeared-40-million-years-earlier-than-we-thought/">reptile-like animals</a> roamed environments from early forests to arid valleys.



The end-Permian extinction, whose cause is still debated, shattered many of those ecosystems. It cleared the slate for the Mesozoic, which produced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-did-dinosaurs-come-from-missing-fossils-hold-the-secret/">dinosaurs</a> and, later, the first birds, flowering plants, and mammals.



For decades, much of what scientists knew about this transition came from fossil discoveries in South Africa’s Karoo Basin, which preserves a near-continuous record across the extinction boundary.



Since the 1930s, however, researchers have recognized that Tanzania and Zambia also preserve superb sequences from this interval.



The new series builds on earlier work, including a 2018 synthesis of post-Permian life from the Ruhuhu and Luangwa basins, by pushing deeper into the Permian layers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-final-flourishing-before-collapse">Final flourishing before collapse</h2>



The papers describe several new species of dicynodonts - small, burrowing, herbivorous synapsids with beak-like snouts. Many had a pair of small tusks that likely helped with digging. By the time the crisis hit, dicynodonts dominated plant-eating niches on land.



The team also reports multiple new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/therapsids-worlds-oldest-ancestor-of-mammals-discovered-so-far-had-saber-teeth/">gorgonopsians</a> - large, saber-toothed predators that stalked the same landscapes. In addition, they identify a new temnospondyl, a hefty, salamander-like amphibian that lived in rivers and swamps.



Together, these animals map the food webs across southern Pangea in the final Permian chapters. They also allow direct comparison with South Africa’s fossil record.



That comparison is crucial for testing which lineages were widespread and which were local, and for tracking who faded and who endured.



“The number of specimens we’ve found in Zambia and Tanzania is so high, and their condition is so exquisite, that we can make species-level comparisons to what paleontologists have found in South Africa,” Sidor explained.



“I know of no better place on Earth for obtaining such detailed information about this time period, or for making such precise conclusions and comparisons.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-matching-fossil-timelines-worldwide">Matching fossil timelines worldwide</h2>



By putting multiple regions side by side, researchers can test patterns of survival and collapse rather than rely on a single archive. The African basins now offer parallel timelines bracketing the end-Permian horizon. 



With that, scientists can probe whether communities unraveled in the same way everywhere, or if stress hit different places differently.



“We can now compare two different geographic regions of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/australia-north-america-supercontinent/">Pangea</a> and see what was going on both before and after the end-Permian mass extinction,” Sidor said. “We can really start to ask questions about who survived and who didn’t.”



The answers could reveal how ecosystems respond when pushed to the brink. They may also show which traits help lineages ride out cascading shocks. 



That fossil evidence sharpens the narrative of Earth’s greatest extinction and the long recovery that followed. It also deepens our view of the world the dinosaurs inherited and reshaped.



The research is published in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/ujvp20/45/sup1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>.



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Life was thriving before Earth’s greatest mass extinction

After years of digging across Africa, scientists have built a...

A bold new proposal is straightforward in concept but daunting in execution. The plan is to launch a gram-scale spacecraft, push it with lasers to a hefty fraction of light speed, and aim it at the nearest black hole to run clean physics tests in extreme gravity.



The idea sets a timeline future generations can actually see through: flight on the order of 60 to 75 years. A data return would bring the full mission to roughly 80 to 100 years, assuming the target is a black hole about 20 to 25 light-years away.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-the-gravity-mission">Building the gravity mission</h2>



Cosimo Bambi of <a href="https://www.fudan.edu.cn/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fudan University</a> in China argues that this is not a fantasy project, but a hard, testable one mapped to specific technologies and targets. Big claims in physics often look out of reach - until they are not.



“Certainly, we do not have the necessary technology today, but it may be available in the next 20 to 30 years,” Bambi said.&nbsp;



Bambi noted that the first detection of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-particles-solution-gravitational-wave-mystery-bose-einstein-condensate/">gravitational waves</a> came a full century after Einstein’s prediction. This illustrates how ideas once thought impossible can eventually be achieved.



The same field now boasts images of black hole shadows, beginning with M87 in 2019, which validated predictions of how light behaves near intense gravity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hunting-nearby-black-holes">Hunting nearby black holes</h2>



Astronomers have already found a quiet black hole in our neighborhood, known as Gaia BH1, about 1,560 light-years away. They discovered it by tracking the motion of its Sun-like companion. That is still far for a century scale mission, but it proves the detection path works.



Most stellar black holes do not shine, and many are likely solitary, so they hide in plain sight. 



The first clear-cut detection of an isolated black hole came through microlensing, in which the object’s gravity bends the light of a background star. Hubble astrometry then nailed down its mass.



New strategies suggest some isolated black holes in the Local Interstellar Cloud could be seen through faint accretion signatures with facilities like ALMA, SKA, and <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/">JWST</a> - if we look in the right conditions.



A complementary proposal argues that transient electromagnetic outbursts crossing a black hole’s gravity well can excite spacetime. This can produce a gravitational wave signal detectable in certain cases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-powering-a-tiny-traveler">Powering a tiny traveler</h2>



The hardware concept builds on<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ultra-thin-lightsail-created-for-faster-space-travel/"> light-sail propulsion</a>. Photons push a reflective sheet attached to a tiny payload, yielding acceleration without onboard propellant.



Bambi’s sketch centers on a nanocraft weighing about a gram, paired with a meter-scale sail and driven to roughly one-third light speed by Earth-based lasers.



The laser system scales to the hundred-gigawatt class in several studies. Researchers describe this regime as technically daunting, yet feasible to phase and point with modern photonics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-probing-gravity-s-extremes">Probing gravity’s extremes</h2>



Once at the target, the mission would split into two small craft and conduct three classes of tests. 



The first test would measure whether <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/radical-theory-unites-gravity-spacetime-and-the-quantum-realm/">spacetime</a> around the black hole follows the Kerr metric - the solution of general relativity for rotating black holes.



The team would compare a stable signal near the hole with the reception and timing recorded by another craft farther away. The payoff is precise, cycle-counted frequency tracking that builds sensitivity over many orbits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-additional-tests-near-the-black-hole">Additional tests near the black hole </h2>



The second test would check for an event horizon. If a probe fell inward and beamed a steady tone, general relativity predicts the received signal would redshift progressively. 



It would dim and shift to lower frequencies, never showing the probe crossing the horizon within the receiver’s finite time. A sharp cutoff or a different evolution would hint at a horizonless alternative.



The third test would look for changes in the fine-structure constant under strong gravity by comparing two atomic transitions with different sensitivities to that constant.



White dwarf studies have already used stellar spectra to set limits on such effects in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-true-nature-of-dark-matter-may-be-revealed-in-a-supernova/">high-gravity fields</a>, providing a baseline method for the black hole experiment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-obstacles-on-the-path">Obstacles on the path</h2>



Localizing the target to arcminute-scale accuracy before launch is essential, since even a slight pointing error could mean a miss after decades of flight. This requires multi-instrument campaigns to refine positions and distances for any candidate isolated black hole, not just its discovery.



A phased <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lasers-may-completely-transform-the-future-of-plastic-recycling/">laser</a> array would also push engineering to the edge, from coherent beam combining to atmospheric compensation. 



Thermal management would be required at power levels that are high yet still within the limits of realistic materials and control schemes.



Early analyses outline no fundamental physical showstopper at the system level for the power and phasing tasks described above, though the integration challenge remains substantial.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2589004225014038" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iScience</a>.



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Laser-powered nanocraft may test gravity near a black hole

A bold new proposal is straightforward in concept but daunting...

On August 13, the world turns its gaze to one of nature’s most misunderstood creatures - the wolf. For centuries, wolves have been hunted, feared, and driven from their lands.



However, wolves are not just <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">predators</a> - they play a crucial role in balancing and maintaining ecosystems. In the mid-90s, wolves <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-are-rebuilding-forests-and-restoring-ecosystem-balance-in-yellowstone/">returned to Yellowstone</a>. Elk numbers decreased, grazing pressure was reduced, and vegetation began to recover.



A 20-year study at 25 streamside sites shows just how dramatic the change has been - willow crown volume increased by 1,500 percent. “Our findings emphasize the power of predators as ecosystem architects,” said William Ripple of <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>.



With fewer elk browsing, willows, aspens, and berry shrubs flourished. Birds, beavers, and insects benefited. This chain reaction is called a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2351989425000290">trophic cascade</a>, and the one at Yellowstone is among the strongest recorded anywhere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-wolves-disappear">When wolves disappear</h2>



By the early 1930s, wolves had been wiped out across most of the American West. Hunting, trapping, and government predator-control programs had removed wolves from the landscapes they had shaped for thousands of years.



Without wolves to keep herbivore numbers in check, elk herds grew quickly and stayed in one place for longer. They grazed young plants relentlessly, stripping away willows, aspens, and other vegetation along rivers and streams.



These riparian zones - the green ribbons of life beside waterways - began to shrink and lose diversity. Without healthy plants to anchor the soil, banks eroded. Insects, birds, and mammals that depended on that habitat declined. 



Forest edges also suffered. Young trees couldn’t survive heavy browsing and, over time, forests became thinner and less able to support <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-no-those-are-definitely-not-resurrected-dire-wolves-grey-wolf-genes/">wildlife</a>.



Robert Beschta of Oregon State University calls this a “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gray-wolves-are-a-crucial-component-of-the-american-west/">shifting baseline</a>.” It happens when we forget, or never knew, what a healthy ecosystem once looked like. Each generation grows up seeing a degraded landscape and assumes it’s normal. 



That false sense of normal can mislead conservation planning, because decisions are made without understanding the richness that has already been lost.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-pressures-on-wolves">Human pressures on wolves</h2>



Even in protected areas, wolves face human threats. They cross park boundaries and enter hunting zones.



A recent study examined decades of data from five U.S. parks. When a human killed one wolf, the chance that the pack survived the year dropped by 27 percent. Reproduction fell by 22 percent. Losing a pack leader hit even harder - survival odds dropped <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolf-packs-are-less-likely-to-stick-together-after-human-impacts/">73 percent</a>, reproduction nearly halved.



In Voyageurs National Park, half of all wolf deaths are human-caused, often by poaching. Packs here spend more time outside park limits, which increases risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-global-picture">The global picture</h2>



The <a href="https://www.awf.org/wildlife-conservation/ethiopian-wolf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ethiopian wolf</a> is now one of the rarest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gray-wolves-are-a-crucial-component-of-the-american-west/">carnivores</a> in the world, with only about 500 individuals remaining in the wild. 



The wolves survive in small, isolated pockets high in the mountains of Ethiopia, where they depend on rodents for food. These habitats are shrinking as farmland expands. Diseases carried by domestic dogs, such as rabies and distemper, also threaten entire packs in a single outbreak.



<a href="https://wolf.org/wolf-info/factsvsfiction/theindianwolf/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Indian wolves</a> are in a slightly better position but still face serious risks. Their numbers are estimated between 2,000 and 3,000, and most live outside official wildlife reserves. This means they share the land with farmers and herders, which often leads to conflict when livestock are taken. Retaliatory killings remain common.



For both species, habitat loss, direct persecution, and weak legal protection keep populations small and fragmented. Without stronger safeguards, better disease control, and community involvement in conservation, these wolves could slip even closer to extinction.



International Wolf Day is not just symbolic. It’s a reminder that predator loss affects forests and rivers, and every species that depends on them. 



Protecting wolves means healthier ecosystems. The science is clear. When wolves return, balance returns with them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-action-on-international-wolf-day">Action on International Wolf Day </h2>



There are many ways to make a difference for wolves, no matter where you live. You can support conservation groups through donations, symbolic wolf adoptions, or volunteering your skills. Share accurate information online and in your community to challenge old myths that paint wolves as dangerous pests.



Attend local talks, school programs, or online events that mark International Wolf Day. These events often raise funds, recruit supporters, and connect people who care about wildlife. Contact policymakers to push for stronger laws that protect wolves from hunting, trapping, and habitat destruction.



If you live near wolf habitats, support coexistence programs that help farmers and herders protect livestock without killing predators.



Simple measures like guard animals, fencing, and better herding practices reduce conflict. Every action - big or small - helps keep wolf populations stable and the ecosystems they support healthy.



Details of the study were published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2351989425000290" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Ecology and Conservation</a>.



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International Wolf Day 2025: Honoring the vital role of predators

On August 13, the world turns its gaze to one...

Reflection,In,The,Mirror.,Woman,Looks,In,The,Mirror,Noticing

As humans, we see aging when we look in the mirror, but the crucial changes happen in the proteins that keep every tissue running. Those proteins rise, fall, and shift as the years stack up, shaping organ function and health over time. 



A large study recently published in the journal Cell follows protein patterns across the human body to map when and where aging speeds up.



This research tracks the molecules that build structures, relay signals, and handle cleanup inside cells, where wear and tear accumulates. 



By watching proteins rather than just reading genetic instructions, the study offers a more direct view of how organs change across adult life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proteins-and-human-aging">Proteins and human aging</h2>



The work comes from scientists at the <a href="https://english.cas.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a>, who focused on proteins because they are the end products that carry out cellular functions. 



Their aim was to chart how protein levels change along with human aging in many organs at once and to compare those shifts with RNA - the cellular templates used to make proteins. 



"Our study is poised to construct a comprehensive multi-tissue proteomic atlas spanning 50 years of the entire human aging process, elucidating the mechanisms behind <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4539002/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">proteostasis imbalance</a> in aged organs and revealing both universal and tissue-specific aging patterns," the researchers write.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-study-measured">What the study measured</h2>



The team measured more than 12,700 proteins in samples from 13 human tissues, plus blood. Donors ranged from 14 to 68 years old. 



In total, the analysis covered 516 tissue specimens with ultra-sensitive mass spectrometry and matching RNA readouts. 



The tissue set drew from 76 organ donors who died of accidental traumatic brain injury, providing a broad snapshot of adult biology across several decades.



"Based on aging-associated protein changes, we developed tissue-specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organ-aging-can-predict-diseases-decades-in-advance/">proteomic age</a> clocks and characterized organ-level aging trajectories," explained the team. 



"Temporal analysis revealed an aging inflection around age 50, with blood vessels being a tissue that ages early and is markedly susceptible to aging."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tissues-on-different-schedules">Tissues on different schedules</h2>



The pace of change isn’t uniform across the body. The starkest shifts clustered between 45 and 55, when many tissues remodeled their protein profiles. 



Within that window, the aorta showed the most marked change, and the pancreas and spleen exhibited sustained shifts that stood out against more gradual patterns elsewhere.



Signals of aging didn’t wait for midlife in every case. The adrenal glands and the aorta began to drift from youthful protein patterns around age 30, hinting at stress-hormone and vascular changes that precede later organ shifts. 



The sample set spanned seven systems: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-century-of-progress-in-the-fight-against-cardiovascular-disease/">cardiovascular</a> (heart and aorta), digestive (liver, pancreas, and intestine), <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/daylight-boosts-the-immune-systems-ability-to-fight-infections/">immune</a> (spleen and lymph node), endocrine (adrenal gland and white adipose), respiratory (lung), integumentary (skin), and musculoskeletal (muscle), along with blood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aging-weakens-protein-connections">Aging weakens protein connections</h2>



The study found that the connection between RNA templates and the proteins they should produce weakens with age. Cells appear less able to translate instructions into the right protein levels at the right times. 



At the same time, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-aging-linked-to-sluggish-production-of-key-proteins/">proteostasis</a> - the machinery that builds, folds, and recycles proteins - loses strength. Ribosomes, chaperones, and proteasomes trended downward, while amyloid-type protein clumps accumulated. 



Those clumps interacted with immune and complement proteins and fed chronic, low-level inflammation known as <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41574-018-0059-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">inflammaging</a>. 



One molecule, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/serum-amyloid-p" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">serum amyloid P</a> (SAP), stood out as consistently increased across organs and, in laboratory tests, pushed young blood-vessel cells toward an older, inflamed state.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disease-linked-proteins-rise">Disease-linked proteins rise</h2>



When the researchers compared their catalog to disease databases, expression levels of 48 disease-related proteins increased with aging. 



The signals touched conditions such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-disease-remains-the-leading-cause-of-death-worldwide/">cardiovascular disease</a>, tissue fibrosis, fatty liver disease, and liver-related tumors, indicating that common age-associated risks have echoes in the protein data.



The <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41591-024-03164-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">proteomic clocks</a> built by the team for each tissue reached strong accuracy, with correlations up to 0.95. These tools extend the idea of biological age beyond DNA marks and focus on the molecules that do the work.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-targeting-proteins-to-slow-aging">Targeting proteins to slow aging</h2>



The authors describe a Protein Imbalance-Vascular Hub model in which failures in protein quality control inside blood vessels can trigger broader tissue changes. 



They refer to the aorta as a senohub - a source of age-amplifying signals that circulate and influence distant organs. The pattern points to network effects rather than isolated, organ-by-organ decline.



Prior work reported <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-bodies-undergo-very-rapid-change-aging-at-two-very-specific-times/">two sharp aging peaks</a> at around 44 and again at around 60. 



The current results align with a stepwise pattern, adding a midlife surge while highlighting tissue-specific timing that helps explain why organ changes do not unfold all at once.



Together, these findings lay the groundwork for a systems-level understanding of human aging through the lens of proteins.



Insights from the research team may soon facilitate the development of targeted interventions for aging and age-related diseases, paving the way to improve the health of older adults.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell/abstract/S0092-8674(25)00749-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell</a>.



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Scientists identify a 'turning point' when your body starts aging faster

As humans, we see aging when we look in the...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



-----



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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