Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

For the first time ever, scientists have successfully observed how valence electrons behave in organic molecules. This gives us a clearer picture of the complex nature of chemical bonds that make up all matter. 



By looking at how these electrons act, we can learn more about the stability and reactivity of different compounds.



Their findings have been published in the Journal of the American Chemical Society, marking a major step forward in our understanding of how atoms interact to form molecules.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-true-nature-of-valence-electrons">True nature of valence electrons</h2>



Valence electrons are the outermost <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/attosecond-electron-freeze-frame-of-liquid-water-seen-for-the-first-time-ever/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electrons in an atom</a>, and they play a key role in how atoms bond with one another. These electrons are responsible for a material's properties, especially during chemical bonding.



Despite their importance, isolating and observing these electrons directly has been tough for researchers. 



Most scientists have had to depend on theoretical models or indirect methods like spectroscopy to figure out how they behave. But now, this new method lets us get a direct and detailed look at these tricky particles.



This achievement was made possible through a sophisticated X-ray diffraction technique, which the researcher team from <a href="https://en.nagoya-u.ac.jp/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nagoya University</a> in Japan used to map the electron distribution in organic molecules. 



They were able to extract the electron density in atoms within a crystal, focusing first on glycine, a simple amino acid. 



Instead of the predicted smooth, continuous electron cloud, the team observed a fragmented, wave-like structure, challenging long-held ideas about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-realm-vibrating-atoms-tune-single-electron-energy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electron behavior</a>.



At the core of the study is a technique called Core Differential Fourier Synthesis (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_analysis" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CDFS</a>). Using this method, the researchers were able to specifically target and visualize the valence electrons of organic molecules.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-team-learned">What the team learned</h2>



This experiment took place at <a href="https://www.spring8.or.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SPring-8</a>, a renowned synchrotron X-ray facility. The team started their work by focusing on the glycine molecule.



What they found was astonishing: the electron cloud around the glycine molecule did not form the smooth, enveloping shape that many expected. Instead, it appeared as a fragmented and discrete state, reflecting the quantum mechanical wave nature of electrons.



"We named this method the CDFS method. Using this method, we observed the electron state of the glycine molecule, a type of amino acid," corresponding author Hiroshi Sawa said. 



"Although the method was relatively simple to perform, the result was impressive. The observed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/edge-state-atoms-how-electrons-find-their-groove-in-frictionless-flow/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electron cloud</a> did not exhibit the smooth, enveloping shape that many predicted, but rather a fragmented, discrete state."



This wave-like behavior is a key aspect of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/impossibility-paradox-calculating-incalculable-quantum-realm-particles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum theory</a>, but seeing it so clearly in a real-world setting was both surprising and enlightening.



To make sense of these findings, the researchers produced a color map of the electron distribution. This type of visual tool is often used in chemistry to display variations in data, making complex information easier to interpret. 



In this case, the map showed interruptions in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/intense-quantum-light-generates-weird-electron-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electron distribution</a> around the carbon atoms in glycine, revealing how electrons rearrange themselves during chemical bonding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-valence-electrons-and-chemical-bonds">Valence electrons and chemical bonds</h2>



The fragmented electron distribution provides clear evidence of the wave nature of electrons, which are not continuously spread around atoms but instead form nodes -- areas where electrons are absent -- due to their wave-like properties. 



This observation challenges the traditional model of a continuous electron cloud and aligns more closely with modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/radical-new-theory-finally-unites-gravity-spacetime-and-the-quantum-realm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum mechanical theories</a>.



To confirm their findings, the researchers performed advanced quantum chemical calculations in collaboration with another institution, and the results matched perfectly. 



This solidified their discovery and validated the new experimental method as a reliable tool for visualizing electron behavior.



This newfound ability to observe valence electrons in detail offers exciting possibilities for multiple scientific fields. 



By understanding how electrons behave during bonding, researchers can better predict molecular interactions, a critical aspect of designing new drugs and functional materials. 



The study also has implications for the design of organic semiconductors and even <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/landmark-study-reveals-275-million-new-genetic-variants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DNA research</a>, where molecular stability is key.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-applications-in-health-and-material-science">Applications in health and material science</h2>



One of the most exciting aspects of this discovery is its potential to revolutionize drug development. The ability to visualize how molecules bond at the electron level could help scientists understand why some drugs work while others do not.



By mapping out electron behavior, researchers can pinpoint the exact interactions that lead to a drug’s effectiveness or failure, opening the door to more targeted and efficient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/machine-learning-could-revolutionize-drug-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pharmaceutical design</a>.



"It may, for example, explain why some medicines work and others don't. Fields where interactions influence functionality and structural stability, such as organic semiconductors and research on the structure of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-building-block-of-life-called-tna-created-in-the-lab/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DNA double helixes</a>, are likely to benefit most from our research," Sawa explained.



Additionally, this technique could greatly benefit the field of chemical engineering, particularly in the development of advanced materials. 



Understanding electron behavior can lead to the creation of new materials with enhanced properties, whether it be organic semiconductors used in electronics or materials designed for more efficient energy storage.



The team’s work on glycine is just the beginning. After their initial success, they moved on to studying cytidine, a more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-the-building-blocks-of-life-form/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complex molecule</a>. 



Here, too, they were able to observe differences in electron behavior between different types of chemical bonds, further demonstrating the versatility and power of their new method.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-valence-electron-visualization">Future of valence electron visualization</h2>



To sum it all up, the ability to visualize valence electrons is a huge leap forward in chemistry and physics, with no shortage of potential applications. 



As this technique develops, scientists will use it to tackle many long-standing questions in chemistry and related fields.



By bringing together different areas of expertise, the team pulled off what was once seen as impossible: directly observing and mapping how valence electrons behave.



In the years ahead, we can expect this method to be applied to even more complex molecules, giving us deeper insights into molecular interactions and chemical reactions.



Whether it's in pharmaceuticals, materials science, or basic chemistry research, this breakthrough could really change how we understand the building blocks of matter.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/jacs.4c05673" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of the American Chemical Society</a>.



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First observation of valence electrons reveals true nature of chemical bonding

For the first time ever, scientists have successfully observed how...

Every year, millions of birds migrate in search of warmer climates to escape the harsh winter. However, this seasonal journey does not necessarily help birds conserve energy as previously thought, according to a recent study from the <a href="https://www.ab.mpg.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior</a> (MPI-AB). 



By implanting miniaturized loggers into wild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-blackbirds-get-sick-it-takes-weeks-for-them-to-recover/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">blackbirds</a>, scientists were able to record detailed measurements of the birds' heart rates and body temperatures every 30 minutes, from fall until the following spring. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-no-overall-energy-advantage-nbsp">No overall energy advantage&nbsp;</h2>



The study offers an unprecedented look into the true energetic costs of both migrating and staying in place. The data also uncovered an unexpected energy-saving mechanism used by blackbirds before migration begins.



“We never expected to discover that birds gain no overall energy advantage by escaping cold winters,” said Nils Linek, a first author of the study and researcher at MPI-AB.&nbsp;



“It was a longstanding textbook assumption that animals spend less energy by migrating to warmer places, but our findings have shown that these savings don’t add up. Rather, the energetics of migration is far more complex and interesting than theory predicted.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-energy-expenditure-of-blackbirds-nbsp">Measuring energy expenditure of blackbirds&nbsp;</h2>



Migration is a spectacular example of how animals adapt to changing seasons, but the fundamental question of why animals migrate has long puzzled scientists.&nbsp;



Part of the challenge has been the difficulty of studying the physiology of free-living animals over extended periods.&nbsp;



In this study, researchers from MPI-AB and <a href="https://www.yale.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale University</a> made a significant breakthrough by using sensors that measured the energy expenditure of blackbirds over the course of a full year, including their migration. 



They then paired this physiological data with energy modeling to calculate the predicted energetic costs of regulating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/koalas-can-predict-hot-days-and-adjust-their-body-temperature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">body temperature</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blackbirds-save-up-energy-for-their-journey">Blackbirds save up energy for their journey</h2>



The data showed that migrating blackbirds conserved substantial amounts of energy in preparation for migration by lowering their metabolism three weeks before departing. This adjustment may offset the energy costs of the migratory flights.&nbsp;



“They are essentially turning down their internal thermostat, allowing them to save energy for the journey ahead,” explained Linek.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicted-energy-surplus-nbsp">Predicted energy surplus&nbsp;</h2>



Yet, once the birds reached their warmer wintering areas, they did not seem to reduce their overall daily energy expenditure as expected.



“This was not what we anticipated,” said co-first author Scott Yanco, a scientist at the Yale Center for Biodiversity and Global Change.&nbsp;



“The energy modeling we did in the study predicted that migration should definitely create an energy surplus because of the substantially reduced cost of keeping warm in milder climates.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-costs-in-overwintering-sites-nbsp">Hidden costs in overwintering sites&nbsp;</h2>



The mystery remains: where did this predicted energy surplus go? “We can only speculate at this point, but we suggest that there may be other physiological adaptations or hidden costs that migrant blackbirds face in their milder overwintering sites,” said Linek. 



“These might include factors such as the need to maintain vigilance in new environments, immune functions, or unknown stressors that offset the thermal advantage they should have experienced.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-partially-migratory-blackbirds">“Partially migratory” blackbirds</h2>



The researchers conducted their study in southern Germany, where blackbird populations are “partially migratory.” This means that while some blackbirds migrate south to regions like Spain and France, others remain in Germany throughout the year.&nbsp;



To track both migrant and resident birds, the researchers implanted heart rate and body temperature loggers into 120 wild blackbirds. These devices recorded data continuously from September until May.&nbsp;



Additionally, the team used radio transmitters to monitor the departure and return of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-migratory-birds-navigate-with-such-accuracy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migratory birds</a>. Over one million data points were analyzed to compare the physiological differences between the two groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-blackbirds-in-remarkable-detail-nbsp">Tracking blackbirds in remarkable detail&nbsp;</h2>



“Using physiological data, we were able to see in remarkable detail how birds undertake and experience migration,” said co-author Tamara Volkmer, a doctoral student at MPI-AB.&nbsp;



“We could observe everything from the migratory flight itself to how they recovered afterward and what they did over the winter. By recording long-term, detailed energy measurements, we could glimpse the hidden costs of their impressive round trip.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-drivers-of-migration-nbsp">Evolutionary drivers of migration&nbsp;</h2>



The findings suggest that migration, despite its risks and challenges, does not result in energy savings in warmer climates. This raises new questions about the evolutionary drivers of migration.&nbsp;



“This could have implications for our understanding of migration and its underlying mechanisms across different bird species,” Linek explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study-nbsp">Broader implications of the study&nbsp;</h2>



The study also has broader implications for predicting how species will respond to future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migratory-birds-are-struggling-to-adapt-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate changes</a>.



Study senior author Jesko Partecke is a group leader at MPI-AB who has been studying blackbird migration for two decades.



“Understanding the physiological underpinnings of migration means that we can better forecast which species may adapt, which may alter their migratory patterns, and which may face greater risks as the world continues to warm,” said Partecke.&nbsp;



As climate change progresses, this research could prove essential in understanding how migratory species will cope with shifting environmental conditions, potentially altering migration strategies or even leading to the disappearance of certain migratory behaviors.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-024-02545-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>, 



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Blackbirds reveal the true energy costs of migrating

Every year, millions of birds migrate in search of warmer...

For astronomers, one of the most puzzling aspects of black holes has been the intense X-ray radiation emitted from their surroundings. While many theories have surfaced since the 1970s, researchers finally have a clearer picture of what's going on. 



A new study explains how the chaotic interplay between magnetic fields and plasma near black holes produces the X-rays we've been detecting for years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deeper-look-into-black-hole-physics">Deeper look into black hole physics</h2>



The fascinating part of this research lies in how the team <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-holes-may-talk-to-galaxies-through-energetic-winds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modeled the interactions</a> between radiation, plasma, and magnetic fields. 



Associate Professor Joonas Nättilä and his group at the <a href="https://www.helsinki.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Helsinki</a>, known for its work in computational plasma astrophysics, has managed to replicate what happens around black holes using supercomputer simulations. 



This breakthrough allows us to understand, for the first time, how these extreme environments generate X-ray radiation through a chaotic dance of turbulence.



But what makes this finding so significant? In essence, the team has shown that magnetic turbulence heats up the plasma, causing it to radiate X-rays. 



This radiation, a long-standing enigma in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-jets-are-like-million-light-year-long-jedi-lightsabers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole studies</a>, is now better understood thanks to their work.



Moreover, the study, published in Nature Communications, used the first-ever plasma physics model to incorporate every important quantum interaction between radiation and plasma -- a feat that took years to achieve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-black-holes-through-x-rays">Studying black holes through x-rays</h2>



Black holes are fascinating cosmic objects. They're born when a large star collapses, creating such a dense concentration of mass that nothing, not even light, can escape their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jwst-has-detected-most-distant-black-hole-merger-ever/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gravitational pull</a>. 



As a result, direct observation of black holes is impossible, and we can only study their effects on nearby objects. That’s where X-rays come in.



Most known black holes exist in binary systems, where they have a companion star. The black hole slowly pulls matter from its partner, forming an accretion disk -- a swirling mass of gas and dust. 



This disk is where the magic happens. As the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-black-hole-disrupts-a-bigger-one-causing-cosmic-hiccups/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gas spirals inward</a>, it heats up and becomes incredibly bright in the X-ray spectrum, which is how astronomers observe black holes indirectly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tale-of-turbulence-and-flares">A tale of turbulence and flares</h2>



Since the 1970s, scientists have speculated that these X-rays were tied to interactions between local gas and magnetic fields, much like the way solar flares heat the sun’s outer atmosphere. 



What Nättilä’s team has now demonstrated is that the accretion disk’s turbulence is so extreme that it impacts the plasma dynamics on a quantum level.



"The flares in the accretion disks of black holes are like extreme versions of solar flares," says Nättilä. 



His team’s simulations reveal that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/powerful-magnetic-fields-may-be-key-features-of-black-holes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetic turbulence</a> near black holes is powerful enough to create conditions where even quantum effects are at play. This turbulent plasma naturally produces the kind of X-ray radiation we observe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-matter-and-antimatter-collide">When matter and antimatter collide</h2>



One of the most mind-bending findings from the study involves electron-positron pairs, a type of matter-antimatter interaction. Typically, electrons and positrons don’t occur together, but near black holes, the situation changes. 



The high-energy environment makes it possible for these particles to coexist, interact, and even annihilate each other, transforming back into radiation.



"In everyday life, such quantum phenomena where matter suddenly appears in place of extremely bright light are, of course, not seen, but near black holes, they become crucial," Nättilä explains.



This is a remarkable insight into the exotic world of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/magnetic-winds-fuel-the-growth-of-black-holes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole physics</a>, where the energy levels are so intense that quantum interactions become significant in ways they simply aren’t in our day-to-day lives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-states-of-plasma-hot-and-cold">Two states of plasma: Hot and cold</h2>



One of the major revelations from this research is that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-waterfall-discovery-proves-einstein-right-again/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plasma surrounding black holes</a> can exist in two different equilibrium states, depending on the surrounding radiation field. In one state, the plasma is cold and transparent, while in the other, it is hot and opaque. 



This mirrors what astronomers have seen in X-ray observations of accretion disks, where the system alternates between "soft" and "hard" states.



These findings not only confirm years of observations but also provide a framework for understanding how plasma behaves in extreme environments. 



The team’s simulations have made it possible to visualize how these two states manifest and alternate based on the conditions around the black hole.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-black-holes-x-rays-and-future-research">Black holes, x-rays, and future research</h2>



While this study answers some long-standing questions, it also opens the door to new lines of inquiry. Understanding the mechanics of X-ray radiation from black holes is just the tip of the iceberg. 



Now that we have these detailed simulations, scientists can learn more about the mysteries of black hole environments, such as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-is-a-kugelblitze-and-why-should-you-care/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">role of quantum effects</a> in other cosmic phenomena.



For Nättilä and his team, this is just the beginning. "It took us years to investigate and add to the simulations all quantum phenomena occurring in nature, but ultimately, it was worth it," Nättilä says.



Black holes may seem like distant, abstract phenomena, but studying them brings us closer to understanding the fundamental forces of our universe. 



The more we know about these invisible giants, the more we can comprehend the workings of space-time, gravity, and the very building blocks of matter. 



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-51257-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Understanding the intense X-ray radiation that surrounds black holes

For astronomers, one of the most puzzling aspects of black...

Imagine being able to control the tiniest part of an atom -- a level of precision that’s almost unfathomable. Well, researchers have now taken that step. By influencing the nucleus of a titanium atom, they have created new opportunities for storing quantum information. 



The work, led by Sander Otte and his team, took place over weeks of painstaking research.



“A Ti-47 atom, to be precise,” Otte explained. “It has one neutron less than the naturally abundant Ti-48, which makes the nucleus slightly magnetic.” 



This seemingly small difference in atomic structure opened a door to possibilities we hadn’t even dreamt of before.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-manipulating-the-nucleus-of-a-titanium-atom">Manipulating the nucleus of a titanium atom</h2>



For weeks, Otte’s team studied a single titanium atom. A Ti-47 atom, to be exact. Unlike the more common Ti-48, this atom has one less neutron, giving its nucleus a unique magnetic property, referred to as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/manipulating-quantum-dance-of-spinning-electrons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">"spin" in the quantum world</a>. 



Now, imagine this spin as a tiny compass needle that can point in various directions, representing quantum information.



But the nucleus of an atom is not an easy thing to manipulate. It floats in what can be described as a vast emptiness within the atom, far from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/watching-electrons-move-in-attoseconds-with-worlds-fastest-microscope/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orbiting electrons</a>, and remains largely unaffected by its surroundings. 



However, there is one exception -- through a weak interaction known as "hyperfine interaction," the spin of an electron in one of the outer shells of the atom can influence the nucleus.



This delicate and intricate interaction is what Otte and his team at <a href="https://www.tudelft.nl/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Delft University of Technology</a> focused on. 



“Easier said than done,” admits Lukas Veldman, a Ph.D. researcher who played a key role in the study. The hyperfine interaction, he explains, is so weak that it requires an extremely precise magnetic field to have any effect at all.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-experimenting-at-the-edge-of-physics">Experimenting at the edge of physics</h2>



Once they had fine-tuned the conditions -- after weeks of careful tweaking and adjustments -- the researchers delivered a voltage pulse to disturb the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massless-dirac-electrons-seen-moving-in-four-dimensions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electron spin</a>. 



This tiny jolt caused both the electron and nuclear spins to wobble in sync for just a fraction of a microsecond. 



“Exactly how Schrödinger predicted,” says Veldman, excited by how closely the experimental results aligned with theoretical predictions.



But this wasn’t just a random wobble. The precision of the experiment, combined with Veldman’s calculations, showed that no <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/transmitting-quantum-information-using-electron-spin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum information</a> was lost during this interaction. 



This is a key finding because it means that quantum information could theoretically be stored safely in the nucleus, away from external disturbances that typically threaten delicate quantum states.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moving-the-nucleus-of-an-atom-why-it-matters">Moving the nucleus of an atom: Why it matters</h2>



The world of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-computer-can-instantly-execute-a-task-that-would-normally-take-47-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum computing</a> has long been searching for ways to store and manipulate information without losing it to environmental noise. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/using-artificial-intelligence-ai-to-make-quantum-computers-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Quantum bits (qubits)</a> are incredibly sensitive, and finding a way to protect them is one of the biggest challenges facing researchers. 



The idea that quantum information could be stored in the nucleus of an atom, shielded from its surroundings, presents a compelling possibility.



But for Otte, this discovery isn’t just about the practical applications.



 “This experiment gives humans influence on the state of matter on an unimaginably small scale,” he says. “To me, that alone makes it worth the effort.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-quantum-information-storage">What’s next for quantum information storage?</h2>



While the current study brings us closer to a practical application of storing quantum information in atomic nuclei, there’s still much work to be done. 



As Veldman pointed out, achieving the precise conditions necessary for hyperfine interaction is no small feat. The magnetic field has to be tuned just right, and even then, the interaction is incredibly brief. However, the potential is enormous.



If future experiments build on this success, we may see a new era in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-computing-giant-leap-forward-breakthrough-ultra-pure-silicon-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum computing</a> where information can be stored more securely and for longer periods. 



This would be a huge leap forward for the field, potentially opening the door to computers that are not only faster but more reliable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-step-closer-but-not-the-final-frontier">One step closer, but not the final frontier</h2>



Despite the potential for this research to revolutionize <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-material-chiral-superconductor-shows-great-potential-quantum-computing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum computing</a>, Otte’s team is motivated by something more fundamental -- the sheer joy of discovery. 



“What drives us isn’t necessarily the end goal,” Otte shares. “It’s the thrill of being able to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-realm-vibrating-atoms-tune-single-electron-energy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">manipulate matter</a> at such a small scale and to see theoretical physics play out in real-time.”



For those of us watching from the sidelines, the significance of their work may not hit home immediately. But make no mistake -- controlling the nucleus of an atom, even for a brief moment, is a significant step forward in our understanding of the quantum world. 



The applications could be endless, from advances in computing to breakthroughs in material science and beyond.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-can-we-expect-in-a-quantum-world">What can we expect in a quantum world?</h2>



To sum it all up, quantum technology is still in its infancy, but research like Otte’s brings us <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-quantum-revolution-will-impact-all-aspects-of-society/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">closer to the future we’ve long envisioned</a>. 



While we may not have fully functional quantum computers yet, each new discovery helps lay the foundation for what’s to come. And in the world of quantum mechanics, even the tiniest step can have massive implications.



For now, the ability to control the heart of an atom remains a huge achievement. Whether it leads to practical applications in computing or simply deepens our understanding of the universe, one thing is clear: the quantum realm is filled with mysteries waiting to be unraveled, and we’re only just beginning to scratch the surface.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-52270-0">Nature Communications</a>.



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Quantum wobble: How scientists took control of the nucleus of a single atom

Imagine being able to control the tiniest part of an...

Protein production is being reimagined as scientists in Germany pioneer an innovative method to transform CO2 into protein and vitamins, powered entirely by renewable energy. 



In a world where climate change and a rapidly growing population threaten food security, this revolutionary process offers a sustainable and efficient solution.



By harnessing microbes and renewable energy, researchers are creating micronutrient-enriched proteins that could play a crucial role in feeding the future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-co2-to-produce-protein-and-vitamins">Using CO2 to produce protein and vitamins</h2>



At the heart of this innovation is a process that makes beer brewing look ancient. 



"This is a fermentation process similar to how you make beer, but instead of giving the microbes sugar, we gave them gas and acetate," explained Largus Angenent, the corresponding author from the <a href="https://uni-tuebingen.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tübingen</a>.



The method involves using hydrogen, oxygen, and CO2 to feed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-activities-underground-revealed-by-new-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbes</a>, which in turn produce protein and vitamin B9. 



"We knew that yeast could produce vitamin B9 on their own with sugar, however, we didn’t know if they could do the same with acetate," said Angenent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sustainable-proteins-from-bioreactors">Sustainable proteins from bioreactors</h2>



As the global population approaches 10 billion, the challenges of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-messing-with-vital-microbes-in-blueberries/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> and depleting land resources become more pressing. 



"One alternative is growing proteins in bioreactors through biotechnology rather than growing crops to feed animals. It makes agriculture much more efficient," noted Angenent.



His team designed a two-stage bioreactor system that churns out yeast rich in protein and vitamin B9, an essential nutrient for bodily functions like cell growth and metabolism.



In the first phase, the bacterium Thermoanaerobacter kivui converts hydrogen and CO2 into acetate, a key compound found in vinegar. 



In the second phase, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, commonly known as baker’s yeast, feeds on acetate and oxygen to create protein and vitamin B9. 



This process is powered by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clean-energy-biodiversity-wildlife-habitats-delicate-balancing-act/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">clean energy</a> sources like windmills, which can produce the required hydrogen and oxygen by zapping water with electricity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sustainable-food-production">Sustainable food production </h2>



The results were undeniably impressive and hold significant promise for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-food-systems-are-gaining-momentum/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustainable food</a> production.



Acetate-fed yeast was able to produce nearly the same amount of vitamin B9 as its sugar-fed counterpart, showing that this innovative method is not only efficient but also highly productive. 



Remarkably, just six grams (0.4 tablespoons) of dried yeast is enough to meet the daily vitamin B9 requirement.



According to study co-author Michael Rychlik from the <a href="https://www.tum.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Technical University of Munich</a>, who led the vitamin measurements, this achievement is a significant step forward in sustainable food production.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-revolutionary-source-of-protein">A revolutionary source of protein </h2>



For protein content, the yeast produced in the bioreactor surpasses traditional sources like beef, pork, fish, and lentils. 



"Eighty-five grams, or six tablespoons, of yeast provides 61% of daily protein needs, compared to 34% from beef and 38% from lentils," said Angenent.



However, he cautions that the yeast must be treated to remove compounds that could increase the risk of gout if consumed in large quantities. 



Even after treatment, the yeast still provides 41% of daily protein requirements, comparable to other common protein sources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-global-challenges">Addressing global challenges</h2>



This groundbreaking technology addresses critical global challenges such as environmental conservation, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungal-infections-are-threatening-global-food-security/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food security</a>, and public health. 



By using renewable energy and CO2, the system reduces carbon emissions in food production and minimizes the need for land, freeing up space for conservation efforts. 



"The fact that we can make vitamins and protein at the same time at a pretty high production rate without using any land is exciting," said Angenent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-research-is-needed">Further research is needed </h2>



While this sustainable protein alternative holds great promise, Angenent emphasizes that there is still much work to be done. 



The team plans to optimize and scale up production, assess food safety, and conduct economic analyses.



"The end product is vegetarian/vegan, non-GMO, and sustainable, which could appeal to consumers," said Angenent, noting that market adoption will take time.



This innovative approach offers a potential solution to future food scarcity while also contributing to the fight against climate change. 



By decoupling food production from land use and utilizing renewable energy, the technology opens up new possibilities for sustainable agriculture and food security.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S016777992400177X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Trends in Biotechnology</a>.



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Futuristic food supply: Transforming CO2 into protein

Protein production is being reimagined as scientists in Germany pioneer...

In a momentous scientific leap, researchers have successfully sequenced RNA from an extinct Tasmanian tiger specimen that is over a century old. This achievement marks a significant milestone in the field of genetics and paleogenomics.



For the first time, transcriptomes -- essentially the complete sets of RNA transcripts from an organism -- have been reconstructed for an extinct species, providing unprecedented insights into the biology of the Tasmanian tiger.



Emilio Mármol, the study's lead author and a dedicated researcher at SciLifeLab, underscores the importance of this venture.



“Resurrecting the Tasmanian tiger or the woolly mammoth is not a trivial task and will require a deep knowledge of both the genome and transcriptome regulation of such renowned species, something that only now is starting to be revealed," he enthused.



This impressive scientific endeavor broadens our understanding of the genetic makeup of these fascinating creatures while bringing researchers ever closer to future efforts in de-extinction, highlighting the intricate connection between genetics, evolution, and the survival of species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-a-tasmanian-tiger">What is a Tasmanian Tiger?</h2>



The Tasmanian Tiger, or thylacine, was a carnivorous marsupial that once roamed Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea. It looked a bit like a dog but had tiger-like stripes on its lower back, along with a stiff tail, big jaws, and a pouch like a kangaroo. 



Even though it gave off wild canine vibes, the thylacine was actually part of a totally different evolutionary group, which highlights the fascinating idea of convergent evolution.



 Adult thylacines usually weighed around 30 kilograms (66 pounds), with males being a bit bigger than females. They were nocturnal hunters, going after small mammals and birds using their sharp eyesight and strong jaws.



Sadly, the thylacine was driven to extinction in the early 20th century, mainly because of human activities. European settlers hunted them down, mistakenly blaming them for taking out livestock. Habitat destruction and competition with introduced species also took a toll on their numbers. 



The last known Tasmanian Tiger died in captivity in 1936 at the Hobart Zoo, marking a sad end for one of the most unique marsupials on Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pulling-rna-from-an-extinct-animal">Pulling RNA from an extinct animal</h2>



The Tasmanian tiger's extinction in the early 20th century was a significant loss for our planet, but this research breakthrough opens the door to understanding it and other extinct species more deeply than ever before.



The researchers' work helps us understand how a species lived, functioned, and evolved. 



This was achieved by constructing the skin and skeletal muscle transcriptomes -- an invaluable step towards de-extinction and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rna-world-unraveling-mysteries-life-origin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">understanding RNA</a> viruses' evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-de-extinction-requires-more-than-just-dna">De-extinction requires more than just DNA</h2>



Now, most efforts in de-extinction concentrate on DNA. Though essential, DNA tells only part of the story. 



To get a more comprehensive picture, researchers need to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rna-junk-is-crucial-for-human-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">decode RNA</a>, the molecules carrying genetic instructions for building proteins. 



In this important study, researchers sequenced RNA gleaned from a Tasmanian tiger specimen that had been preserved at room temperature for over 130 years at the <a href="https://www.nrm.se/engelska/in-english" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swedish Museum of Natural History</a> in Stockholm.



“This is the first time that we have had a glimpse into the existence of thylacine-specific regulatory genes, such as microRNAs, that got extinct more than one century ago," noted Marc R. Friedländer, an Associate Professor at <a href="https://www.su.se/cmlink/stockholm-university" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stockholm University</a>



While DNA is the life blueprint, RNA is the project manager, directing which genes are expressed when. With the Tasmanian tiger’s transcriptome in hand, scientists now possess a trove of data that could be pivotal for de-extinction efforts.



Mármol and his team used cutting-edge techniques to identify high-quality RNA molecules, filling gaps in our understanding of how genes were regulated in extinct species and providing a richer picture of the biological functions that characterized the Tasmanian tiger.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-towards-de-extinction">Next steps towards de-extinction</h2>



Imagine what we could learn from the vast collection of specimens and tissues stored in museums across the globe. 



Who knew that these seemingly unassuming archives could be gold mines of genetic information waiting to be discovered? 



But, as Love Dalén, a Professor of evolutionary genomics at Stockholm University, points out, the implications extend beyond extinct animals.



“In the future, we may be able to recover RNA not only from extinct animals but also RNA virus genomes such as SARS-CoV-2 and their evolutionary precursors from the skins of bats and other host organisms held in museum collections," Dalén explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bringing-back-extinct-species-with-rna">Bringing back extinct species with RNA</h2>



With the integration of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-building-block-of-life-called-tna-created-in-the-lab/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genomics and transcriptomics</a>, we're moving closer to a holistic understanding of what it takes to bring a species back to life. 



A giant leap has been taken, but the journey is long, and we still need to understand the environment, behavior, and role within the ecosystem before reintroducing a species.



So, what's your take? Would you like to see a Tasmanian tiger roaming the earth again, or should we leave nature be? The conversation is just beginning.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://genome.cshlp.org/content/early/2023/07/18/gr.277663.123.abstract" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Genome Research</a>.



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RNA recovered from an extinct species in a big boost for de-extinction efforts

In a momentous scientific leap, researchers have successfully sequenced RNA...

In a recent study, researchers have uncovered the existence of two distinct maps within the brain's secondary motor cortex. The research offers a transformative perspective on how the brain orchestrates spatial planning and navigation.



These dual maps - one self-centered and the other world-centered - provide vital insights into how our brains manage complex tasks, from planning movements to understanding our position in the environment.



This remarkable breakthrough could have far-reaching implications for understanding a variety of neurological conditions (such as stroke) that impair spatial attention and disrupt an individual’s ability to navigate their surroundings.



The research opens new avenues for targeted therapies that could enhance recovery and improve quality of life for patients suffering from such conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dual-maps-in-the-brain">Dual maps in the brain</h2>



“We discovered that the premotor cortex uses a self-centered coordinate system for spatial planning, but that it also encodes a world-centered map that is used for determining the body’s current position in the world," said Dr. Jeffrey Erlich, Group Leader at the Sainsbury Wellcome Centre at <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCL</a>.



"This self-centered and world-centered information is combined in individual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neurons-can-predict-human-speech-before-we-say-a-word/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurons</a> in a multiplicative way, which makes it easier to disentangle downstream.”



The study, published in the Journal of Neuroscience, introduces a novel task that allowed the researchers to differentiate between self-centered and world-centered reference frames using machine learning techniques.



The experts recorded neural activity from the frontal orienting field (FOF), a part of the secondary motor cortex in rats, to decode this information.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-brain-transitions-between-maps">How the brain transitions between maps </h2>



“Imagine being asked where the nearest coffee shop is. You could say ‘walk forward and turn left’ (self-centered directions) or ‘walk North then East’ (world-centered directions)," said Dr. Erlich.



"We want to understand how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-daydream-to-awareness-the-brains-alert-mechanism/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain transitions</a> between these reference frames and transforms them into action.”



The task involved carefully training rats to place their nose into a designated starting porthole, after which a light would illuminate to indicate the target porthole. 



This setup required the rats to focus on the visual cue as a guide for their next move, enhancing their understanding of the spatial layout.



Following an auditory cue, the rats then moved to the target porthole to receive a reward, reinforcing the connection between the cues and their actions. 



The crucial waiting period between the appearance of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/visual-cues-initiate-the-brains-decision-to-cooperate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">visual cue</a> and the auditory signal allowed the researchers to closely monitor neural activity. 



This pause provided an opportunity to distinguish between the brain’s planning phase and the subsequent action, enabling the experts to determine whether the frontal orienting field (FOF) was using a self-centered or world-centered map for spatial planning during the task.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-map-found-in-the-frontal-orienting-field">Map found in the frontal orienting field</h2>



“By adding the right amount of complexity to our task, we were able to have good experimental control over the timings. This approach allowed us to tease apart the different dimensions of representation,” noted Dr. Erlich.



Interestingly, the researchers discovered a world-centered map in the frontal orienting field, a finding that had not been previously reported.



“We were surprised to find a world-centered map in FOF as this has never been reported before. We want to explore what this position information is being used for and under what circumstances it becomes functionally relevant,” said Dr. Erlich.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-maps-and-spatial-attention">Brain maps and spatial attention</h2>



Brain maps play a crucial role in shaping how we perceive, navigate, and interact with the world. They are essential for motor control, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emotions-sensory-perception-brain-fascinating-interplay/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sensory perception</a>, and spatial awareness, representing the relationships between our bodies and our environment.



In this study, the discovery of self-centered and world-centered maps offers a new understanding of how the brain processes different types of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pupils-enlarge-dilate-when-working-memory-engaged-focused-on-task/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spatial information</a>.



These two maps work in tandem, allowing the brain to plan movements and navigate through space, reflecting its incredible adaptability.



Gaining a deeper understanding of how these maps are formed and maintained could provide critical insights into neurological conditions that impair spatial awareness.



This knowledge may pave the way for new therapies aimed at improving spatial attention and aiding recovery in patients with conditions like hemispatial neglect.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study">Broader implications of the study </h2>



The research team is now focused on exploring how these dual maps function during tasks involving world-centered instructions, as well as investigating how the brain plans more complex sequences of movements.



The findings could have significant implications for understanding the links between spatial attention and neurological disorders, with the potential to inform new treatments for conditions such as stroke.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.jneurosci.org/content/44/37/e0018242024" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JNeurosci</a>.



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Two distinct maps discovered in the brain

In a recent study, researchers have uncovered the existence of...

Imagine a world where everyone accurately gauges the carbon footprint of the richer and poorer segments of society. It appears such a world is fantastical, according to a recent study. 



A common miscalculation surfaces: the carbon footprint of wealthier individuals is consistently underestimated, whereas that of the less privileged sections is drastically overestimated. 



This surprising pattern is observed across different socio-economic statuses and nationalities, highlighting a pervasive global misunderstanding of how wealth influences environmental impact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-footprint-of-various-income-groups">Carbon footprint of various income groups </h2>



The credit for this intriguing insight goes to an international consortium of researchers from <a href="https://www.cbs.dk/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Copenhagen Business School</a>, the <a href="https://www.unibas.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Basel</a>, and the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a>. 



The team conducted a survey involving 4,000 participants from Denmark, India, Nigeria, and the United States about inequality in personal carbon footprints.



The survey participants were asked to estimate the carbon footprints for three income groups: the bottom 50%, the top 10%, and the top 1%.



“Poorer people have more immediate concerns, such as how they’re going to pay their rent or support their families,” said lead author Dr. Kristian Steensen Nielsen from Copenhagen Business School. “But across all income groups, people want real solutions to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gen-ai-and-social-media-divert-peoples-attention-from-climate-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate crisis</a>, whether those are regulatory or technological.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-perception-vs-reality-gap">The perception vs. reality gap</h2>



The survey results revealed a universal trend. The average personal carbon footprint of the poorest 50% was grossly overestimated, while the footprints of the top 1% and 10% were significantly underestimated.



These findings highlight the profound inequality in carbon footprints and how misperceptions influence public opinion.



“These countries are very different, but we found the rich are pretty similar no matter where you go, and their concerns are different to the rest of society,” said Dr. Ramit Debnath, a professor at the University of Cambridge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-the-carbon-footprint-concept">Evolution of the carbon footprint concept</h2>



The concept of a personal carbon footprint, which estimates the total <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/state-of-the-climate-greenhouse-gases-hit-a-record-high-in-2022/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gases</a> produced by an individual’s activities, has been a popular benchmark for environmental impact since the mid-2000s. 



The concept gained attention when BP, a fossil fuel company, ran a large-scale advertising campaign urging people to quantify and reduce their carbon footprints.



“There are definitely groups out there who would like to push the responsibility of reducing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/circular-economy-needed-to-reduce-americas-carbon-emissions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon emissions</a> away from corporations and onto individuals, which is problematic,” noted Dr. Debnath. 



“However, personal carbon footprints can illustrate the profound inequality within and between countries and help people identify how to live in a more climate-friendly way.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-climate-policy">Implications for climate policy</h2>



Interestingly, individuals from the top 10% income group were more likely to back <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/auto-emission-climate-policies-save-children-boost-economies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate policies</a> such as taxes on red meat consumption, peak period electricity pricing, and subsidizing carbon dioxide removal technologies. 



According to the researchers, this may reflect higher education levels and greater resources among the affluent, along with a preference for technology-driven solutions to the climate crisis.



“Greater awareness and discussion of existing inequality in personal carbon footprints can help build political pressure to address these inequalities and develop <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nature-based-climate-solutions-are-now-more-critical-than-ever/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate solutions</a> that work for all,” said Nielsen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-the-carbon-footprint-debate">Rethinking the carbon footprint debate</h2>



As conversations about climate change grow louder, awareness of personal carbon footprints is evolving.



Historically, the emphasis has been placed on individual actions, such as recycling and using energy-efficient appliances. However, the study highlights that these actions, while important, may not address the larger issue of carbon inequality.



The wealthiest individuals, who often have the largest carbon footprints due to higher consumption levels, remain under less scrutiny.



This imbalance raises critical questions about how climate policies can be made more inclusive, ensuring that the highest emitters take on the largest share of responsibility for mitigating climate impacts. 



In order to drive effective change, policies must target the wealthiest individuals and their significant environmental footprints, rather than focusing solely on smaller-scale individual actions.



The research was funded by the Carlsberg Foundation, the Bill &amp; Melinda Gates Foundation, the Quadrature Climate Foundation, and the Swiss National Science Foundation.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-024-02130-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Climate Change</a>.



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Carbon footprints of the wealthy are vastly underestimated

Imagine a world where everyone accurately gauges the carbon footprint...

Scuba diving isn't just for adventure seekers anymore. Even the world’s smallest - and apparently the scrappiest - members of the animal kingdom are doing it. A particular type of semi-aquatic lizard has something truly unique to show us about the art of survival with air bubbles in the underwater world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysteries-of-underwater-lizard-breathing">Mysteries of underwater lizard breathing</h2>



The research was led by Lindsey Swierk, an assistant research professor of biological sciences at <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a>. 



Swierk's work is centered on the study of water anoles, semi-aquatic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-lizard-day-2024-celebrating-our-scaly-companions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lizards</a> native to the tropical rainforests of southern Costa Rica. Her research has unveiled remarkable feats about these fascinating creatures.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="AqHKrMKm7J-3862001-12187" type="single"]</div>



“We know that they can stay underwater for a really long time. We also know that they're pulling oxygen from this bubble of air. We didn’t know whether there was actually any functional role for this bubble in respiration," Swierk noted.



"Is it something that lizards do that is just a side effect of their skin’s properties or a respiratory reflex, or is this bubble actually allowing them to stay underwater longer than they would, say, without a bubble?”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lizards-dive-underwater-to-survive">Lizards dive underwater to survive</h2>



What our research team was eager to find out, said Swierk, was the actual role this bubble played in the lizard's underwater survival.



She questioned - is this bubble a byproduct of the lizard's skin properties and respiratory reflex, or is it an ingenious tool allowing these creatures to outlast their time underwater?



To disentangle the mystery, Swierk conducted an experiment that involved applying a substance to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-sea-lizard-khinjaria-had-teeth-like-daggers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lizards</a>’ skin that would prevent bubble formation. 



The logic? “Lizard skin is hydrophobic. Typically, that allows air to stick very tightly to the skin and permits this bubble to form. But when you cover the skin with an emollient, air no longer sticks to the skin surface, so the bubbles can't form,” explained Swierk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bubbles-are-life-savers-quite-literally">Bubbles are life-savers, quite literally</h2>



The recorded findings were compelling. It turned out that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-lizard-faces-an-unexpected-threat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lizards</a> in the control group, which were not subjected to the emollient, could stay underwater an impressive 32% longer than their bubble-deprived counterparts.



“This is really significant because this is the first experiment that truly shows adaptive significance of bubbles. Rebreathing bubbles allow lizards to stay underwater longer. Before, we suspected it – we saw a pattern -- but we didn't actually test if it served a functional role,” said Swierk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lizards-bubbles-and-underwater-breathing">Lizards, bubbles, and underwater breathing</h2>



The function of these bubbles isn't just about a lizard's whim to stay longer in the water. It’s a life or death situation where the ability to stay underwater longer provides the perfect refuge from predators. 



Anoles are kind of like the chicken nuggets of the forest. Birds eat them, snakes eat them.



“So by jumping in the water, they can escape a lot of their predators, and they remain very still underwater," said Swierk.



"They're pretty well camouflaged underwater as well, and they just stay underwater until that danger passes. We know that they can stay underwater at least about 20 minutes, but probably longer.”



What's even more intriguing is the question of whether these lizards are using the bubble as a "physical gill." This term is used for insects that use bubbles to breathe underwater.



Swierk’s graduate student, Alexandra Martin, is working on testing this theory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-investigating-the-physical-gill-hypothesis">Investigating the physical gill hypothesis</h2>



Martin's research involves a meticulous examination of the gas exchange process occurring within these bubbles. 



By measuring the concentrations of oxygen and carbon dioxide in and around the bubble as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coexisting-lizards-challenge-what-we-know-about-natural-selection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lizard</a> remains submerged, the team hopes to determine whether there is sufficient gas exchange to classify this bubble as a 'physical gill.' 



Such a discovery would not only deepen our understanding of these lizards' physiology but could also have broader implications for studying similar adaptations across different species. 



Martin is optimistic, stating: "If successful, this finding could redefine how we perceive aquatic adaptations in reptiles."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-evolutionary-biology">Implications for evolutionary biology</h2>



The findings concerning water anoles have stirred interest in evolutionary biology, particularly regarding the development of survival mechanisms. 



The ability to remain submerged for extended periods may represent a significant evolutionary advantage.



Researchers are now considering whether such adaptations are isolated to specific locales or if they might be more widespread among related species. 



Further exploration on the lizard breathing bubbles could provide insights into how these traits evolved and highlight the environmental pressures that prompted such unique adaptations. 



Investigating these enigmatic survival strategies enhances our understanding of evolutionary processes, shedding light on the dynamic interactions between organisms and their environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-greater-impact">The greater impact</h2>



When discussing the wider implications of her research, Swierk noted the exciting potential of bioinspired materials.



More broadly, she considers the sheer delight of unearthing new animal behaviors that engage and excite our curiosity.



“I've had people talk to me about how much they love scuba diving and freediving, and how they're interested in how animals might do the same thing,” said Swierk. 



“So there's a great opportunity to get people excited about science by having this relationship between what they love to do and what’s evolved in nature. Even in animals that seem commonplace -- you're always finding new things.”



Her research paper, “Novel rebreathing adaptation extends dive time in a semi-aquatic lizard,” has brought to light a new facet of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-lizard-faces-an-unexpected-threat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lizard survival tactics</a> that has been hiding beneath the water's surface all this time. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2024.0371" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology Letters</a>.



Video Credit: Binghamton University 



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Some lizards 'scuba dive' by using air bubbles to breathe underwater

Scuba diving isn't just for adventure seekers anymore. Even the...

The woolly mammoth, an iconic symbol of prehistoric Earth and a close relative of the modern elephant, fascinates our imagination and scientific curiosity, especially regarding its extinction.



Among the multidimensional questions surrounding these ancient beasts, one that stands out pertains to their untimely extinction approximately 4,000 years ago. 



The answer may surprise you, and it constitutes an ingenious theory, connecting woolly mammoth extinction with... hay fever!



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-allergenic-apocalypse-theory">Allergenic apocalypse theory</h2>



Researchers across Europe have suggested a peculiar theory -- <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-pollen-may-help-clouds-form-impacting-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant pollen</a>. The mammoths, similar to their present-day relatives, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/african-elephants-will-soon-become-extinct-without-immediate-international-help/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elephants</a>, possessed an extraordinarily sensitive sense of smell.



Pollen, as it turns out, might have caused allergic reactions in these gargantuan creatures, compromising their olfactory prowess. 



This would have hampered their ability to detect mates from afar, consequently affecting their breeding rates, leading to population decline, and ultimately resulting in their downfall.



Researchers posit that during the breeding season, susceptibility to odors is very important for animals. 



The development of allergies from plant pollen could lead to decrements in sensitivity to odors in animals during the breeding season, thereby possibly explaining the extinction due to a decrease in mating.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-woolly-mammoth-an-ancient-titan">Woolly mammoth: An ancient titan</h2>



The woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius) was one of the last successors in the lineage of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-mammoths-survived-longer-than-initially-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammoth species</a>.



Standing around 13 feet tall and weighing approximately six tons, these massive mammals were quite common across northern Europe, Asia, and North America during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-age-data-analysis-reshapes-climate-future-lowers-warming-estimates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">last Ice Age</a>.



They <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-drove-woolly-mammoths-to-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">co-existed with early humans</a>, who benefited from hunting these beasts for food and using their bones and tusks for creating weapons and artwork.



However, the specific reason for woolly mammoth extinction remains a topic of intense debate, with a plethora of theories postulating human hunting and drastic climate change as major factors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evidence-on-woolly-mammoth-extinction">Evidence on woolly mammoth extinction</h2>



This study, which opens up a new perspective on the extinction of these colossal creatures, has its roots in detailed analysis of tissue samples recovered from mammoth corpses encased in the permafrost of north-eastern Siberia.



The researchers identified traces of immunoglobulins, or antibodies, which are Y-shaped proteins utilized by the immune system to battle infections, and also <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollen-allergies-will-be-intensified-by-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">allergens</a> such as plant metabolites, volatile organic compounds, and pollen that the mammoths likely inhaled.



This critical discovery suggests the presence of allergic diseases and related symptoms, including loss of sense of smell. 



The researchers theorize that "Probably these changes in allergic responses of mammoths at a period of climate changes led to a decrease in the mammoth population and, as a result, to their disappearance." 



This study is the first of its kind, introducing the allergy theory and detecting fragments of immunoglobulins in mammoths.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-grand-debate-continues">Grand debate continues</h2>



Despite this research, the woolly mammoth extinction debate continues, offering a variety of compelling arguments.



A 2015 study by British researchers assigned blame to humans for the mammoth extinction event, stating that the creatures quickly died out wherever prehistoric people expanded on continents and islands. 



However, a 2008 genetic study suggested that climate change and diseases were the most probable causes of extinction, and a 2021 study attributed the extinction to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-age-data-analysis-reshapes-climate-future-lowers-warming-estimates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rapid climate warming</a>, leading to melting icebergs, and subsequently wiping out the vegetation on which mammoths relied.



Despite these varied perspectives, the overarching consensus is that no single reason can fully encapsulate the complex phenomena leading to extinction. 



Instead, a collection of factors, including the intriguing allergy theory, paints a more comprehensive picture of the woolly mammoth's transition into the annals of history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-woolly-mammoth-s-legacy">Woolly mammoth's legacy </h2>



The extinction of the woolly mammoth remains a complex and multifaceted mystery, with each new discovery providing a piece of the puzzle. 



While the pollen allergy theory offers an innovative angle, it is clear that more research is needed to fully understand the factors that contributed to the downfall of these magnificent creatures. 



Future studies, including further examination of tissue samples and environmental conditions, could shed light on how allergies, climate change, human interference, or a combination of all these factors led to the woolly mammoth's extinction. 



As scientists continue to explore these questions, the woolly mammoth's legacy endures, symbolizing the delicate balance between species survival and environmental change.



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The researchers associated with this unprecedented study represent various prestigious institutions including the <a href="https://www.unict.it/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Catania</a> and <a href="https://www.polimi.it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Polytechnic University of Milan</a> in Italy, the <a href="https://new.ras.ru/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Russian Academy of Sciences</a>, and the Israeli firm SpringStyle.



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Hay fever: The culprit behind woolly mammoth extinction?

The woolly mammoth, an iconic symbol of prehistoric Earth and...

Have you ever pondered how some animals, like shrimp, can effortlessly navigate their way back to their home cave from great distances? This knack for finding their way back is known as homing. 



Notable examples include salmon that swim hundreds of miles upstream to their birthplace and racing pigeons that can find their way home over vast distances. 



But it's not just fish and birds that have this fascinating ability. This sense of 'home' is also present in other species such as bees, frogs, rats, and even sea turtles. 



They rely on physical cues like landmarks, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/earths-magnetic-field-origin-structure-and-impact-on-humanity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's magnetic field</a>, and the sky's pattern of polarized light to return home. Now, add one more name to the list -- the cave-dwelling mysid shrimp.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shrimp-and-their-homing-abilities">Shrimp and their homing abilities</h2>



To give this scientific endeavor its due recognition, it's important to mention the scientist spearheading this research. Enter <a href="https://www.imbe.fr/thierry-perez.html?lang=fr" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Thierry Pérez</a>, CNRS Research Director at the marine research station of Endoume near Marseille in France. 



Pérez, along with his diligent team, shines a light on the homing behavior of a unique cave-dwelling mysid shrimp, also informally known as the possum shrimp. Female possum shrimps carry their larvae in pouches, hence earning them this colloquial name.



Dr. Pérez's recent investigation, documented in Frontiers in Marine Science, reveals an intriguing aspect of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-impacting-marine-life-more-than-we-realized/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">homing behavior</a> of these shrimps. 



Their research unveils that the shrimps can differentiate between the unique chemical seascapes of their home caves from those of nearby caves. 



So, what's a chemical seascape? Think of it as a unique water-borne odor bouquet, characteristic of a particular underwater cave.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-anatomy-of-a-cave-dwelling-shrimp">Anatomy of a cave dwelling shrimp</h2>



The specific mysid species in focus here, Hemimysis margalefi, is a resident of sea caves in the northwestern Mediterranean.



Known for their dense swarming behavior, these shrimps revolutionize the traditional notion of staying put. They embark on nightly migrations into open waters, only to return home by dawn. 



This adventurous routine is planned primarily for feeding on algae, detritus, and other zooplankton.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shrimp-s-chemical-homing-abilities">Shrimp's chemical homing abilities</h2>



To dig deeper into the mysteries of these shrimps' homing abilities, Dr. Pérez and his team conducted a unique experiment involving three underwater caves situated in Calanques National Park off southern France. 



The time had come to put their hypothesis to the test. Do these shrimps really distinguish their home caves based on a distinct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/device-sniffs-out-unknown-ocean-molecules-that-can-be-used-for-drug-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemical seascape</a>?



The team meticulously set up a system involving a Y-shaped channel, shrimps, and water samples from the three caves. 



Each shrimp was allowed to choose between water flows from two different caves. The difference in the time spent by a shrimp in each water flow would hint at their preference for their home cave.



And the results? Loud and Clear: The shrimps proved the scientist's hypothesis to be correct. 



The H. margalefi shrimp showed an evident preference for the water from their respective caves over water from other caves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemical-clues-shrimp-use-for-homing">Chemical clues shrimp use for homing</h2>



So, what makes the waters from different caves smell differently to the shrimps? 



The researchers analyzed the waters from the three caves using cutting-edge technology and discovered that each cave's water had a varying composition of natural compounds and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-mining-forms-dust-clouds-that-devastate-marine-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human-introduced pollutants</a>.



On the surface, it seems like we're merely discussing shrimp behavior, but take a step back, and the implications are profound. 



These creatures play a critical role in the functioning of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-microbes-can-tell-us-about-global-changes-in-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine ecosystem</a> and any disruption in this system, such as changes in water quality, could impact the entire ecosystem. 



This concern is particularly relevant today, given the increased frequency of mass coral and sponge mortalities triggered by global changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-implications">Conservation implications</h2>



The discoveries related to Hemimysis margalefi's homing behavior underscore the intricate relationships organisms have with their habitats, presenting crucial implications for conservation biology.



The ability of these shrimps to use chemical cues to locate their home caves highlights the need to preserve the unique chemical environments of marine ecosystems. 



As chemical compositions can be altered by both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-weaker-ocean-will-release-more-carbon-into-the-atmosphere/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural processes</a> and human activities, maintaining water quality is imperative to ensure the survival and functionality of such species.



These findings prompt a reevaluation of current environmental protections, advocating for advanced monitoring and mitigation strategies to safeguard biological diversity, particularly amidst escalating anthropogenic threats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



The pioneering study by Dr. Pérez and his team opens several promising avenues for further research. 



Future studies could explore the adaptive significance of homing behaviors in other cave-dwelling marine species like shrimps, broadening our understanding of their ecological roles and needs.



“We know that food availability in marine cave ecosystems largely depends on the daily migrations of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plankton-help-predict-ocean-biodiversity-losses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">zooplankton</a> such as mysids," Perez explained.



"Our results suggest that any change in water quality or sessile fauna inside caves can alter their chemical seascape, with a likely negative impact on the functioning of the whole ecosystem."



This is concerning, because due to global change, mass mortality of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-fate-of-coral-reefs-lies-in-the-hands-of-their-tiny-inhabitants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sponges and corals</a> are becoming more frequent.



“We are currently following up on our results by trying to correlate the chemical seascapes from different caves with the biodiversity of sessile organisms living in them, focusing on the role of metabolites from sponges and corals," concludes Perez.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-studying-homing-shrimp">Significance of studying homing shrimp</h2>



As the scientific community delves deeper, these integrated approaches will not only enhance our comprehension of marine ecosystems but also bolster efforts in their protection and restoration.



While this research offers intriguing insights into the homing abilities of mysid shrimps, it also hints at the broader picture of environmental change and its impact. 



Dr. Pérez and his team continue to delve deeper, correlating biodiversity with the chemical seascape of various caves. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science/articles/10.3389/fmars.2024.1448616/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.



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Shrimp have the ability to 'smell' their way home underwater

Have you ever pondered how some animals, like shrimp, can...

When you think about evolution, the ear might not be the first thing that springs to mind. But it turns out that our ears, the little organ tucked away in our skull plays a surprising role in how mammals adapt to their environments. 



An international team of scientists has discovered something quite astonishing. Mammals with little to no genetic connection but sharing similar lifestyles have evolved similar inner ear shapes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mammals-and-their-inner-ears">Mammals and their inner ears</h2>



One could argue that few parts of the animal body are as vital yet overlooked as the vertebrate inner ear. This intricate structure has two vital tasks: maintaining balance and preserving hearing. 



It's interesting to note that its complex shape varies among animals. One might think this diversity speaks to the modifications needed for different environments and locomotor behaviors. 



Yet, closely related species seem to have more comparable inner ear shapes than those distantly related.



Does this mean neutral (non-adaptive) evolution plays a larger role in shaping the inner ear's morphology than we initially suspected? This latest study on the inner ears of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-mammals-live-depends-more-on-climate-than-human-activities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diverse group of mammals</a> provides some new hints.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-virtual-3d-models-bring-clarity">Virtual 3D models bring clarity</h2>



In order to better understand the evolution of the inner ear in Afrotheria, an international team of evolutionary biologists and paleontologists, including researchers from the Natural History Museum Vienna, studied the inner ear's shape in Afrotheria. 



This group consists of related mammals that drastically differ in their anatomy and habitats: aardvark, elephants, golden moles, hyraxes, rodent-like elephant shrews, and sea cows. 



They compared these ear shapes to those of analogous but distantly related <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-geographic-isolation-shaped-global-species-habitat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammals</a>, like anteaters, 'true' moles, rodents, hedgehogs, and dolphins.



The team relied on X-ray microtomography on skulls stored in museum collections to construct virtual 3D models of the inner ear. 



The aim was to compare inner ear shapes between Afrotherians and their analogues and to analyze ear shape in relation to habitat and movement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shared-selection-pressure">Shared selection pressure</h2>



"We found that the inner ear shape is more similar between analogous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ontocetus-posti-extinct-walrus-like-mammal-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> than between non-analogous ones, even when the latter share a more recent common ancestor and are therefore more closely related", explains Nicole Grunstra, first author of the study.&nbsp;



For instance, dolphins and sea cows display greater ear shape similarity due to adaptations to a solely aquatic environment, even though the latter is more closely related to other Afrotherians such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-elephant-day-2024-saving-the-gentle-giants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elephants</a> or hyraxes.



The study found similar tendencies among other distantly related species with similar environment or nutrition methods: subterranean species and tree-dwelling ones share similar ear shapes. 



"We were also able to show that eco-morphologically similar mammals evolved similar ear shapes as an adaptation to shared ecological niches or locomotion, rather than by chance", interprets senior author Anne Le Maître from Konrad Lorenz Institute (<a href="https://www.kli.ac.at" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">KLI</a>).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolving-ears-of-mammals">Evolving ears of mammals</h2>



This research seems to conflict with recent studies on birds, reptiles, and certain mammals, which have questioned the importance of adaptive mechanisms in shaping inner ear variation. 



One explanation might be that adaptive differences in ear shape surface more when comparing species with diverse ecological strategies.



Another explanation revolves around the concept of 'evolvability', or the inherent capacity for adaptive evolution. 



The mammalian ear, particularly sophisticated among vertebrates, can detect a wider range of sounds, especially high pitches. 



The anatomical, genetic, and developmental complexity of the ear potentially widens the range of possible ear shapes that can evolve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adaptations-of-mammals">Adaptations of mammals</h2>



"An increase in genetic and developmental factors of a trait gives natural selection more knobs to turn, which facilitates the evolution of different adaptations," adds co-senior author Philipp Mitteröcker from the <a href="https://www.univie.ac.at/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vienna</a>.&nbsp;



Perhaps the increased evolvability of the ear played a notable part in adaptations to new environments and locomotor behaviors during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-mammals-have-evolved-over-66-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammalian evolution</a>.



In the ever-evolving tapestry of life on Earth, the surprisingly convergent evolution in the inner ear of mammals serves as a potent reminder of the marvels of adaptation and evolution.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-52180-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Mammals evolved similar inner ears despite different ancestry

When you think about evolution, the ear might not be...

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</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



-----



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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