Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

The Arctic has long symbolized extremes of nature. Its frozen landscapes transform briefly each year into rich feeding grounds, attracting migratory birds from across Europe and beyond. 



For these species, the region offers the narrow window of abundance necessary to raise their young. 



Yet, this delicate timing faces disruption. Climate change is speeding up the arrival of spring in the far north, challenging birds that rely on precision to survive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arctic-birds-fuel-up-faster">Arctic birds fuel up faster</h2>



A new study explores how these birds are coping with the accelerating pace of Arctic thaw. 



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.uva.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Amsterdam</a> and the <a href="https://nioo.knaw.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Netherlands Institute of Ecology</a> combined high-tech tracking with decades of body mass data to reveal a picture of flexibility and risk.



The findings suggest that many waterfowl <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-may-follow-a-hidden-pattern-of-human-language/">species</a> can shorten their journeys by fueling more quickly, but this strategy will only remain viable for a limited time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-birds-are-adapting">How the birds are adapting</h2>



The team GPS-tracked more than 500 spring migrations, covering five species: brent geese, barnacle geese, greater white-fronted geese, pink-footed geese, and Bewick’s swans. 



By linking flight records to long-term observations of body condition, the researchers saw how birds adapt their journeys.



"Our results are both encouraging and concerning," said lead author Hans Linssen. "We show that these birds can migrate faster by adjusting their stopovers and feeding times." 



"But the clock is ticking if we look at the current rates of Arctic warming - this flexibility will only compensate for the advancing Arctic spring for a few more decades."



The discovery highlights a short-term advantage. Birds can cut their migration times by changing where and how long they stop. But this cannot continue indefinitely. The Arctic spring is advancing faster than many species can permanently adjust to.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-migration-timing-matters-for-birds">Migration timing matters for birds</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-may-be-using-quantum-physics-for-migration/">Migration</a> is more than movement. For Arctic-breeding waterfowl, timing their arrival with precision determines whether their young survive. 



As snow melts, the land bursts into life. Insects, plants, and other food sources become abundant for only a few weeks. If birds miss this short peak, their chicks struggle to feed and grow.



Egg-laying and incubation must also occur within this fragile season. Chicks need to develop quickly before the Arctic cold returns. Even a slight delay in arrival can mean that young birds face migration southward without sufficient strength. 



Success or failure for entire populations comes down to arriving exactly when nature’s brief feast begins.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-making-journeys-shorter">Making journeys shorter</h2>



Although <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-bird-species-could-vanish-in-the-next-century/">flights</a> across continents seem daunting, much of migration is not about being in the air. Birds spend large portions of their trip resting and building energy at stopovers. 



The new research revealed that by shortening fueling stops, waterfowl could shave days or even weeks off their journeys.



Unlike many earlier studies, this research also considered fueling before departure. Barnacle and brent geese, for example, depend heavily on building fat stores before leaving. 



Accounting for this stage showed that birds had more flexibility than expected. Some individuals shortened their total fuelling time by nearly 30 percent. In practice, this meant reaching the Arctic weeks earlier than before.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-responding-to-early-springs">Responding to early springs</h2>



Not all birds used the same strategies. White-fronted geese and Bewick’s swans adjusted more readily when the Arctic thawed early, reducing stopovers and speeding ahead. 



Pink-footed and brent geese were less responsive, likely due to the nature of their migration routes. With fewer suitable stopovers and longer flight segments, they had less room to adapt.



"<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/all-birds-one-tree-complete-evolutionary-map-reveals-hidden-links/">Birds</a> with more stopovers and shorter flights in between could better track spring conditions," said Linssen. "Those flying longer stretches or across the sea might have less opportunity to react to spring being early or late."



These differences reveal how some species may cope better than others in a warming world. Adaptability depends not just on instinct, but on geography and the availability of safe resting points.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-migration-limits-for-birds">Migration limits for birds</h2>



Despite this flexibility, speeding up migrations has costs. Birds that fuel too quickly need high-quality food and quiet environments free of disturbance, which may not always exist. 



Arriving sooner but in poorer condition could undermine their chances of breeding successfully. Migration, breeding, and survival are deeply connected, and trade-offs are inevitable.



The researchers estimated that waterfowl might keep pace with the Arctic spring for another 18 to 28 years. Beyond that window, the pace of climate change could outstrip their ability to adjust. Flexibility, impressive though it is, has a deadline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-future-demands">What the future demands</h2>



"These birds are showing remarkable adaptability," said Linssen. "But by mid-century, they may need to rely on other strategies - like shifting their wintering grounds or changing migration routes entirely - to avoid falling out of sync with the Arctic spring."



This warning reflects more than bird migration. It signals the pressures climate change places on ecosystems where timing is everything. Breeding success, food cycles, and survival depend on delicate synchrony. When even a few weeks are lost, generations can fail.



The Arctic has long been a sanctuary for migratory birds. But as warming reshapes its seasons, these ancient travelers may be forced to reinvent their journeys. Their struggle mirrors the wider story of wildlife adapting to a world changing faster than evolution’s usual pace.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-025-02419-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Climate Change</a>.



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Arctic birds speed up migrations to match earlier springs

The Arctic has long symbolized extremes of nature. Its frozen...

When a bone is shattered or a tumor leaves a sizable void, surgeons have two broad choices: pack the space with graft (bone taken from the patient or a donor) or plug it with a synthetic scaffold that encourages new bone to grow.&nbsp;



Custom 3D-printed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-implant-may-allow-people-to-communicate-through-their-thoughts/">implants</a> have been a big advance, but they take time. Scanning, design, fabrication, and sterilization often take a week or more. That’s fine for planned procedures. It’s a problem when seconds count, like in trauma surgery.



A team led by Jung Seung Lee at <a href="https://www.skku.edu/eng/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sungkyunkwan University</a>, South Korea, asked a disarmingly simple question: what if the scaffold could be made on the spot, shaped by the surgeon in minutes, and still meet the biological requirements for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-long-necked-dinosaurs-struggled-with-fatal-bone-disease/">bone</a> regeneration?&nbsp;



The answer looks a lot like something you’d find in a craft drawer: a hot glue gun - reengineered for the operating room - and a bioactive “glue” designed to become new bone.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bone-mineral-meets-glue-gun">Bone mineral meets glue gun </h2>



The cartridge inside their gun isn’t glue. It’s a blend of hydroxyapatite (HA) - the calcium-phosphate mineral that makes up about half of real bone by volume - and polycaprolactone (PCL), a biodegradable thermoplastic widely studied for medical use.&nbsp;



HA brings osteoconductivity, meaning it’s the right mineral for bone cells to grow on. PCL brings melt-and-set workability and a gentle degradation profile over months to years, giving the body time to swap the scaffold for living bone.



Standard hot glue guns run well above 100 °C - too hot for tissue. The team modified the gun so the melt temperature sits near 60 °C, around the melting point of PCL. 



That’s still warm, but brief, localized contact at that temperature is routinely managed in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/srt-h-robot-performs-surgery-without-a-human-controlling-its-hands-for-the-first-time-ever/">surgery</a> (think electrocautery), and the material cools and hardens quickly once extruded.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-it-s-used-in-surgery">How it’s used in surgery</h2>



In their proof-of-concept, surgeons would debride and clean the defect, then “draw” with the gun, layering the HA–PCL filament directly into the void.&nbsp;



Because the material extrudes as a thin bead and sets within seconds, the surgeon can sculpt to fit the irregular geometry of real fractures - no waiting for a lab to print, ship, and sterilize a custom implant.&nbsp;



If needed, the filament can be pre-loaded with drugs. The group demonstrated vancomycin and gentamicin embedded in the material, releasing slowly over weeks to bathe the surgical site and help suppress <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/skin-may-play-a-hidden-role-in-ebola-infection/">infection</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happened-in-living-bone">What happened in living bone</h2>



To test whether the on-demand scaffold actually supports regeneration, the team created centimeter-long defects in rabbits’ femurs - a challenging gap size that doesn’t reliably heal on its own.&nbsp;



After 12 weeks, the animals treated with the “glue gun” showed no separation at the bone-implant interface and no obvious adverse reactions. Quantitatively, bone volume within the defect was more than twice that of controls filled with traditional bone cement. 



That’s an important point: standard cements (like PMMA) are structural fillers but biologically inert; they don’t invite bone to grow in and replace them. The HA–PCL composite, by contrast, is designed to be colonized by bone cells and resorbed over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-repairing-bones-with-a-glue-gun">Repairing bones with a glue gun</h2>



Orthopedic infections can turn a routine repair into a months-long ordeal. Because the scaffold is heat-molded at the point of care, the team could simply mix antibiotics into the filament beforehand.&nbsp;



In their tests, vancomycin and gentamicin loaded into the composite leached out gradually and directly into the defect bed. This delivery path avoids high systemic drug levels and targets the microbes where they live - on hardware and within the healing bone.



Speed and fit are the headline advantages. In trauma, tumor surgery, or revision cases with irregular voids, being able to fill and contour in minutes is a big deal. 



The material choice is sensible: HA for bioactivity, PCL for processability and a degradation timetable that lines up with bone remodeling.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-remaining-challenges-and-questions">Remaining challenges and questions</h2>



There are open questions before a craft-gun-turned-medical-tool goes mainstream. Heat exposure must be managed carefully near delicate structures. 



Mechanical strength is likely adequate for non- or partial-load-bearing zones, but long-bone defects under high stress may still require plates, rods, or staged reconstructions.&nbsp;



Surgeons will want more data on long-term remodeling: does the scaffold resorb at a rate that matches new bone formation, and what happens in larger animals and humans?&nbsp;



And then there’s regulation - turning commodity hardware into a sterile medical device, with validated temperatures, flow rates, cartridges, and cleaning protocols, is its own development path.



It’s a fair challenge: imaging and printing are getting faster, and customized implants will keep improving. The right answer may be to use printing for planned, complex reconstructions, and keep a bone-safe “glue gun” on the back table for the cases that can’t wait.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-simple-tool-for-surgery">A simple tool for surgery</h2>



What makes this approach intriguing is less the gadget itself and more the workflow it enables. 



In one trip to the OR, a surgeon could clear debris, rebuild a defect to fit, deliver local <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-rivers-are-highly-saturated-with-human-antibiotics-helping-bacteria-develop-resistance/">antibiotics</a>, and leave behind a scaffold the body recognizes - all without couriering scans or scheduling a second procedure. 



The materials are inexpensive and familiar, and the technique builds on skills orthopedic and maxillofacial surgeons already have.



There’s also room to grow. The same platform could accept filaments tuned for different jobs - stiffer or more porous, faster or slower to resorb, with growth factors, even with living cells for future applications.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-surgical-glue-guns">The future of surgical glue guns</h2>



As faster point-of-care imaging and planning tools enter the OR, “draw-to-fit” reconstruction could be guided by intraoperative scans, blending the best of custom design with the immediacy of a handheld device.



For now, the takeaway is straightforward. By lowering the melt temperature and swapping craft glue for a bone-friendly composite, researchers turned a ubiquitous tool into a surgical instrument that can fill irregular defects, support bone growth, and deliver local antibiotics - all in minutes. 



In emergencies and hard-to-plan repairs, that kind of speed could be the difference between patching a void and truly regenerating bone.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/device/fulltext/S2666-9986(25)00186-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Device</a>.



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Hot glue gun turned surgical tool can rebuild broken bones

When a bone is shattered or a tumor leaves a...

Most people picture penguins as black-and-white birds sliding across Antarctic ice or diving for fish. But the first penguins looked nothing like that. New penguin fossils from Aotearoa New Zealand show creatures with long, dagger-shaped beaks and bodies that came in strikingly different forms. 



These early penguins were larger, stranger, and adapted to life in seas. They arose shortly after the extinction of the dinosaurs and many large, marine reptiles. They may have capitalized on newly opened niches that were free from competitors or predators. 



Their fossils reveal a period when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emperor-penguins-may-disappear-in-our-lifetime/">birds</a> were testing new ways of surviving, filling empty spaces in ecosystems, and setting the stage for the penguins we know today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-penguin-fossils-in-new-zealand">Penguin fossils in New Zealand</h2>



The fossils came from the Waipara Greensand formation in Canterbury, New Zealand. These rocks, about 62 to 58 million years old, preserve life that thrived soon after the mass extinction that ended the reign of non-avian dinosaurs. 



Researchers think the absence of land predators gave penguins a chance to stop flying. That freedom may also explain why some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emperor-penguins-are-struggling-to-survive-as-sea-ice-vanishes/">species</a> grew to the size of humans. 



They developed unusual body shapes and features that allowed them to explore new environments, hunt more efficiently, and survive in changing coastal ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-four-new-fossil-penguin-species">Four new fossil penguin species</h2>



Gerald Mayr and his colleagues described four new penguin <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/enhanced-monitoring-of-emperor-penguins-can-help-us-save-them/">species</a> from these rocks. The bones tell different stories, each one adding detail to the picture of early penguin life. 



All the fossils reveal features that have never been documented before, expanding what scientists know about penguin anatomy.



One specimen had unusually long hind toes, a feature that might have changed how the bird balanced on land or swam in shallow water.



Another fossil preserved the most complete skull and beak ever found from an early penguin. That single discovery gave researchers an extraordinary chance to study head shape and feeding design up close. 



Some skeletons suggest compact, streamlined birds, while others point to heavier, more robust forms. 



In a world reshaped by extinction, penguins were already testing strategies for survival, adjusting their bodies and behavior to the opportunities offered in ancient seas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-penguin-beaks">Ancient penguin beaks</h2>



Tatsuro Ando of the <a href="https://hokkaido-digital-museum.jp/en/facility/amp/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ashoro Museum</a> of Paleontology in Japan, who was not part of the research, explained that fossils preserving beaks are extremely uncommon in penguins older than 23 million years. 



Beaks can reveal important details about diet and so are crucial to understanding the lifestyles of early penguins.



Living penguins use short, thick, or curved beaks depending on whether they eat krill, squid, or fish. Early penguins were different. Their beaks were <a href="https://fossilpenguins.wordpress.com/2020/01/20/an-ancient-penguin-skull/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">long and straight</a>. 



According to researchers, these birds probably speared fish with them, then tossed the catch in the air before swallowing it.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/early-penguins_Daniadyptes-primaevus_Waiparadyptes_gracilitarsus_fossils_Gerald-Mayr_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/early-penguins_Daniadyptes-primaevus_Waiparadyptes_gracilitarsus_fossils_Gerald-Mayr_1s.webp" alt="New genera and species of ancient penguins (Daniadyptes primaevus gen. et sp. nov., Waiparadyptes gracilitarsus gen. et sp. nov., Archaeodyptes waitahaorum gen. et sp. nov., Waimanutaha kenlovei gen. et sp. nov.) and a small species, which is tentatively assigned to the taxon Kupoupou. The fossils show previously unknown features of the earliest penguins, such as well-developed basipterygoid processes and a long hind toe, and for the first time gastroliths are preserved in a stem group sphenisciform. The very small D. primaevus as well as W. gracilitarsus and A. waitahaorum exhibit plesiomorphic features, which support a position outside a clade formed by M. tuatahi and more crownward taxa. Credit: Gerald Mayr" class="wp-image-1985325"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New genera and species of ancient penguins (Daniadyptes primaevus gen. et sp. nov., Waiparadyptes gracilitarsus gen. et sp. nov., Archaeodyptes waitahaorum gen. et sp. nov., Waimanutaha kenlovei gen. et sp. nov.) and a small species, which is tentatively assigned to the taxon Kupoupou. The fossils show previously unknown features of the earliest penguins, such as well-developed basipterygoid processes and a long hind toe, and for the first time gastroliths are preserved in a stem group sphenisciform. The very small D. primaevus as well as W. gracilitarsus and A. waitahaorum exhibit plesiomorphic features, which support a position outside a clade formed by M. tuatahi and more crownward taxa. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Gerald Mayr</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-penguin-bodies-changed-over-time">Penguin bodies changed over time</h2>



Penguins did not keep those spear-like beaks forever. About 20 million years later, their bodies shifted toward life spent almost entirely underwater. 



With longer dives came changes in feeding style. Their beaks shortened, thickened, or became curved.



These new forms suited their aquatic hunting strategies better. 



They allowed penguins to pursue different kinds of prey, dive to greater depths, and adapt more effectively to marine environments that were becoming increasingly competitive due to the presence of new predators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-zealand-as-cradle">New Zealand as cradle</h2>



New Zealand turned out to be a <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338851327_First_Complete_Wing_of_a_Stem_Group_Sphenisciform_from_the_Paleocene_of_New_Zealand_Sheds_Light_on_the_Evolution_of_the_Penguin_Flipper" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">starting point</a> for penguins. Gerald Mayr and his colleagues think the first species began here before moving on to Antarctica, South Africa, and South America. 



At the time, New Zealand stood apart from many regions because it lacked land predators. That absence mattered.



Without constant threats on the ground, penguins grew larger than most birds and experimented with unusual shapes. 



They tested new ways of moving, feeding, and surviving. The coastlines offered safety, while the surrounding waters provided plenty of food.



Together, these conditions created a perfect environment for trial and error. Over generations, these experiments shaped birds that would eventually spread across the Southern Hemisphere. 



If New Zealand had not been so predator-free and resource-rich, penguins might have evolved along a very different path.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-penguin-beaks">Modern penguin beaks</h2>



Penguins today fascinate people with their resilience and their unusual behaviors. Yet their story began with birds that looked more like spear-armed hunters than ice-dwellers. 



The discoveries from Canterbury give us a rare look at those beginnings and remind us that penguins started their journey in warm seas, not frozen coasts.



These fossils bridge the gap between the world after dinosaurs and the penguins we know today. They show how survival, adaptation, and opportunity shaped one of nature’s most beloved <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/penguins-are-threatened-by-mercury-contamination/">bird</a> families, connecting ancient spear-beaked hunters to the playful, diving birds that capture our imagination today.



The study is published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article-abstract/204/4/zlaf080/8230366?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society</a>. 



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Early penguins were as big as humans and fished with long spears on their beaks

Most people picture penguins as black-and-white birds sliding across Antarctic...

A recent study comparing how mothers in the U.K. and Uganda soothe their crying babies found something surprising: Ugandan babies calm down faster, even though their moms take longer to respond.



On the surface, this flips the script on common Western parenting advice. We often hear that faster is better when it comes to calming a crying infant. But this research suggests that the manner in which a mother comforts her baby matters more than how quickly she does it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-touch-versus-talk-to-calm-babies">Touch versus talk to calm babies</h2>



Researchers observed 147 real-life moments of distress in 82 infants across both countries. They focused on what mothers did in those moments, not just how quickly they reacted.



In both places, faster responses did help babies settle down. But here’s the twist: even though U.K. mothers typically responded more quickly, Ugandan babies calmed faster overall. That wasn’t random. The difference came down to the way mothers soothed their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conscious-awareness-when-does-our-sense-of-purpose-emerge/">infants</a>.



In Uganda, moms often used touch - holding, carrying, or <a href="https://www.afro.who.int/countries/uganda/news/safe-space-nourish-who-uganda-champions-breastfeeding-workplace" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">breastfeeding</a> - as their main method of comfort, even with older babies. In the U.K., mothers started with physical comfort when babies were young, but switched to using more words and less touch as their infants grew.



That shift in strategy seems to make a difference.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-culture-shapes-our-parenting">Culture shapes our parenting</h2>



The study was led by researchers from the <a href="https://www.dipf.de/en/frontpage" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DIPF Leibniz Institute</a> in Germany, and Durham University in the U.K.. They wanted to understand how caregiving works in real life - outside of labs or parenting books - and across very different environments.



“Our findings show that maternal responsiveness is universally important. But how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mothers-can-use-singing-to-engage-with-infants/">mothers</a> respond, and the effectiveness of their strategies, varies in meaningful ways between cultures,” said Dr. Carlo Vreden of the DIPF Leibniz Institute for Research and Information in Education.



“Importantly, we are not making value judgments about which approach is better. Rather, we are highlighting that caregiving strategies are shaped by culture. It is not just about how quickly the mothers respond to their babies, but also the type of maternal soothing response which plays a crucial role in infant emotion regulation.”



In the U.K., many parenting norms are based on studies done in Western countries, often under very controlled conditions. But this doesn’t reflect the full picture of how most babies are raised around the world.



Professor Zanna Clay explained, “Most of what we know about babies’ early emotional development is based on studies conducted in Europe and North America. But of course, these Western settings don’t reflect the caregiving environments experienced by the majority of infants around the world, nor how they may have been historically.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-babies-stay-calm-despite-slower-responses">Babies stay calm despite slower responses</h2>



One principal reason why Ugandan mothers would take longer to reply is plain: they’re frequently engaged in manual labor, such as working in the fields or taking care of household chores outside. In contrast to high-income environments, mothers in rural Uganda typically cannot abandon everything the instant their baby begins crying.



“Uganda is an interesting place to study <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/child-care-quality-has-direct-impact-on-later-success-in-science-and-math/">caregiving</a>,” Clay said, “as infants are typically cared for by multiple different caregivers and their styles of caregiving culturally differ, such as prioritising more physical contact with their babies.”



Even with slower response times, Ugandan mothers’ reliance on touch - especially breastfeeding - seemed to have a calming effect. The babies got comforted in a way that worked well for them, even if it wasn’t immediate.



Professor Clay added, “Our study also highlights the balance between responding to your baby while also having to manage daily tasks, which can be more challenging in rural low-resource settings.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-parenting-advice">Rethinking parenting advice</h2>



This research challenges the idea that there’s only one right way to raise emotionally healthy kids. It shows that parenting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parenting-may-help-keep-the-brain-younger/">strategies</a> can look different in different places - and still be effective.



“We’ve shown that Western ideas about optimal parenting don’t always apply in other settings,” said Dr. Vreden. “Even though the U.K. mums do seem to follow this sort of gold standard of responding as soon as possible, it's the Ugandan children, who don't get that quicker response, who actually recovered faster.”



“This emphasises the complexity of different strategies working in different ways and in different settings.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-calm-babies-in-real-life">Calm babies in real life</h2>



By watching what happens in real-life settings - not just in labs - researchers can get a clearer picture of what helps babies <a href="https://www.eccpct.com/Resources/Child/Tips-for-Tots/Help-Young-Children-Regulate-Their-Emotions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">regulate</a> their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/facial-expressions-arent-enough-to-understand-human-emotions/">emotions</a>. This matters for building parenting support programs that fit the realities of people’s lives, no matter where they live.



Future research may explore how these early caregiving approaches affect children as they grow and how parenting differs across even more cultures.



In the end, it’s not just about being fast - it’s about being effective. And effectiveness can look very different, depending on where you are.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/fulltext/2026-56898-001.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Developmental Psychology</a>.



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How, or how fast? Study examines fascinating cultural differences in how babies are calmed

A recent study comparing how mothers in the U.K. and...

Two hikers on a winter walk in northeastern Czechia stumbled onto a stash that turned out to be one of the country’s most unusual modern treasures.



Dates on the coins spanned the years 1808 to 1915. Specialists say the hoard was probably buried after 1921 because several pieces carry tiny <a href="https://www.forumancientcoins.com/dougsmith/feac2.html?srsltid=AfmBOorkq0D7IoG7qaVwtsj_Z9MkxhOieUdDG4ag8I4e1coezZZxxFo4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">countermarks</a>, official stamps added to coins after minting in the former Yugoslavia during the 1920s and 1930s. The hoard was dominated by French issues and there were no coins from Germany or Czechoslovakia, a pattern that already raises fresh historical questions. 



The investigation is being led by Miroslav Novák at the <a href="https://www.muzeumhk.cz/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Museum</a> of East Bohemia in Hradec Králové. His team includes a museum numismatist, an expert who studies coins and currency.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-was-found">What was found</h2>



The hoard sat in two containers tucked into a man made stone wall on the southwest slope of Zvičina Hill. The aluminum jar and a nearby metal box were separated by about 3 feet (0.9 meters). 



Inside, were 598 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-300-year-old-sunken-pirate-shipwreck-left-archaeologists-speechless/">gold</a> coins arranged in stacks and wrapped in black fabric. There were also sixteen snuff or cigarette cases, ten bracelets, a fine wire mesh purse, a comb, a chain with a key, and a powder compact. 



Curators estimate the total weight at roughly 15 pounds (7 kilograms), with the coins alone making up about 8 pounds (3.75 kilograms) of gold. The museum has placed the assemblage under controlled conditions while technicians document each object.



Finders turned everything over in February 2025 during routine fieldwork by staff. The museum later presented the hoard to journalists, but the emphasis remains on careful study rather than spectacle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-coins-get-stashed-away">Why coins get stashed away</h2>



Modern hoards are not just curiosities. They are time stamped records of stress, wealth, and movement.



“The list of potential reasons for which it was likely buried is fairly clear,” said Novák.&nbsp;



Across <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/archaeologists-have-unearthed-a-stone-coffin-hidden-underground-for-1500-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">archaeology</a>, deliberate burial of valuables shows up from prehistory into recent centuries. Scholars now use hoards to probe how people responded to upheaval. A recent <a href="https://centaur.reading.ac.uk/120474/1/ai-3290-bradley.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">analysis</a> considers the reasons for deliberately hiding valuables and covers finds from the Mesolithic through the twentieth century. It highlights the role of ritual acts, crisis events, and private safekeeping in different eras. 



In twentieth century Central Europe, reasons could include pre-war tension, wartime flight, or later monetary reforms. This case fits that broader picture, but the exact story will depend on archival research and the technical study that is now underway.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-in-the-coin-markings">Clues in the coin markings</h2>



Those small countermarks are the first major clue. They indicate that some coins circulated in the Balkans after World War I, before the hoard was concealed.



“It was deliberately hidden because it was precious metal,” said Vojtěch Brádle, numismatist at the Museum of East Bohemia.



The composition is striking, with most pieces being French and the rest largely Austro-Hungarian, Belgian, and Ottoman. Specialists note the total absence of German and Czechoslovak issues, which is atypical for finds in Czechia of similar age.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-scientists-will-study-the-hoard">How scientists will study the hoard</h2>



First comes documentation, then non-destructive testing. For the yellow metal items that are not coins, Czech authorities will determine alloy composition to guide conservation. 



A core tool is X-ray fluorescence <a href="https://www.spectroscopyonline.com/view/xrf-analysis-cultural-heritage-materials" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spectroscopy</a>, a non-invasive technique that reveals an object’s elemental makeup without sampling. Conservation scientists rely on this method to analyze metals, jewelry, and other cultural materials in situ, often with handheld instruments. 



Results will steer how conservators stabilize each object. If the bracelets and snuff cases are not all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mineral-exploration-project-discovers-20-metric-tons-of-gold-deposits-odisha-india/">gold</a>, different cleaning and storage protocols will apply, to prevent corrosion or stress cracking.



Technical data also sharpen the historical picture. Specific fineness standards and trace element signatures can narrow down where and when an item was made or modified.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-law-ownership-and-rewards">Law, ownership, and rewards</h2>



Czech <a href="https://www.arub.cz/wp-content/uploads/Act-20-1987-col.-zakon-o-statni-pamatkove_eng_final.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">law</a> treats finds like this as archaeological heritage. Finders must report them, and authorities decide on custody and study which, in this case, sits with the regional museum.



Under the law on the protection of monuments, rewards can be granted to finders up to the material price for precious metal finds or up to ten percent of the cultural historical value for others, a law that balances private incentive with public stewardship.&nbsp;



Any future display will follow conservation, cataloging, and provenance checks. That keeps the focus on information as much as on spectacle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-hidden-treasure-can-teach">What the hidden treasure can teach</h2>



Coins can tell us about exchange rates, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/archaeologists-discover-141-ancient-gold-coins-some-from-a-little-known-roman-emperor/">trade routes</a>, and savings habits in a way few other sources can. They track how gold moved across borders even when official currencies changed.



The Yugoslav countermarks connect this trove to a specific post-war monetary story. That link invites targeted searches in shipping manifests, bank records, and local registries.



Small details matter. A chain link style, a purse weave, or a bracelet clasp can tie objects to a maker or a city, and that narrows the range of owners and motives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-modern-treasure-with-human-stakes">A modern treasure with human stakes</h2>



The site sits in a borderland region with layered twentieth century histories. People there lived through quick political shifts that often forced rushed choices about family assets.



Museums do not guess. They test, compare, and follow the paperwork where it exists. That takes time, but it is how conjecture becomes evidence.



Whatever the final backstory, this hoard already shows how modern deposits can be as revealing as ancient ones. It also shows why careful reporting by finders helps everyone learn more, faster.



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Hikers find a hidden treasure of gold coins dating from 1808 to 1915 in a stone wall

Two hikers on a winter walk in northeastern Czechia stumbled...

Can the food we eat influence our mood? A new study suggests that diet might hold more power over mental health than many realize. Researchers observed a striking reduction in depression symptoms among college students who followed a ketogenic diet for at least 10 weeks.



The findings not only highlight a potential dietary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/keto-diet-promotes-fat-loss-but-potentially-wrecks-your-health/">approach</a> to improving mood but also reveal positive effects on cognition, weight, and overall well-being. For students struggling with both mental health and academic pressures, such results carry deep implications.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-depression-and-college-life">Depression and college life</h2>



Depression remains a serious obstacle for college students in the United States. Studies show nearly 40 percent of students report symptoms, and about half are in treatment. Even so, demand for counseling often exceeds available resources.



“We have a treatment gap in that we have more students suffering from mental health concerns than can feasibly receive professional treatment,” said Dr. Ryan Patel, a psychiatrist at <a href="https://www.osu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ohio State University</a>.



“There is a need for finding ways of helping students on a large scale. And <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vegan-and-keto-diets-rapidly-transform-the-immune-system/">nutrition</a> is one way we can do that.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-the-ketogenic-diet">Testing the ketogenic diet</h2>



Twenty-four students joined the pilot trial, and 16 completed it. All participants had major depressive disorder and were already receiving therapy, medication, or both. 



The researchers guided the students through a low-carbohydrate, high-fat ketogenic plan designed to trigger nutritional ketosis.



“It was very important to make sure participants knew what they were getting themselves into,” said Drew Decker, first author of the study. 



“And a big part of increasing chances for adherence to the diet was talking to each individual about what they like and don’t like to eat so we could tailor some suggestions for how they could structure their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/low-carb-diets-have-more-nutritional-value-than-expected/">diet</a>.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-treating-major-depressive-disorder">Treating major depressive disorder </h2>



The team used both self-reported and clinician-rated tools to track changes in depression, including the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 and the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression. 



The researchers also measured well-being, body composition, and cognitive performance. Biological markers such as brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), leptin, and inflammatory proteins were analyzed.



“One of the things we really wanted to make sure of is that we were providing a treatment for people who met the diagnostic criteria for having major depressive disorder,” said Dr. Jennifer Cheavens, professor of clinical psychology at Ohio State.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-keto-diet-reduces-depression">Keto diet reduces depression</h2>



The results surprised even the researchers. Depression symptoms dropped nearly 70 percent within 10 to 12 weeks, measured by both self-reports and clinical assessments. 



Students reported greater well-being, which nearly tripled from the start. Cognitive performance improved, and most participants lost an average of 5 kilograms of body mass. Importantly, symptoms did not worsen for anyone.



“The average effect size for medications and counseling after 12 weeks is about 50%, and we saw a substantially greater result,” said Dr. Patel. 



“That is an impressive finding, that across the board, in this real-world setting, everybody got better, and across the board, our participants did not need more treatment or emergency intervention.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biological-signals-of-improvement">Biological signals of improvement</h2>



The ketogenic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/men-face-a-masculinity-barrier-to-greener-diets/">diet</a> was linked with reduced leptin levels and increased BDNF. Both changes suggest improvements in brain health and metabolic balance. Elevated BDNF is especially relevant, as low levels are often associated with major depression. 



Leptin reductions reflected weight and fat loss but also improved sensitivity to this hormone, which influences inflammation and cognition.



Importantly, the study did not find significant changes in cholesterol or triglycerides, easing concerns about possible adverse metabolic effects of a high-fat diet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-keto-diet-s-link-to-depression">The keto diet's link to depression </h2>



For lead researcher Dr. Jeff Volek, the study fits into his decades of work on ketosis and its medical applications.



“The idea is that the ketogenic diet is working through a variety of potentially different mechanisms - there’s a whole range of physiological metabolic adaptations to the diet that could overlap with some of the pathophysiology of depression,” explained Dr. Volek.



Theoretical pathways include reduced inflammation, improved insulin sensitivity, increased neurotrophic factors like BDNF, and even neuroprotection within the hippocampus. 



Ketosis is also linked to more stable brain networks, as observed in functional MRI research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-student-experiences-in-the-keto-trial">Student experiences in the keto trial</h2>



Most participants maintained nutritional ketosis 73 percent of the time, supported by coaching, personalized meal guidance, and digital communication with dietitians. 



While two students reported mild “keto flu” symptoms such as cramps and headaches, these were quickly resolved with electrolyte support.



Despite the positive results, attrition was higher than in similar diet studies, likely because students had to manage the trial alongside academic schedules.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-for-the-keto-diet">Next steps for the keto diet</h2>



“So many people are suffering right now, so it’s rewarding to potentially bring forward a solution,” said Dr. Volek. 



“There is more science yet to do, but because there is evidence of a benefit, expanding accessibility to a well-formulated ketogenic diet as an augmentation to treatment for depression is something to think about.”



The researchers emphasize that larger clinical trials with control groups are needed. Still, the pilot demonstrates that nutritional strategies may have untapped potential as part of mental health care.



This project, supported by the <a href="https://baszuckigroup.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Baszucki Group Brain Research Fund</a>, highlights a field known as metabolic psychiatry, where diet intersects with mental health. 



The possibility of reducing depression symptoms through a carefully structured ketogenic diet could change how treatment is approached, especially for students balancing academics and well-being.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41398-025-03544-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Translational Psychiatry</a>.



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Keto diet may reduce depression more than therapy or drugs

Can the food we eat influence our mood? A new...

Starfish aren’t just scattered randomly across the ocean floor. Like most animals, they follow patterns - showing up in some places more than others. 



Some of those patterns make sense. Others don’t quite fit the rules that scientists thought applied across the planet.



Until now, figuring out where starfish actually live - and why - was tough. That’s because researchers need massive amounts of data that cover wide distances and depths. For most animals, that kind of data just doesn’t exist. But for starfish, it finally does.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-starfish-diversity-changes-with-depth">Starfish diversity changes with depth</h2>



The researchers analyzed more than 200,000 records of starfish, also known as Asteroidea, from oceans all over the world. With that much data, they were able to map not just <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-starfish-species-discovered-in-japan/">where starfish live</a>, but how their diversity shifts with depth - from shallow tropical waters to the deep sea.



“What we showed is that in the shallow waters, there are more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-species-are-taking-over-the-mediterranean-sea/">species</a> in the tropics than at the poles,” explained Dr. Hugh Carter. “But as we go deeper, the diversity shifts. We start losing tropical diversity and it starts to increase as we move to the temperate zones.”



Dr. Carter, a curator of starfish at the <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/">Natural History Museum</a>, led the study with colleagues Dr. Suzanne Williams and Dr. Lupita Bribiesca-Contreras. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-usual-pattern-flipped">The usual pattern, flipped</h2>



One of the oldest known biological trends is that more species live near the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-species-are-moving-away-from-the-equator/">equator</a>. It's called the latitudinal diversity gradient. Think of the difference in life between the Arctic and the Amazon, and the trend becomes clear.



This pattern has been seen in countless studies - and even in ancient fossils. A big factor behind it is temperature: warmer regions tend to support more species.



But in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-pressure-preserves-food-for-microbes/">deep sea</a>, temperature doesn’t vary much. It stays close to 39°F, whether you're near the equator or the poles. That raised an important question: if temperature is steady down there, does the same biodiversity rule still apply?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-starfish-break-the-rules-entirely">Some starfish break the rules entirely</h2>



To find out, the team pulled together global databases and museum collections to build the most complete map of starfish life ever made. In total, they covered about 92% of all known starfish species.



As they looked deeper into the ocean, they found that some families of starfish follow the usual pattern - more species in the tropics. But others do the opposite. These deep-dwelling families tend to be more diverse in temperate zones.



“The difference between families is one of the bits that gets missed a lot in these big scale patterns,” said Dr. Carter. “They don’t really work at smaller scales, where other aspects have more of a stronger effect on patterns of diversity."



One possible reason for this shift is food. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shifting-ocean-color-is-pushing-marine-life-toward-the-poles/">Polar waters</a>, despite seeming empty, are extremely productive. Whales head there to feed on krill blooms, and when those nutrients sink, they help feed the deep sea below.



That extra food might support more species in colder regions - at least in places where it’s not too cold.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fewer-species-in-the-deep-sea">Fewer species in the deep sea</h2>



But even with nutrients, there’s a limit. The researchers found that starfish diversity drops sharply when sea-floor temperatures fall below about 35°F (1.5°C). Below that, even high nutrient levels can’t support many species.



This temperature threshold showed up across all oceans, acting like a hard cutoff. No matter how much food was available, the coldest parts of the ocean floor remained low in starfish diversity. 



This could help explain why some deep regions have fewer species, even if they seem similar to more diverse zones.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-means-for-ocean-science">What this means for ocean science</h2>



The findings don’t just teach us more about starfish. They offer a fresh look at how life works in the deep sea - and raise new questions about what drives <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/environmental-stability-helped-ocean-biodiversity-flourish/">biodiversity</a> below the surface.



If hotspots of deep-sea life aren’t always near the equator, that could change how conservation efforts are planned. It also means scientists need to look deeper - and colder - to fully understand life on Earth’s ocean floor.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-025-02808-2">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Starfish challenge one of nature's oldest diversity rules

Starfish aren’t just scattered randomly across the ocean floor. Like...

Many rodents do not have a claw on every finger. Quite a few possess a flat nail on the first digit - a small thumbnail that changes how their hands work.



A new study links that tiny feature to how rodents feed, where they live, and how they diversified into thousands of species worldwide. 



The research draws on museum collections to map where thumbnails occur and which behaviors are associated with them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-small-trait-big-impact">A small trait, big impact</h2>



The study was led by Rafaela Missagia, a research associate at the <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/">Field Museum</a> and an assistant professor at the <a href="https://www5.usp.br/english/institutional/">University of São Paulo</a> (USP).



Rodents make up about 40 percent of all mammals, so even small shifts in their hands can echo across the tree of life.



The researchers examined 433 rodent genera and reported that 86 percent included species with thumbnails on the first digit. That pattern is not a one off observation - it spans the rodent family tree.



The analyses identified a nail, not a claw, as the likely ancestral state for that digit. This points to a deep origin for thumbnail equipped hands among rodents.



Lineages that live underground or that feed mostly with the mouth show different paths. Some gained a claw on the first digit, while others lost the structure altogether.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-grip-power-in-rodent-hands">Grip power in rodent hands</h2>



The unguis is the hardened tip of a digit, whether nail, claw, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-confirm-that-modern-horses-lost-their-additional-toes/">hoof,</a> and its shape on the first digit shifts what a hand can do. The team paired anatomy with behavior captured in textbooks and videos to test how rodents use their hands while they eat.



“Rodents, as we know today, use their resources very efficiently,” said Missagia. A flat thumbnail offers a broad, blunt surface that steadies small items and supports precise grips.&nbsp;



That grip likely worked alongside specialized incisors and jaw muscles that excel at gnawing hard foods such as nuts. These foods are energy dense, so being able to hold and turn them quickly is a real edge when competition is high.



The study treats the first digit, often labeled D1, as a key part of that story. Changing the unguis on D1 changes the whole hand, which changes the menu an animal can handle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rodent-thumbnails-tied-to-lifestyles">Rodent thumbnails tied to lifestyles</h2>



Outside of primates, rodents are the only <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-mammals-had-slower-growth-rates-and-lived-longer/">mammals</a> that show a true thumbnail on the first digit. That makes this little structure especially useful for comparing how different groups solve similar problems.



Species that are fossorial, meaning adapted for digging or living underground, tend to carry claws on every digit. Those claws act like pointed tools that cut soil better than a nail would.



Species that are arboreal - meaning they live above ground or in trees - are more likely to keep thumbnails on the first digit. A nail is less likely to snag and more likely to steady food or a twig during a careful climb.



Rodents without thumbs, such as guinea pig relatives, usually do not handle food with their hands. They bring the mouth to the food and skip manual handling altogether.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-clues-in-tiny-thumbs">Fossil clues in tiny thumbs</h2>



The dataset places thumbnails early in the rodent story, present at ancestral nodes across the family tree. Fossil clues stretch back many millions of years, which supports an origin deep in time for first-digit nails in this group.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-shows-early-humans-climbed-trees-and-worked-with-stone/">Thumb bones</a> vary across genera, and that variation aligns with unguis type. Short, wide bones tend to support nails, while narrow, curved bones tend to anchor claws.



That bony scaffolding matters because it influences how much pressure a digit can apply and in what direction. It also limits - or expands - the range of grips an animal can use on seeds, insects, or other foods.



The study used phylogenetic models to test how often thumbnails were gained or lost in different branches. Gains of claws and losses of nails reappeared in lineages that burrow or rely on oral feeding, pointing to repeated solutions to similar ecological tasks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rodent-nails-in-museum-drawers">Rodent nails in museum drawers</h2>



The Field Museum houses one of the largest mammal collections on Earth, which made a broad test like this possible. Old skins and skeletons answered fresh questions because the parts that matter most remain intact.



Researchers could compare a kangaroo rat, a capybara, and a pygmy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mouse-lemurs-of-madagascar-are-threatened-with-extinction/">mouse</a> in the same drawer, then connect those features to field notes and filmed behavior. Museum collections support datasets that would be nearly impossible to assemble in the wild on short timelines.



Large collections also anchor claims with physical evidence. When new tools come around, from micro-imaging to machine learning, those same specimens can be studied again from new angles.



Projects like this remind us that small structures can set big limits. A thumbnail is simple, but it can steer what an animal eats, how it climbs, and where it thrives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-evolution-of-nails-and-claws">The evolution of nails and claws</h2>



Simple anatomical traits can open or close whole ecological doors. A flat nail supports grips that a curved claw makes awkward, so the presence or absence of that small part sets a boundary for behavior.



The research shows how evolutionary changes are not one way streets. Nails can be lost when digging dominates a lifestyle, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shri-rapax-dinosaur-discovered-that-killed-with-potent-thumbs-instead-of-foot-claws/">claws</a> can reappear when the environment rewards them.



The study also demonstrates how anatomy, behavior, and ecology fit together. Hands are not just for climbing or digging. They are for eating too, and what a hand holds can ripple through a lineage for millions of years.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.ads7926" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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How rodent thumbnails helped mammals rise to dominance

Many rodents do not have a claw on every finger....

Italy’s Campi Flegrei has been restless again when it comes to earthquakes, and a new AI approach is helping scientists see what the ground is really doing. 



In a peer-reviewed study, researchers from <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford University</a>, along with colleagues at INGV Osservatorio Vesuviano and the <a href="https://www.international.unina.it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Naples Federico II</a>, reanalyzed continuous seismic records. The team found more than four times as many small earthquakes between January 21, 2022, and March 20, 2025.



The researchers did not detect any direct sign of magma moving upward. Instead, they highlighted very shallow hybrid quakes tied to the hydrothermal system.



That fuller picture matters because small events reveal where the crust is stressed and how energy is moving through the volcanic field. With cleaner detections and sharper locations, scientists can track changes faster and judge when activity starts to cluster in risky ways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clear-signals-urgent-stakes">Clear signals, urgent stakes</h2>



“Seismicity could change at any time, and that may be the most important thing about this study: this capability of getting a clear view is now operational,” said study co-author Greg Beroza, a geophysics professor at Stanford University.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supervolcano-campi-flegrei-naples-italy-solfatara-crater-phlegraean-fields-signs-of-waking-up/">caldera</a> sits within the Neapolitan area, where more than half a million people live and work. That density means even modest shaking or ground movement can disrupt daily life, strain buildings, and complicate evacuations.



History shows why clarity is essential. During the 1982-1984 crisis, uplift and persistent earthquakes damaged structures across Pozzuoli. A major analysis documented that the events triggered the evacuation of about 40,000 people.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-turns-noise-into-earthquake-signals">AI turns noise into earthquake signals</h2>



The team trained a machine learning workflow on continuous waveforms and used it to scan years of data consistently. That created one catalog rather than a patchwork of methods, so patterns stand out instead of becoming blurred.



AI did more than count earthquakes. The workflow sharpened event locations and magnitudes, turning noisy curves into clean signals that line up with mapped features and known hot zones. 



That is the kind of precision emergency managers need when activity jumps in hours, not weeks. One payoff is a much clearer view of the caldera’s thin ring shaped structures and shallow faults. 



Those features organize the small quakes and help separate background rumble from changes that could matter for public safety.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-volcano-under-quiet-strain">Volcano under quiet strain</h2>



Campi Flegrei is a large caldera, the broad depression left by past eruptions, ringed by faults and dotted with old vents and fuming ground. It is not a single cone, it is a field where different parts can wake up at different times.



The region breathes over years through uplift and subsidence known as bradyseism. Those slow vertical motions have been recorded for centuries and often line up with swarms of small earthquakes.



In the new catalog, most activity sits at very shallow depths and traces a narrow ring fault system consistent with surface features and the zone now rising. 



The authors reported no direct signature of magma rising toward the surface in this interval. This lowers near-term eruption concern but does not remove the need for close watching.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-faults-reveal-hidden-stress">Faults reveal hidden stress</h2>



Faults are breaks in rock that slip when stress overcomes strength, and their length and orientation constrain how big an earthquake could be. When small <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earthquakes-and-flood-zones-hidden-risks-in-the-pacific-northwest/">quakes</a> line up along a longer fault, planners can bound the upper size of plausible events rather than guess in the dark.



Seeing faults crisply also helps compare present unrest with past episodes. Shaking that migrates onto a new segment or clusters at the edge of the ring may signal a change in how the system stores and releases pressure.



Those signals are not predictions by themselves. They are inputs to models that weigh where stress is building, how close rocks are to failure, and what level of shaking the built environment can handle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-refines-risk-planning">AI refines risk planning</h2>



Near real-time detections let observatories update maps of active zones as conditions evolve. That supports decisions like where to inspect bridges, how to stage ambulances, or when to test public alerts before a busy weekend.



Sharper locations and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-detect-major-earthquakes-months-in-advance/">magnitudes</a> also help engineers validate expected shaking levels against what instruments record in town. With that feedback loop, officials can refine microzonation, revisit building priorities, and tune maintenance schedules before the next swarm.



Past experience is a warning here. During 1982-1984, the harbor shallowed and commerce paused, schools closed, and the government approved new housing to relocate residents. 



Planning for unrest is not only about eruptions, it is about everyday disruptions that stack up when the ground keeps moving.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-helps-not-predicts">AI helps, not predicts</h2>



The present results point to pressure within a shallow system, not direct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/magma-layer-keeps-the-yellowstone-supervolcano-dormant/">magma</a> rise, during 2022-2025. That aligns with other independent work that has argued for pressure buildup and evolving stress in the crust during long stretches without eruption.



Unrest can still change quickly. More small quakes could organize into tighter clusters, or uplift rates could shift, and those changes would be visible fast with the new tools.



AI does not replace dense earthquake monitoring or local expertise. It helps analysts keep up when data surge, flag subtle changes that a human might miss after a long night, and focus attention on the signals that matter most.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adw9038" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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AI detects earthquake surge beneath Europe’s most dangerous volcano

Italy’s Campi Flegrei has been restless again when it comes...

The quiet image of a housecat curled on a windowsill hides a darker truth. For decades, many owners believed that removing a cat’s claws - declawing them - was a harmless solution to scratched furniture. 



In reality, declawing leaves permanent scars, both physical and neurological, that can cripple an animal for life.



New research from Quebec finally puts long-standing debates to rest, revealing just how damaging this surgery truly is.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-concerns-about-cat-declawing">Concerns about cat declawing</h2>



Eric Troncy, director of GREPAC (Groupe de recherche en pharmacologie animale du Québec) and co-author on the publication spoke about the importance of the research in an article published in <a href="https://theconversation.com/le-degriffage-des-chats-leur-genere-une-douleur-a-vie-il-est-temps-de-linterdire-263709" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Conversation</a>.



"I became interested in animal pain very early in my career. During my training in anesthesia and pain management, I was struck by how much the suffering of declawed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-some-cats-make-excellent-therapy-animals/">cats</a> was trivialized," Troncy explained. 



"I carried my indignation over this issue into my research career, and it's now shaped my work for more than 20 years."



With the GREPAQ at <a href="https://www.umontreal.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Université de Montréal</a>, the team had access to cats with naturally occurring osteoarthritis. 



This condition, common in aging animals, allowed them to separate ordinary joint pain from the additional suffering caused by declawing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shocking-impacts-in-declawed-cats">Shocking impacts in declawed cats </h2>



The researchers developed specialized non-invasive methods including gait analysis, brain imaging, and nerve conduction studies. 



These tools enabled them to measure pain with precision and identify the unique impacts of declawing.



The findings, published in the journal Scientific Reports, were sobering. Declawed cats experienced irreversible nerve damage, heightened pain sensitivity, and worsened mobility, especially in heavier <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-prefer-sleeping-on-their-left-side-for-faster-threat-response/">cats</a>. 



The nervous systems of these animals eventually became exhausted, leaving them hypersensitive, fatigued, and less able to live comfortably.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conflicting-evidence-about-declawing">Conflicting evidence about declawing </h2>



Declawing involves amputating the final bone of each toe, using a scalpel, laser, or clippers. 



While surgical methods have been debated, the ethical question has remained a central controversy in veterinary practice and animal welfare discussions.



Even the <a href="https://www.avma.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Veterinary Medical Association</a> wrote in 2022, that there is conflicting evidence about the implications of declawing. 



According to the Quebec researchers, this conflict reflected a lack of long-term studies rather than contradictory outcomes, highlighting the urgent need for comprehensive scientific data to guide ethical decisions.



"Being passionate about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-and-why-do-cats-purr-scientists-finally-found-the-answers-genetic-dna/">animal</a> welfare, I have never seen this practice as anything other than mutilation for the sake of pet owners' convenience," stated Troncy.



Declawing was banned in the European Union in 1992, yet the practice continues widely in the United States and parts of Canada. 



By 2025, an estimated 25 million cats in North America will have been declawed, despite Quebec introducing a provincial ban in 2024.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-of-harm-from-declawing">Proof of harm from declawing</h2>



The Quebec research compared healthy cats, arthritic cats, and declawed arthritic cats across more than a decade. 



The results were clear: declawed cats showed increased sensitivity to touch, worsening mobility, and signs of nervous system overload.



The analysis also revealed higher rates of allodynia in declawed arthritic cats, where pain arose from normally harmless stimuli. 



Nerve conduction tests confirmed axonal damage, with declawed cats displaying reduced muscle response amplitudes.



"Electrophysiological tests reveal direct nerve damage," said Troncy, linking the biological changes to observed behaviors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-behavior-changes-in-cats">Behavior changes in cats</h2>



Declawed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-can-tell-people-apart-by-sniffing-them/">cats</a> displayed reluctance to jump, often avoided litter boxes due to paw pain, and showed unexpected aggression. These behaviors matched the evidence of maladaptive neuroplasticity and chronic nerve injury.



Weight compounded the issue. Heavier declawed cats faced more severe biomechanical impairments, suggesting the combination of surgery and body weight intensified pain and disability. 



Whether only the front paws or all four were declawed, the harmful effects persisted. 



This horrific practice leaves cats increasingly vulnerable, stressed, less active, and at higher risk of developing ongoing health complications that reduced their overall quality of life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-animal-welfare">Protecting animal welfare</h2>



"As veterinarians, our mission is to protect animal welfare, but continuing to perform declawing means we are failing in our mission," said Troncy. 



The researchers emphasize that declawing is not routine surgery but an ethically unacceptable practice with lasting consequences.



They argue that veterinarians must educate owners about alternatives such as scratching posts, behavioral training, and nail trimming. 



Other surgeries, such as <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282801887_Digital_flexor_tendon_contracture_treated_by_tenectomy_different_clinical_presentations_in_three_cats" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tenotomy</a>, should also be avoided because they cause pain and interfere with natural feline behavior.



The conclusion is direct. "This mutilation must be banned, everywhere and forever," the authors declared. 



With mounting scientific evidence, the call for a universal ban grows stronger, urging veterinary medicine to place animal welfare above human convenience.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-16288-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Call to action: Declawing cats leaves them in horrible pain for the rest of their lives

The quiet image of a housecat curled on a windowsill...

Mammals are not only good at hearing sounds, they are especially tuned to voices. A new cross-species study compared humans, dogs, and pigs and mapped how fast the brain flags a voice, then sorts out whether it belongs to one of our own.



The researchers recorded tiny pulses of brain activity while participants listened to people, dogs, and pigs, plus everyday noises. The animals were awake, relaxed, and unmedicated, and the sessions used gentle scalp sensors, not implants.



A team from <a href="https://www.elte.hu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eötvös Loránd University</a> (ELU) focused on two questions that cut to the heart of social hearing in mammals. 



The first was whether the brain treats vocal sounds as a distinct category, separate from other noises. The second was whether it goes a step further, recognizing and highlighting voices that belong to members of the same species - a process known as conspecific recognition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-brain-signals-to-sound">Tracking brain signals to sound</h2>



The setup used non-invasive EEG sensors to track the brain’s fast electrical responses to sound. The signal components the team examined are called event-related potentials, and they are well suited for timing how processing unfolds.



Participants heard short clips such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/laughter-makes-the-stress-of-life-feel-less-overwhelming/">laughs</a>, barks, and grunts, alongside non vocal noises like traffic or a closing door. 



The recordings let the researchers compare voice versus non-voice processing, then compare same species voices to all other sounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-step-brain-response">Two-step brain response</h2>



In humans and pigs, the brain marked any voice very quickly, within about 0.2 seconds after the sound began. 



Later, after roughly 0.3 seconds and beyond, all three species showed a second step that tagged same species voices as a special category.



“These patterns were very similar despite the large evolutionary distance between the three species, pointing to shared neural mechanisms that likely predate the divergence of their lineages some 90 million years ago,” said Boglárka Morvai, the study's lead author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-pigs-and-people">Dogs, pigs, and people</h2>



Dogs did not show the early “any voice” signal as clearly as humans and pigs, even though they live closely with people. 



They did show the later step that marked dog sounds as different from other sounds, which matches the idea that same species calls matter most for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-bacteria-influence-our-social-behavior-and-sense-of-fairness/">social behavior.</a>



Pigs showed both steps and did so on a similar time course to people. That pattern strengthens the case that the early voice flag is a general feature of mammal hearing, not a quirk of primates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-voice-areas-in-mammals">Voice areas in mammals</h2>



For two decades, brain imaging in humans has found voice sensitive regions in the superior temporal cortex, often called temporal voice areas. 



A comprehensive review outlines how these regions support recognition of who is speaking, what they feel, and how the voice changes over time.



Dogs have their own voice sensitive patches too, and they align in function with human areas when both species listen to vocal sounds.



 A comparative paper showed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lost-in-translation-how-we-misread-our-dogs-emotions/">dog</a> and human brains both devote cortex to processing voices, including sensitivity to emotional tone.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-speed-of-voice-detection">Speed of voice detection</h2>



Past EEG work in people has reported early differences between voice and non-voice sounds on the order of a fifth of a second. 



One open access article found effects emerging around 0.164 seconds and peaking near 0.2 seconds on frontotemporal sensors.



These timings line up with the early “any voice” response reported in the recent study. The later same species effect fits with known windows for categorical decisions in auditory cognition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pig-brains-and-voices">Pig brains and voices</h2>



Pigs are increasingly used in neuroscience because their brains share organizational features with ours. 



Recent physiology work has mapped clear auditory event-related responses in healthy piglets using scalp EEG, strengthening their value as a model species.&nbsp;



Finding the early voice flag in pigs suggests that this quick detection step is not limited to primates or carnivores. It likely reflects a basic property of mammalian hearing tuned by social life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-roots-of-voice">Evolutionary roots of voice</h2>



The two-step pattern, first voice detection, then same species sorting, makes evolutionary sense. Fast detection buys time to orient toward a biologically relevant sound, then a later pass adds the social label needed to decide how to react.



If distantly related species share both steps, the underlying circuitry likely traces back to a common ancestor. That is consistent with decades of work showing conserved organization for voice and affect processing across mammals.



All recordings relied on cooperative, awake participation. Dogs and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/selective-breeding-has-dramatically-sped-up-the-evolution-of-pigs/">pigs</a> were measured in calm settings, often near their owners, and no training or sedation was required for them to rest while the sensors recorded.



The protocol emphasizes trust and low stress, which improves data quality and respects the welfare of companion animals. The approach also allows direct comparisons with human EEG.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sorting-same-species-voices">Sorting same-species voices</h2>



Same-species voices carry information about identity, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-identify-the-simple-emotion-that-gives-life-meaning-and-its-not-happiness/">emotion</a>, age, and intent. That richer meaning calls for more processing than a quick voice versus non-voice flag.



The later timing suggests a categorical decision process in which the brain checks acoustic features against learned templates for its own kind. 



In humans, that machinery feeds into language, but it operates in social mammals that do not use speech.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-voice-studies">Future of voice studies</h2>



Future studies can add more species and test a wider range of calls to see how acoustic structure shapes the early and late steps. Portable EEG could expand testing into natural settings where animals communicate most.



Combining EEG with imaging can also map the timing onto brain regions, tying the fast electrical signatures to specific circuits. That could clarify how the two steps interact during real world social listening.



Better models of voice processing can guide assistive tech for people with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drugs-may-be-available-to-prevent-hearing-loss/">hearing</a> or language challenges. They can also inform animal welfare by helping us detect stress or need from vocal cues in pets and livestock.



Cross species designs like this one keep us honest about what is uniquely human and what is widely shared. That distinction matters for both neuroscience and ethics.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053811925003581?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NeuroImage</a>.



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Mammals share ancient brain mechanisms for voice recognition

Mammals are not only good at hearing sounds, they are...

Rising temperatures are reshaping life in ways that go far beyond melting ice or shifting habitats. They are reaching into the most intimate biological process of all - how genes are shuffled and passed to the next generation.



New research shows that heat and cold can alter the genetic machinery that produces sperm and eggs in reptiles, even tilting the odds of embryos developing as one sex or the other. These subtle shifts strike at the foundation of fertility and evolutionary change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-temperature-tests-reptile-fertility">Temperature tests reptile fertility</h2>



A team from the <a href="https://www.uab.cat/en/ibb" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona</a> (UAB) tested the effect in a small Madagascan lizard, the Guibé’s ground gecko. The experts tracked recombination - the exchange of DNA between paired chromosomes that fuels genetic diversity.



To measure this, the researchers analyzed 1,169 sperm cells from 12 male geckos kept at six different temperatures for a week. The results revealed a U-shaped response: recombination events rose at both cooler (68°F) and warmer (86°F) conditions compared to a mid-range 82°F.



"Our findings show the presence of hyper-CO spermatocytes in individuals exposed to both high and low temperatures," said Laura González Rodelas, lead author of the study. 



The study also noted shorter chromosome axes and more lingering double-strand breaks at the extremes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-recombination-matters">Why recombination matters</h2>



Crossover events are needed for chromosomes to separate cleanly during meiosis. Too few, or too many in the wrong places, can reduce fertility or alter which gene combinations survive.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/three-new-gecko-species-discovered-after-eight-years-of-searching/">gecko</a> study found that long chromosomes soaked up most of the extra crossovers at hot and cold settings. 



It also detected weaker crossover interference, the spacing rule that normally keeps events apart along the synaptonemal complex.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heat-flips-reptile-chromosomes">Heat flips reptile chromosomes</h2>



Some reptiles go a step further, pairing sex chromosomes with heat and cold cues, which can cause temperature-induced sex reversal under hot incubation.



"This is the first report of reptile sex reversal in the wild," said geneticist Clare Holleley. Her fieldwork on the Australian central bearded dragon reported male to female sex reversal in the wild at high egg temperatures.&nbsp;



Understanding that switch needs high quality genomes that resolve both Z and W sex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/y-chromosome-is-disappearing-may-already-be-causing-problems-for-men/">chromosomes</a>. One study delivered a near telomere to telomere assembly from a female ZW bearded dragon.



Researchers created a complete, high-quality map of the bearded dragon’s genome, covering both of its sex chromosomes. 



The team found that the genome contains about 1.75 billion DNA bases, and they were able to piece together the Z and W chromosomes in full, giving scientists a clearer view of how sex is determined in this species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-reptile-sex-genes">Mapping reptile sex genes</h2>



Having a full <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genome-mapping-completed-for-dozens-of-common-animals/">genome map</a> lets researchers track genes linked to reproduction, growth, and disease. It also provides a baseline for comparing different reptiles and understanding how sex chromosomes evolve over time. 



These insights can help identify which genes respond to environmental stress and which ones remain stable. For conservation, this kind of data can guide breeding programs and population management. 



By knowing the genetic makeup of males and females, scientists can predict how changes in temperature might affect sex ratios in the wild, an issue that becomes more urgent as global warming accelerates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geckos-echo-plant-findings">Geckos echo plant findings</h2>



A plant genetics study showed the same U-shaped recombination response in Arabidopsis, from a low point near 64°F to higher rates at cooler and warmer settings. 



The pattern suggests organisms often keep recombination low in comfortable conditions, then shift upward under stress.



Mechanisms are still being worked out. A yeast paper connects temperature, DNA supercoiling, and weaker interference, offering one plausible route for how heat can ripple through meiotic structure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetics-under-climate-strain">Genetics under climate strain</h2>



These changes land where evolution does its work. When environments move quickly, extra recombination can speed the shuffle of gene combinations that selection can test.



There is a tradeoff. If crossover placement and interference are distorted for long periods, fertility and chromosome stability could suffer in some lineages.



For reptiles that already face <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/top-marine-predators-may-suffer-massive-habitat-loss-by-2100/">habitat loss</a> and pollution, this genetic sensitivity adds a quiet risk. Protecting reptile nesting sites from extreme heat, shading exposed sand, and buffering water temperatures can safeguard early development.



Captive breeding programs can monitor incubation ranges that avoid persistent sex bias. They can also track genetic health when recombination patterns drift from physiological norms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-maps-and-temperature">Genes, maps, and temperature</h2>



The gecko result is not a vague <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-behavior-productivity-being-directly-impacted-by-climate-change/">climate</a> story. It rests on direct cell counts, such as the increase in crossover markers at 68°F and 86°F relative to 82°F.



The bearded dragon work is not only about embryos. It gives a map of the Z and W regions, including candidate sex genes, which anchors future tests of how temperature interacts with sequence.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgen.1011772" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Genetics</a>.



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Extreme heat is scrambling reptile reproduction

Rising temperatures are reshaping life in ways that go far...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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