Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

A new kind of onboard AI gives satellites the power to think for themselves - deciding in under 90 seconds whether a target on Earth is worth capturing. The system is called Dynamic Targeting, and it’s designed to make space-based observations sharper, quicker, and more useful.



This innovation was recently tested by scientists at <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> in Southern California, and the results show real promise.



For the first time, a satellite orbiting Earth was able to look ahead along its flight path, analyze imagery using artificial intelligence, and then redirect its instruments without any input from people on the ground.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-helps-satellites-think-fast">AI helps satellites think fast</h2>



Dynamic Targeting has been in development for over ten years. The core idea is simple: make spacecraft act less like passive cameras and more like quick-thinking observers. 



During a test in July, the system ran on a commercial satellite, with a clear goal - prove that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-first-lunar-earth-flyby-gave-juice-spacecraft-successful-gravity-boost-to-jupiter/">spacecraft</a> can pick better targets on their own.



Instead of just snapping photos of whatever is below, Dynamic Targeting helps satellites avoid common issues like clouds and focus on what matters. 



In the future, the system could even track fast-changing events like wildfires, volcanic eruptions, and intense storms.



“The idea is to make the spacecraft act more like a human: Instead of just seeing data, it’s thinking about what the data shows and how to respond,” said Steve Chien, principal investigator for the Dynamic Targeting project. 



“When a human sees a picture of trees burning, they understand it may indicate a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-fire-smoke-boosts-ocean-life-but-with-a-hidden-cost/">forest fire</a>, not just a collection of red and orange pixels. We’re trying to make the spacecraft have the ability to say, ‘That’s a fire,’ and then focus its sensors on the fire.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teaching-satellites-to-skip-the-clouds">Teaching satellites to skip the clouds</h2>



In its first real-world test, Dynamic Targeting wasn’t looking for fires or storms just yet. Its mission was to dodge something far more ordinary: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clouds-have-become-less-reflective-making-global-warming-worse/">clouds</a>.



For Earth-observing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biomass-satellite-mission-sends-first-images-of-earths-most-extreme-environments/">satellites</a>, clouds are a major obstacle. They block the view up to two-thirds of the time. Most sensors simply collect whatever’s in front of them - even if it’s just cloud cover. That wastes valuable storage and processing time.



Dynamic Targeting changes that. The system allows the satellite to scan 300 miles ahead to check for clear skies. If it sees clouds, the shot is canceled. If the coast is clear, it captures the image as it passes overhead.



“If you can be smart about what you’re taking pictures of, then you only image the ground and skip the clouds. That way, you’re not storing, processing, and downloading all this imagery researchers really can’t use,” said Ben Smith, an associate with NASA’s Earth Science Technology Office.



Smith noted that the technology will help scientists get a much higher proportion of usable data.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-it-works-in-orbit">How it works in orbit</h2>



The latest test flew aboard CogniSAT-6, a compact CubeSat launched in March 2024. It’s built and operated by Open Cosmos and carries a payload from Ubotica featuring an off-the-shelf AI processor. 



The processor was tested earlier on the International Space Station, using similar algorithms.



Because CogniSAT-6 doesn’t have a dedicated forward-facing imager, it tilts forward by 40 to 50 degrees to take a peek ahead. The satellite uses a camera that sees in both visible and near-infrared light.



The onboard AI then analyzes that imagery to find clouds. If the view looks clear, the spacecraft turns back to look straight down and captures the scene below.



The whole cycle - scan, analyze, aim, and shoot - happens while the satellite hurtles through space at 17,000 miles per hour. And it all wraps up in under 90 seconds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-avoiding-clouds-and-targeting-trouble">Avoiding clouds and targeting trouble</h2>



With the cloud-avoidance test complete, the team is already looking at what’s next. Upcoming trials will flip the goal: instead of dodging clouds, the satellite will target them - particularly severe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-can-predict-the-weather-but-what-about-extreme-events/">storm</a> systems. 



Other tests will focus on heat anomalies like volcanic eruptions or active wildfires. Each task will use its own set of tailored algorithms.



“This initial deployment of Dynamic Targeting is a hugely important step,” Chien said. “The end goal is operational use on a science mission, making for a very agile instrument taking novel measurements.”



Ultimately, the technology could be used beyond Earth. The team actually drew inspiration from past work with ESA’s Rosetta orbiter, which proved it was possible to track gas plumes from a comet without waiting for human commands. That same thinking now informs the Dynamic Targeting system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-can-catch-what-we-usually-miss">AI can catch what we usually miss</h2>



Back on Earth, the team is thinking about new applications. One possibility is using radar instead of optical sensors. 



Radar-equipped satellites with Dynamic Targeting could lock onto short-lived weather events like deep convective ice storms - rare and dangerous winter storms that are hard to catch with current systems.



There’s also a bigger vision: satellite teamwork. In one idea, a lead satellite would process images and spot interesting targets. Then it would alert a trailing satellite to zoom in for closer study. 



Eventually, a whole fleet of autonomous satellites could work together, sharing data in real time.



Chien and the team at JPL are already preparing a test of that concept, called Federated Autonomous MEasurement, that is scheduled to begin later this year.



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AI system helps satellites make their own decisions

A new kind of onboard AI gives satellites the power...

Across the eastern United States, tree communities are shifting toward fewer species in a process known as homogenization. A long-term case study now shows how quickly a decline in tree diversity can unfold inside a single Midwestern forest.



The 24-acre Trelease Woods, owned by the <a href="https://illinois.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Illinois</a> since 1917, has been surveyed again and again for almost a century.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-a-century-of-forest-diversity">Tracking a century of forest diversity </h2>



The team mined plot maps, punch-card data, and modern laser measurements to follow every tree wider than 2.5 inches recorded since 1922. During that period, species richness slipped from 23 to 20 as sugar maple and Ohio buckeye seized much of the growing space.



Trelease now forms part of the <a href="https://forestgeo.si.edu/what-forestgeo" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ForestGEO</a> network, which monitors roughly seven million trees representing nearly 13,000 species worldwide. Linking the local census to that global database allows scientists to compare small-scale stories with continental patterns.



Tree <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-trees-protect-their-genetic-diversity-for-millions-of-years/">diversity</a> fell 22 percent overall, and the steepest drop showed up in saplings shorter than five inches across. That decline signals a forest less able to roll with surprise pests, storms, or heat waves.



Average tree diameter shrank by one-fifth as tiny saplings crowded below a still-expanding maple canopy. Yet the three largest trunks on the plot, two bur oaks and a black walnut, grew even larger - showing that veteran giants can coexist with maple expansion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pests-and-declining-tree-diversity">Pests and declining tree diversity </h2>



The invasive emerald ash borer kills more than 99 percent of untreated ash trees and could cost U.S. cities an estimated 900 million dollars over the next three decades. Dutch elm disease, driven by the fungus Ophiostoma novo-ulmi, has already erased most mature American elms in many states.



“Dutch elm disease and the emerald ash borer have significantly decreased the abundance of elm and ash trees in Trelease Woods and across North America,” said Jennifer Fraterrigo, who helped lead the analysis.



When the insects and fungi hollow out elms and ashes, they open holes in the canopy. Shade-loving seedlings waiting below pounce on the new light before slower oaks or hickories can respond.



Ash logs that once shaded summer research crews now lie riddled with larval galleries, their distinct D-shaped exit holes signaling where beetles fled. 



Because ash and elm filled different ecological niches - elm trunks provided shelter for cavity-nesting birds, while ash trees rapidly recycled nutrients - their simultaneous loss intensifies ecosystem disruption.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fires-and-forest-diversity">Fires and forest diversity </h2>



Early last century, federal and state policies pushed to stamp out most woodland <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-aspen-forests-can-help-stop-wildfires-in-their-tracks/">fires</a>, and that retreat of flames helped tip forests toward shade-tolerant, mesic species. 



Ecologists call the feedback loop mesophication, because the stand grows cooler, wetter, and ever friendlier to maples and other moisture-loving trees.



At Trelease, fire scars are absent in modern cross-sections, and the canopy has steadily darkened. That shift leaves oak seedlings gasping for sun while sugar maples prosper under their own shade.



Sapling counts confirm the change: maple stems now outnumber oaks almost ten to one in the smallest size class. Without periodic burns, managers say, the imbalance will only grow.



Researchers elsewhere have shown that just a few carefully timed burns can reverse mesophication, but only if enough oak seedlings remain in the bank. The Trelease dataset hints that the window for that turnaround is closing as maple dominance widens.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deer-change-the-understory">Deer change the understory</h2>



Soaring numbers of white-tailed deer compound the problem by selectively browsing palatable seedlings and suppressing regeneration. Browsed stems stay short, letting shade widen across the forest floor.



Hackberry, basswood, and ash suffer the most nibbles here, while less tasty pawpaw spreads in their place. Those dietary choices accelerate the compositional skid already set in motion by pests and fire exclusion.



Even sugar maple, a deer favorite, persists because enough seedlings dodge grazing to replenish each gap. The result is a patchwork where a few hardy winners dominate every height layer.



Camera traps inside the woodlot now record up to eight deer per square mile, double early-1990s estimates kept by state biologists. Such densities far exceed the one to three deer per square mile many ecologists recommend for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/should-we-cut-down-all-oak-trees-isoprene-emissions-air-pollution-climate-change/">oak</a> regeneration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-tree-species-diversity-matters">Why tree species diversity matters</h2>



Losing species diversity strips away the ecological insurance that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-losing-the-battle-against-climate-change/">forests</a> rely on when drought, disease, or storms strike. Fraterrigo warns that if one species swells to 70 percent of stems, a single new pest could trigger what she calls functional collapse.



Economic stakes are high as well, because mixed stands store more carbon and support more wildlife than single-species blocks. Long-term monitoring like the Trelease census offers early warning before those services vanish.



Tree variety underpins a mosaic of flowering times, leaf chemistries, and root depths that spreads risk the way a smart investor spreads capital. Homogenization erases that portfolio, leaving the system riding on a single economic bet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study">Broader implications of the study</h2>



Researchers suggest thinning dense maple thickets, reintroducing low-intensity burns, and culling deer to rebalance light and browsing pressure. Planting diverse native saplings in canopy gaps can also jump-start forest recovery.



Lessons from Trelease now inform experiments across the ForestGEO network as scientists test which combinations of fire, harvest, and wildlife control restore forest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smarter-forest-design-can-help-fight-climate-change/">resilience</a>. Managers elsewhere may adapt those findings to keep their own woods from sliding into maple monocultures.



Some managers have begun injecting systemic insecticides into lingering ash saplings to preserve genetic stock until biocontrol agents catch up. Others experiment with protective cages around oak seedlings to give them a head start against hungry deer.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725002154?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Century-old forest study reveals troubling decline in tree diversity

Across the eastern United States, tree communities are shifting toward...

Ancient marine fossils from North Greenland have shed light on a major misidentification. A creature once thought to be an early squid relative is not a cephalopod at all. New research shows it is actually linked to arrow worms, or chaetognaths. These creatures swam in Earth's seas more than 500 million years ago.



The study was led by researchers from the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, the Korean Polar Research Institute, and the University of Copenhagen. 



The team examined 25 fossils of a mysterious creature called a nectocaridid. Once believed to be an ancient cephalopod, it had a squid-like shape that puzzled scientists for years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arrow-worm-fossil-found-in-greenland">Arrow worm fossil found in Greenland</h2>



The fossils came from Sirius Passet, a site known for exceptional preservation. Located in North Greenland, this fossil bed holds delicate remains from the Early Cambrian period, around 518 million years ago.



“Sirius Passet is a treasure trove of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frozen-worm-comes-back-to-life-after-46000-years/">fossils</a> from the Cambrian Explosion. We not only find delicate soft-bodied fossils but also their digestive systems, musculature and sometimes even their nervous system,” noted Dr. Jakob Vinther from the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>.



Fifteen years ago, a paper based on Burgess Shale fossils proposed that nectocaridids were cephalopods related to octopuses and squids. That claim confused many in the field.



“It never really made sense to me, as the hypothesis would upend everything we otherwise know about cephalopods, and their anatomy didn’t closely match cephalopods when you looked carefully,” said Dr. Vinther.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nervous-system-holds-the-answer">Nervous system holds the answer</h2>



As more fossils emerged, researchers noticed something unique. Many specimens had their nervous systems preserved in mineral form. This was a key breakthrough.



“We discovered our nectocaridids preserve parts of their nervous system as paired mineralised structures, and that was a giveaway as to where these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-worm-fossil-helps-solve-an-evolutionary-mystery/">animals</a> sit in the tree of life,” said Dr. Vinther.



Soon after, the team found fossils of arrow worms, which helped solve the mystery. One clear feature made the connection possible: the ventral ganglion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ganglion-links-to-arrow-worm-fossil">Ganglion links to arrow worm fossil</h2>



This ventral ganglion is a nerve mass found on the underside of living arrow worms. It is unique to their group and sometimes gets replaced with phosphate minerals during decay, making it fossilize well.



“These fossils all preserve a unique feature, distinct for arrow worms, called the ventral ganglion,” noted Dr. Tae-Yoon Park from the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Institute</a>.



That discovery gave the team the final clue they needed. “We now had a smoking gun to resolve the nectocaridid controversy. Nectocaridids share a number of features with some of the other fossils that also belong to the arrow worm stem lineage,” said Park.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arrow-worm-fossil-only-looked-like-squid">Arrow worm fossil only looked like squid</h2>



Despite their similarity to squids, nectocaridids were not related. Their streamlined shape was simply an adaptation to swimming. 



“Many of these features are superficially squid-like and reflect simple adaptations to an active swimming mode of life in invertebrates, just like whales and ancient marine reptiles end up looking like fish when they evolve such a mode of life,” Park explained.



This means evolution shaped their bodies for speed and stealth, and similarities with squids were not due to a shared ancestor or genetic heritage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eyes-antennae-and-stealth">Eyes, antennae, and stealth</h2>



One of their most remarkable features is their eyes. These ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worm-dna-is-changing-how-we-understand-evolution/">creatures</a> had complex eyes whereas today’s arrow worms can barely detect light direction.



“Nectocaridids have complex camera eyes just like ours. Living arrow worms can hardly form an image beyond working out roughly where the sun shines,” said Dr. Vinther. 



“Our fossils can be much bigger than a typical living arrow worm and, combined with their swimming apparatus, eyes and long antennae, they must have been formidable and stealthy predators."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evidence-of-carnivorous-diet">Evidence of carnivorous diet</h2>



The team found direct proof of their predatory nature. Some fossils had remains of Isoxys, a type of swimming arthropod, in their digestive tracts. This shows they hunted and consumed other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-worms-feasted-on-the-bones-of-giant-marine-animals/">marine animals</a>.



The new species has been named&nbsp;Nektognathus evasmithae. It honors Professor Eva Smith, Denmark’s first female law professor and a defender of human rights.



“My decision to name our fossil after Eva, is that this animal was a smart and stealthy fighter just like she is,” Dr. Vinther concluded.



Ultimately, this discovery changes our view of early marine food webs and the evolution of modern sea predators.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adu6990">Science Advances</a>.



Image Credit: Bob Nicholls



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Ancient 'squid' turned out to be something else entirely

Ancient marine fossils from North Greenland have shed light on...

Plastic bottles and caps clutter beaches up and down Latin America's Pacific coast. Most of them aren’t foreign - they’re local. And the bottles can often be traced back to three big names in the beverage industry: The Coca-Cola Company, Aje Group, and PepsiCo.



The coastlines hit hardest by this plastic waste are in Central America. That’s likely because of how common single-use bottles are, combined with poor waste infrastructure and the push of ocean currents. 



Meanwhile, island beaches - like those on the Galápagos and Rapa Nui - tend to collect more bottles from Asia, possibly dumped at sea and carried long distances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-trail-of-plastic-along-the-pacific">A trail of plastic along the Pacific</h2>



The findings come from a major study led by researchers at the <a href="https://web.ub.edu/en/home">University of Barcelona</a>. Their work covered more than 12,000 kilometers of Pacific coastline, spanning from Mexico to Chile. 



The research is the first regional effort of its kind, mapping <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bottled-water-has-become-a-global-scourge-wreaking-environmental-havoc/">plastic bottle pollution</a> across 10 Latin American countries. The team studied 92 mainland beaches, 15 island beaches, and 38 coastal communities.



This wasn’t just a lab project. It was a massive collaboration. Between 2023 and 2024, more than 1,000 volunteers and 200 local leaders helped collect samples, making this a landmark example of citizen science in action.



The data shows a clear pattern. Most bottles were found in mainland urban areas, while island beaches often had older items, sometimes dating back over two decades. 



The oldest samples included a Powerade® bottle from 2001 found in Peru, and a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coca-cola-may-dump-1-3b-pounds-plastic-into-oceans-by-2030/">Coca-Cola</a>® bottle from 2002 on a Chilean island.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-bottle-labels-reveal">What bottle labels reveal</h2>



By reading the labels and engravings on bottles and caps, scientists were able to figure out where each item came from and how long it had been floating around.



Study co-author Miquel Canals is a professor in the Department of Earth and Ocean Dynamics.



“In addition to the great value of citizen science, a particularly remarkable element of the work carried out is the intelligent use of the information contained in the bottles and their caps (labels, engravings) to obtain key information about the manufacturer, and the date and place of manufacture, among others,” said Professor Canals. 



“This allowed us to identify the sources of this contamination and the route taken by individual items until they reach the beach or town where they were collected.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-the-plastic-bottles">Identifying the plastic bottles</h2>



Out of all the bottles collected, 59% were produced in Latin American Pacific countries. The most common types were for soft drinks, water, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/energy-drinks-linked-to-insomnia-among-college-students/">energy drinks</a> - most of them single-use and single-serve. 



In urban areas and on mainland beaches, 54.9% of the bottles were found without caps. On island beaches, 73.4% still had their caps attached. 



Researchers identified 356 brands from 253 companies, with The Coca-Cola Company, Aje Group, and PepsiCo appearing most frequently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-the-plastic-comes-from">Where the plastic comes from</h2>



While most bottles were locally produced, some came from farther away. A small but telling share were from Asia (1.8%), North America (0.3%), and Europe (0.04%). In nearly 39% of cases, the origin could not be determined.



“On the mainland beaches of Mexico, Guatemala and the southern countries - Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Chile - most of the bottles came from the same country," noted the researchers.



"In contrast, in the Central American countries - El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama - the percentages of locally sourced items were significantly lower, with those of external origin predominating."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plastic-diversity-hotspots">Plastic diversity hotspots</h2>



Panama turned out to be a hotspot for diversity in plastic waste, with bottles coming from at least six different regions. 



On the islands, the situation shifted. Just 42.4% of bottles were from Latin America, and a large portion came from Asia.



“The distribution of bottle origins is not random, but geographically structured, with a predominance of specific countries of origin in specific environments and sub-regions, and also in specific countries, of course,” noted the study authors. 



“This trend would reflect the consumption habits, waste management practices (where they exist) and oceanographic transport processes that influence the distribution of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastics-supercharge-toxin-absorption-in-plants-and-humans/">plastic pollutants</a>.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-plastic-becomes-habitat">When plastic becomes habitat</h2>



Plastic bottles don’t just float. Some become temporary homes for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/is-it-still-possible-to-save-the-ocean-from-plastic-pollution/">marine</a> organisms. Scientists found these “epibionts” - tiny creatures clinging to the plastic - on nearly 9% of bottles. 



The organisms showed up most often on mainland beaches in Central America. That supports the idea that some of this plastic arrives via ocean currents after spending time adrift.



Study lead author Ostin Garcés-Ordóñez is a member of the UB’s Consolidated Research Group in Marine Geosciences and the University of La Guajira.



“These findings point to a spatial pattern in the age of the items: the most recent ones predominate in human settlements, while the oldest ones are found on beaches, especially on the beaches of oceanic islands,” said Garcés-Ordóñez.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turning-beach-waste-into-policy-action">Turning beach waste into policy action</h2>



Tackling this issue isn’t just about cleaning up beaches. The study calls for better local waste management and pressure on companies to move toward reusable packaging.



“In the future, we want to analyze the impact of seasonal climatic variations, river inputs and tourist activity on the dynamics of plastic bottle and cap pollution on coasts and in coastal cities," said the researchers.



"Oceanographic modeling could also be integrated to track the transport trajectories of plastic litter in the ocean and thus identify distant sources of pollution."



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0959652625015847">Journal of Cleaner Production</a>.



Image Credit: Ostin Garcés



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Plastic bottles reveal the companies behind a Pacific litter crisis

Plastic bottles and caps clutter beaches up and down Latin...

The oceans did not behave normally in 2023. They got too hot, stayed hot too long, and covered almost the entire planet with heat. It wasn’t just a spike in temperature. Scientists think this might be the start of something bigger - a change in how Earth’s climate works.



A new study reveals that the marine heatwaves (MHWs) of 2023 broke every known <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-oceans-are-rapidly-changing-colors-matching-climate-predictions/">record</a>. These heatwaves were stronger, lasted longer, and stretched across more ocean than ever before. It wasn’t one event. It was many, overlapping and spreading.



Marine heatwaves aren’t just warm patches in the sea. They are prolonged, intense spikes in sea temperature that can linger for months. And their impact is devastating - killing coral, driving fish away, and disrupting entire fisheries. 



Fueled by human-driven climate change, these events are becoming more frequent and more severe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oceans-signal-major-climate-change">Oceans signal major climate change</h2>



According to the study, 96% of the global ocean surface experienced heatwave conditions. Regions like the North Atlantic, North Pacific, Tropical Pacific, and Southwest Pacific endured the worst of it. Together, they made up 90% of the abnormal ocean <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-oceans-day-2025-sustaining-what-sustains-us/">heating</a>.



The North Atlantic heatwave stretched on for 525 days, beginning in mid-2022 and refusing to let up. Meanwhile, the Southwest Pacific experienced a marine heatwave so vast and prolonged, it shattered previous records.



Then came the El Niño in the Tropical Eastern Pacific. Ocean temperatures there peaked at 1.63 degrees Celsius above average. For marine life, that kind of heat isn’t a small deal. It changes everything. Movement, breeding, survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-caused-the-marine-heatwaves">What caused the marine heatwaves?</h2>



A team led by Tianyun Dong analyzed satellite data and high-resolution models like ECCO2 to conduct a global analysis. They used a technique to track how heat moved through the ocean’s top <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-last-ocean-crisis-wiped-out-coral-reefs-will-it-happen-again/">layers</a>.



The researchers found several causes for the 2023 marine heatwaves. In some areas, there was less cloud cover, allowing more sunlight to hit the water. Elsewhere, weaker winds led to less mixing, causing warm water to stagnate.



Ocean currents also shifted from their usual patterns, further contributing to the buildup of heat.



Different places had different triggers. But they all added up to the same thing - oceans that stayed hot far too long.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signs-of-a-climate-tipping-point">Signs of a climate tipping point</h2>



"The 2023 MHWs may mark a fundamental shift in ocean-atmosphere dynamics, potentially serving as an early warning of an approaching tipping point in Earth’s climate system,” wrote the study authors.



A climate tipping point means crossing a threshold where the system can’t recover on its own. For the oceans, that could lead to more frequent heatwaves, collapsing food webs, and dwindling fish populations. 



And the impact won’t stay confined to the sea. Warmer oceans hold less oxygen, disrupt the exchange of heat and moisture with the atmosphere, and help drive extreme weather - affecting everything from storms and rainfall to droughts on land.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intensifying-impacts-of-a-warm-climate">Intensifying impacts of a warm climate </h2>



The extreme marine heatwaves of 2023 did not provide closure. They opened a floodgate of questions. 



According to the researchers, the 2023 events highlight the intensifying impacts of a warm climate and the challenges in understanding extreme events.



Scientists now face the urgent task of monitoring how often these events occur, how they evolve over time, and whether they’re becoming harder to reverse.



The current tools are not enough. They need higher-resolution data, faster processing, and models that can better predict these complex changes across different regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tipping-point-for-the-climate">A tipping point for the climate</h2>



Policymakers, too, have work to do. They need access to clearer forecasts, localized ocean temperature warnings, and stronger coordination with climate scientists. Decision-making must move faster. 



Communities, especially those in coastal areas, cannot afford to wait. They must prepare for more frequent disruptions to fisheries, tourism, and marine ecosystems.



The ocean has long shielded us, absorbing more than 90% of the excess heat from global warming. But that protection isn’t limitless. In 2023, the ocean began to show the consequences of being pushed beyond its breaking point.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adr0910" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Overheating oceans: Have we reached a climate tipping point?

The oceans did not behave normally in 2023. They got...

The "Iguanas from Above" project brought together nearly 14,000 volunteers to count endangered Galapagos marine iguanas. These reptiles, found only in the Galapagos Islands, are facing many threats. Counting them from the ground is difficult due to the inaccessible terrain.



To overcome this, researchers at <a href="https://www.uni-leipzig.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leipzig University</a> launched a drone-based survey. They then invited the public to analyze these aerial images online. 



“This expands the role of citizen science, provides significant support for researchers, and offers a valuable opportunity to actively engage people in conservation topics,” noted Dr. Amy MacLeod, who leads the campaign.



This effort resulted in more than 1.3 million classifications across nearly 58,000 images. Each image was reviewed up to 30 times. The goal was not just participation but reliable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/iguanas-traveled-5000-miles-from-north-america-to-fiji/">population</a> estimates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-best-methods-for-counting-iguanas">Best methods for counting iguanas</h2>



To ensure reliability, scientists compared volunteer results with expert evaluations. A gold standard dataset of 4,345 images served as the benchmark. 



Volunteers achieved 68-94% detection accuracy. They were more likely to miss iguanas than to add extra individuals by mistake.



Rather than use a majority vote, the team applied a minimum threshold method. If five or more volunteers agreed on iguana presence, the count was accepted. This method improved accuracy, especially when images were complex or crowded.



Clustering methods, especially HDBSCAN, performed best for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-reptiles-are-more-colorful-in-open-habitats/">counting</a> iguanas. It grouped volunteer marks to identify individual iguanas more reliably than other approaches.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-accuracy-of-volunteer-counts">Accuracy of volunteer counts</h2>



The success of volunteer counts depended heavily on image quality. During the first project phase, drone images had poor focus and lighting. 



These issues led to frequent undercounting. Later phases used clearer images, which resulted in higher accuracy.



Volunteers had trouble distinguishing iguanas from dark volcanic rocks. This was especially true for small or well-camouflaged iguanas. When image quality was high, count differences between volunteers and experts narrowed considerably.



Even with better images, undercounting remained common. Researchers found that when many iguanas were in a single frame, volunteers often reported fewer than were actually there.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-made-people-join-or-quit">What made people join or quit</h2>



Not all volunteers contributed equally. Most submitted fewer than 50 classifications. But a small group, known as “super volunteers,” completed thousands. Some volunteers preferred staying anonymous, yet still showed high dedication.



Feedback from surveys revealed what discouraged participants. Blank images - photos without any iguanas - reduced motivation. Blurred images and difficult terrain also caused fatigue. Repetition made the task less engaging for some users.



Still, the volunteers’ dedication proved strong. One contributor analyzed every image in all three phases. Many were driven by the desire to help science rather than by any external rewards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-are-the-iguana-counts-reliable">Are the iguana counts reliable?</h2>



The research team tested whether removing inputs from anonymous or inexperienced users would improve results. They found it reduced the number of useful classifications and sometimes harmed accuracy.



While using more classifiers per image might seem helpful, it did not always increase reliability. The key was balancing quantity with quality and giving more weight to the counts of skilled participants.



The HDBSCAN method gave the most consistent results. It required fewer assumptions and handled spatial data better. It also offered a base for future machine learning models that could automate parts of the work.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-toward-a-smarter-monitoring-system">Toward a smarter monitoring system</h2>



This project confirms that volunteers can help count iguanas, but still tend to undercount. The team plans to apply correction factors for future population estimates. They aim to use the data to update the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN Red List</a> and improve conservation plans.



They are also testing whether volunteers can identify reproductive behaviors, such as males in breeding colors or lekking sites. These insights could enrich understanding of marine iguana ecology.



Moving forward, the researchers will integrate machine learning into the workflow. AI models will be trained using volunteer data. These tools may help detect iguanas and filter out empty images. The hope is to create a semi-automated pipeline for faster and cheaper monitoring.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wider-impacts-and-future-vision">Wider impacts and future vision</h2>



This method could apply to other hard-to-monitor species in remote areas. Online platforms like <a href="https://www.zooniverse.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zooniverse</a> show that people worldwide are eager to help <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-we-see-some-animals-as-more-human-than-others/">conservation</a> science.



The combination of drone surveys and crowdsourced analysis can reshape how we approach large-scale wildlife monitoring. According to the researchers, if experts alone had analyzed the images, it would have taken decades.



Now, with volunteer help and upcoming AI tools, they aim to complete a full population survey of the Galapagos marine iguana by 2026. The project is still live, and anyone can join to help protect this unique species.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-08381-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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People around the world are helping save Galapagos iguanas

The "Iguanas from Above" project brought together nearly 14,000 volunteers...

Hawaiian field crickets once relied on their mating calls to attract partners. Over recent decades, most males have lost this ability due to a mutation called “flatwing." The mutation changed the wing shape of males, silencing their songs. 



While this adaptation has helped the male crickets avoid a deadly parasitoid fly, the change has also reshaped their social interactions.



Previous research was focused on how the flatwing mutation affected male-male or male-female <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parasitic-crickets-hide-in-ant-colonies-without-being-caught/">dynamics</a>. But recently, attention has shifted to the less studied space of female-female interaction. 



A new study published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2025.1007" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</a> explores what happens between females when song disappears.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interactions-of-female-crickets">Interactions of female crickets </h2>



In animal behavior studies, researchers often focus on male competition or female mate choice. In non-social insects like crickets, female-female interactions have long been overlooked. 



Yet these interactions can influence mating patterns, reproductive strategies, and even evolutionary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/many-juvenile-crickets-cannot-survive-the-strain-of-human-noise/">outcomes</a>. The new research highlights how females engage in social behavior beyond direct reproduction. 



Females in many species assess competitors, monitor social status, or respond to environmental cues. These patterns are complex and not limited to higher animals like primates or ants.



Crickets, although not social in the traditional sense, offer many opportunities for female interaction. Females often gather around calling males. This can lead to chance encounters, competition, or cooperation - depending on the context.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flatwing-affects-female-crickets-too">Flatwing affects female crickets too</h2>



The flatwing mutation only alters male wings but still influences females carrying it. Female carriers show changes in gene expression and physical condition. This suggests the mutation could influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/future-of-farming-insect-waste-reshapes-soil-health/">social behavior</a> indirectly.



The researchers, including study lead author Ana Drago, designed an experiment to explore this idea. They used pure-breeding lines of flatwing and normal-wing females. 



Pairs were matched or mismatched by genotype and observed under two conditions: presence or absence of male song.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-female-crickets-and-antennal-contact">Female crickets and antennal contact</h2>



Among all behaviors recorded, antennal contact was the most frequent. This gentle, investigative interaction involves using antennae to explore another cricket’s body. Females did this more often and for longer when male song was playing.



This pattern held even stronger when both females shared the same genotype. Flatwing pairs, in particular, showed a sharp rise in interaction under song. This suggests that both environmental and genetic factors shape social behavior.



"Intrasexual female social behavior was common, expressed by 86.5% of individuals. Females primarily engaged in antennal contact, which is reasonable to interpret as detection and assessment behavior," noted the study authors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-in-cricket-behavior">Changes in cricket behavior</h2>



Calling song is a key environmental signal. It can trigger phonotaxis (movement toward sound) and may raise general alertness. In the experiment, exposure to song led females to become more socially active.



This was not just a passive result of increased movement. Females maintained contact for longer durations, suggesting something more than mate search.



These interactions might help assess the partner’s condition or status. Chemical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-are-still-disappearing-and-there-are-hundreds-of-reasons-why/">cues</a>, such as cuticular hydrocarbons (CHCs), could play a role here. CHCs provide information about maturity, health, and mating history in many insect species.



CHC profiles in T. oceanicus are sexually dimorphic. Females may use them to determine the sex and fitness of another individual. If song primes females to expect mates nearby, it makes sense they would increase social investigation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biting-and-mounting-are-rare">Biting and mounting are rare</h2>



Biting, a form of aggression, occurred in about 13% of female crickets. Song made biting more likely but did not increase its frequency. This suggests females escalate rarely, possibly only after extended interaction. 



Unlike males, females did not show pre-bite displays. They targeted legs and abdomens rather than heads.



Sexual behavior among two females was even rarer. Only two mounting attempts occurred, both under song and between same-genotype pairs. One was accepted. 



The low frequency may reflect the female’s stronger sex recognition or a lack of behavioral overlap with male courtship.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-and-song-shape-interaction">Genes and song shape interaction</h2>



The researchers also investigated indirect genetic effects and genotype-by-environment interactions - situations where one individual’s genetic makeup influences the behavior of another. 



In pairs with the flatwing genotype exposed to song, female behavior showed greater variability, indicating this genotype may be more socially sensitive.



This aligns with previous research showing increased plasticity in flatwing males. The song environment interacted with both the focal and partner genotype. Together, these shaped how much and how long females interacted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-female-crickets-affect-male-success">Female crickets affect male success</h2>



Flatwing males avoid parasitism by staying silent. But their success depends on female choice. If <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-dominance-in-primates-is-more-common-than-we-thought/">female behavior</a> changes based on genotype and social context, it may affect male survival indirectly.



"The reproductive success of flatwing males is inherently tied to female mate choice, which has been suggested to potentially be a stronger factor than flatwing satellite behavior in reducing parasitism risk," explained the researchers.



"It is therefore possible that female-female social behaviors indirectly influence parasitism risk, though this requires further study."



In dense populations, where female encounters are more frequent, these patterns could have a major impact. 



The silence that protects males may also reduce the social complexity among females, reshaping communication and competition across generations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-even-silent-crickets-stay-social">Even silent crickets stay social</h2>



Crickets may be quieter today, but their social worlds are not silent. Female-female cricket interactions, once ignored, now offer clues to how evolution plays out in subtle, indirect ways. 



By exploring these relationships, researchers uncover how behavior, genetics, and environment blend to shape even the smallest creatures’ lives.



"The results of this study urge that future research pays due attention to any sex that may be understudied in a given system. This is crucial to uncover intrasexual social, sexual and aggressive behaviors that may subsequently affect intersexual dynamics," concluded the researchers.



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When male crickets go silent: How females adapt and respond

Hawaiian field crickets once relied on their mating calls to...

The air we breathe may do more than harm our lungs - it could also be quietly raising our risk of dementia.



A global analysis of data from nearly 30 million people suggests that air pollution - particularly from vehicle exhaust - significantly increases the risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-blood-test-can-track-the-progression-of-alzheimers/">Alzheimer’s</a> and vascular dementia.



Dementia currently affects over 57 million people. The number is projected to rise to almost 153 million by 2050. Although some areas such as Europe and North America are witnessing minor declines in prevalence, the global view is much less reassuring.



Researchers from the University of Cambridge’s <a href="https://www.mrc-epid.cam.ac.uk/">Medical Research Council Epidemiology Unit</a> took a closer look at the connection between pollution and dementia. 



By combining results from 51 studies conducted across several continents - 34 of which qualified for meta-analysis - the experts were able to draw on a larger and more dependable data pool.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-which-pollutants-raise-dementia-risk">Which pollutants raise dementia risk?</h2>



The analysis focused on three major air pollutants: PM2.5, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reducing-nitrogen-oxide-pollution-could-boost-crop-yields/">nitrogen dioxide</a> (NO₂), and soot. 



PM2.5, or fine particulate matter, consists of tiny particles small enough to reach deep into the lungs. These particles are generated by sources such as vehicle exhaust, industrial processes, wood burning, and construction dust.



Nitrogen dioxide, a byproduct of burning fossil fuels, is commonly found in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vehicle-emissions-are-the-biggest-source-of-ammonia-pollution/">vehicle emissions</a> - especially from diesel engines. This gas is known to worsen asthma and reduce lung function.



Soot comes from sources like diesel exhaust and wood fires. It not only harms the environment but can also reach deep into the lungs, contributing to respiratory and heart problems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-air-pollution-s-role-in-dementia">Air pollution’s role in dementia</h2>



The findings were clear: for every 10 micrograms per cubic meter (μg/m³) increase in PM2.5, the relative risk of developing dementia rose by 17 percent. For the same increase in NO₂, the risk increased by three percent. 



For each 1 μg/m³ rise in soot, the relative dementia risk rose by 13 percent. To put that in context, in 2023, the average roadside PM2.5 level in Central London was 10 μg/m³ - the same amount linked to a 17% higher dementia risk. 



London’s average NO₂ level stood at 33 μg/m³. Roadside soot levels were 0.93 μg/m³ in London, 1.51 μg/m³ in Birmingham, and 0.65 μg/m³ in Glasgow.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tackling-air-pollution-for-public-health">Tackling air pollution for public health</h2>



“Epidemiological evidence plays a crucial role in allowing us to determine whether or not air pollution increases the risk of dementia and by how much,” said Dr. Haneen Khreis. 



“Our work provides further evidence to support the observation that long-term exposure to outdoor air pollution is a risk factor for the onset of dementia in previously healthy adults."



According to Dr. Khreis, tackling air pollution can deliver long-term health, social, climate, and economic benefits. "It can reduce the immense burden on patients, families, and caregivers, while easing pressure on overstretched healthcare systems.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-does-air-pollution-affect-the-brain">How does air pollution affect the brain?</h2>



The health impacts appear to go beyond just Alzheimer’s. The researchers found the association between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/millions-of-people-die-from-air-pollution-each-year-yet-theres-still-a-lack-of-monitoring/">air pollution</a> and dementia was slightly stronger for vascular dementia, which is caused by reduced blood flow to the brain. 



Around 180,000 people in the UK alone are affected by this type of dementia.



How does air pollution impact the brain? Researchers have identified several possible mechanisms.



The most widely supported theories involve inflammation and oxidative stress - both of which can damage cells, proteins, and even DNA. These processes are already linked to other chronic diseases. 



Pollutants may enter the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-air-pollution-impacts-brain-health/">brain</a> directly, or indirectly via the bloodstream, after first affecting the lungs or heart. Once in the brain, they can trigger the kind of inflammation known to contribute to dementia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-equity-gap-in-air-pollution-studies">Equity gap in air pollution studies</h2>



The review also highlighted a gap in the current research: most of the studies were conducted in high-income countries and focused on predominantly white populations. 



This matters because marginalized communities often face higher exposure to pollution, yet they remain underrepresented in research.



“Efforts to reduce exposure to these key <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cutting-super-pollutants-could-quickly-cool-the-planet/">pollutants</a> are likely to help reduce the burden of dementia on society,” said study co-first author Clare Rogowski. 



“Stricter limits for several pollutants are likely to be necessary targeting major contributors such as the transport and industry sectors. Given the extent of air pollution, there is an urgent need for regional, national, and international policy interventions to combat air pollution equitably.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-fixes-to-fight-dementia">Environmental fixes to fight dementia</h2>



The team argues that solutions can’t just come from doctors or healthcare workers. Urban design, environmental policy, and transportation planning all play a role.



“These findings underscore the need for an interdisciplinary approach to dementia prevention,” said Dr. Christiaan Bredell. 



“Preventing dementia is not just the responsibility of healthcare: this study strengthens the case that urban planning, transport policy, and environmental regulation all have a significant role to play.”



The message is clear: reducing air pollution isn't just a public health priority - it’s a critical step toward protecting brain health on a global scale.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanplh/article/PIIS2542-5196(25)00118-4/fulltext">The Lancet Planetary Health</a>.



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Air pollution confirmed as a major risk factor for dementia

The air we breathe may do more than harm our...

New satellite data reveals a troubling truth: since 2002, Earth’s continents are drying rapidly. This is not a temporary drought but a global reconfiguration of freshwater balance. Climate change, groundwater misuse, and long droughts have driven this shift.



A study led by <a href="https://www.asu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arizona State University</a> highlights four massive “mega-drying” zones in the Northern Hemisphere. The researchers analyzed over 22 years of data from the GRACE and GRACE-FO satellites.



They found that these drying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-only-has-six-continents-not-seven-tectonic-plates-under-iceland-study/">regions</a> are expanding by about 831,600 km² [321,000 sq mi] each year. That is roughly twice California’s size.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-groundwater-loss-and-drying-continents">Groundwater loss and drying continents</h2>



The study found a major imbalance. Dry zones are drying faster than wet zones are gaining water. Since 2014, dry extremes have surged, rising one million square miles per year in non-glaciated areas. This points to a major climate-driven tipping point linked to mega El Niño events.



About 75% of humanity, over 6 billion people, live in 101 countries that have lost freshwater since 2002. This overlap of population growth and freshwater <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/claim-earth-has-six-continents-not-seven-north-america-europe-connected/">decline</a> threatens global stability.



Groundwater accounts for 68% of the total land-based water loss. In drying regions, it now contributes more to sea level rise than Greenland’s glaciers. Surface <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-confirm-the-location-of-earths-missing-eighth-continent-zealandia/">water</a> (18%), soil moisture (9%), and snow water (5%) follow behind.



“These findings send perhaps the most alarming message yet about the impact of climate change on our water resources,” said Jay Famiglietti. “Continents are drying, freshwater availability is shrinking, and sea level rise is accelerating.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-four-huge-regions-are-drying">Four huge regions are drying</h2>



The study outlines four interconnected drying belts that now form vast, expanding zones of water loss across the Northern Hemisphere. In Northern Canada and Alaska, terrestrial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-ocean-animals-connect-countries-and-continents/">water</a> storage is declining at a rate of −0.34 inches per year, excluding glaciers.



Northern Russia follows with a drop of −0.16 inches per year, driven by permafrost thaw and ongoing droughts. Southwestern North America and Central America show a combined decline of −0.30 inches per year, affecting major urban centers like Las Vegas, Los Angeles, and Mexico City.



The most severely impacted is the MENA and Pan Eurasia region, where the Ganges-Brahmaputra Basin is losing −0.43 inches per year, and the Caspian and Aral Seas show an even steeper decline of −1.18 inches per year. What were once isolated hotspots have now merged into broad, continental-scale drying belts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dry-continents-are-raising-sea-levels">Dry continents are raising sea levels</h2>



Before 2014, most extreme drying occurred in the Southern Hemisphere. After 2014, the trend reversed. Most dry extremes now occur in the North and last longer. This flip aligns with the strongest El Niño event on record.



While wet regions have shrunk, the tropics remain the exception. Wetting continues near the equator but less than expected by IPCC climate models.



The land now contributes 44% of mass-driven sea level rise. This is more than Greenland or Antarctica. The annual contribution from drying non-glaciated land regions is 0.04 inches in sea level equivalent. Groundwater alone contributes 68% of that.



These changes are long-lasting. Over 62% of drying areas show trends persistent across 22 years. In contrast, many wetting trends are less robust and driven by temporary wet events.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-lost-faster-than-it-can-be-replaced">Water lost faster than it can be replaced</h2>



Regions already facing water stress, like the Indus Basin, North China Plain, and Central Valley, now experience 10% or more annual water loss compared to their renewable supply. Half of the world’s major aquifers are depleting fast.



Groundwater systems are like ancient trust funds. Once drained, they cannot be restored in human timeframes.



"It is striking how much non-renewable water we are losing," said Hrishikesh A. Chandanpurkar, lead author of the study and a research scientist at ASU.



"Glaciers and deep groundwater are sort of ancient trust funds. Instead of using them only in times of need such as a prolonged drought, we are taking them for granted. Also, we are not trying to replenish the groundwater systems during wet years and thus edging towards an imminent freshwater bankruptcy."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-global-wake-up-call">A global wake-up call</h2>



Famiglietti warns that continuing this path will undermine food and water security for billions. But there is a path forward.



“This research matters. It clearly shows that we urgently need new policies and groundwater management strategies on a global scale,” noted Famiglietti.



Urgent actions must focus on reducing groundwater overuse, boosting recharge, and protecting aquifers. Coordinated international efforts could slow drying and reduce sea level rise.



The findings from this study will inform an upcoming World Bank report on the water crisis. It will offer practical solutions to governments facing water scarcity.



Until then, the message is clear. Earth’s continents are drying. Water is vanishing faster than nature can replace it. The time to act is now.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adx0298" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Vanishing freshwater: Earth's continents are rapidly drying out

New satellite data reveals a troubling truth: since 2002, Earth’s...

Female gorillas adjust their aggression depending on their needs and group structure. This finding comes from a 25-year-long study by Nikolaos Smit and Martha Robbins. 



The research shows that female gorillas use simple but flexible rules, called aggression heuristics, based on risk and social dynamics.



"Animals that live in groups often compete for access to resources such as food and mates. The potential costs of this competition can drive the formation of hierarchies that determine priority of access to resources without superfluous conflicts," wrote the study authors. 



"Accordingly, individuals may choose strategically who they compete with, in order to minimize costs and maximize gains."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pregnant-gorillas-take-more-risks">Pregnant gorillas take more risks</h2>



The study includes data from five wild gorilla <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gorillas-are-digging-for-a-surprising-food-in-the-jungle-soil/">groups</a> across Gabon and Uganda. The researchers found that most aggression comes from higher-ranking females targeting those just below them. However, 42% of aggression was aimed upward, toward more powerful females.



"Aggression, a proxy for competition, tends to increase when resources are limited and is usually directed toward lower-ranking individuals but can vary toward groupmates of different ranks, and variation is observed even within species," said lead author Nikos Smit from the <a href="https://www.utu.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Turku</a>.



Pregnant and lactating females showed more aggression toward higher-ranking groupmates. Among them, females in their third trimester took the most risk. These reproductive states require more energy, which may drive these females to act more boldly, especially when food is scarce.



Interestingly, lactating females, despite higher <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-gorillas-get-sick-from-being-too-social/">energy needs</a>, were less aggressive toward powerful rivals than pregnant ones. This may reflect caution to protect their infants from retaliation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gorilla-aggression-and-risky-behaviors">Gorilla aggression and risky behaviors </h2>



Group makeup plays a big role in aggression direction. Female gorillas living in groups with more adult males tended to direct aggression toward more dominant females. This might be because male presence offers a protective buffer and reduces retaliation risks.



In contrast, in groups with more females, aggression was usually aimed downward. With more competition, females might prefer safer confrontations with weaker individuals.



These results show how gorillas balance risk and reward. "Overall, our results confirm that an individual's circumstantial needs and their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-endangered-primate-species-identified-in-new-report/">social</a> environment may influence individual decisions to engage in more risky behaviors such as aggression toward more powerful groupmates," said study senior author Martha Robbins.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-weak-gorillas-use-light-aggression">Weak gorillas use light aggression</h2>



The researchers analyzed 6,871 aggressive interactions. Mild forms of aggression, such as vocalizations or vegetation pulling, were more common in upward aggression. Severe aggression, such as hitting or biting, was less frequent but present across the board.



The team quantified each aggressive act using a score. This score measured the difference in rank between the aggressor and the target. A high positive score meant a low-ranking female attacked a high-ranking one. A negative score meant aggression went down the hierarchy.



Mild aggression had higher average scores. This shows females prefer safer, non-escalating tactics when confronting stronger groupmates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gorillas-adjust-aggression-to-the-situation">Gorillas adjust aggression to the situation</h2>



This study reveals that female gorillas follow simple rules when managing conflict. These rules change with the number of males and females in the group, reproductive status, and other social factors.



The authors highlight that such flexible aggression strategies may not just apply to gorillas. Other species, including humans, may also shift behavior based on risk, reward, and group dynamics.



Their work adds to growing evidence showing that social animals, like gorillas, make strategic decisions. They do not just follow fixed species-wide instincts. Instead, they adapt based on the challenges they face.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-research-transparency-and-broader-impact">Research transparency and broader impact</h2>



This study not only opens new questions about the evolution of social rules in primates but also makes its <a href="https://gitlab.com/nksmt/GorillaHeuristics" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">data and code</a> public.



Funded by <a href="https://www.mpg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Society</a> and several global conservation groups, this research highlights how long-term behavioral monitoring helps us understand animal societies and perhaps our own.



"Our study provides critical insights into the evolution of competitive behavior, showing that aggression heuristics, the simple rules that animals use to guide their aggressive interactions, are not simply species-specific but also dependent on the conditions that populations and individuals experience," noted the researchers.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/reviewed-preprints/107093v2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eLife</a>.



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Gorillas adjust their aggression based on risk and reward

Female gorillas adjust their aggression depending on their needs and...

The Moon faces a constant spray of charged particles from the Sun, yet it keeps a whisper thin envelope of atoms swirling above its dusty plains. 



Two rival explanations, blasts from micrometeorites and the steady pickoff from the solar wind, have battled for decades.



New experiments with Apollo 16 samples now show that sunlight’s particle stream is far less efficient at stripping atoms than assumed, reshaping the story of how the Moon maintains its scant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-meteorites-provide-a-window-into-the-early-solar-system/">atmosphere</a>. The finding forces scientists to rethink long-held estimates of erosion rates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-look-at-moon-dust">A new look at Moon dust</h2>



Professor Friedrich Aumayr of the Institute of Applied Physics at <a href="https://www.tuwien.at/en/phy/iap" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">TU Wien</a> led the new study, which drilled into the physics of ion bombardment. His team combined lunar dust tests with detailed computer models to expose hidden quirks in the rock’s texture.



Earlier models treated the surface of the Moon as a smooth glassy slab, so every incoming particle knocked something loose. 



Real lunar soil is a messy mix of sharp grains and tiny gaps, making it hard for ions to travel. Instead of blasting atoms into space, they bounce around and quickly lose energy.



That nuance matters because the team measured sputter yields up to ten times lower than the textbook value, a shift great enough to topple decades of balance sheets. It means a smaller share of the exosphere comes from ion <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-earth-got-its-water-meteorite-reveals-surprising-new-clues/">impacts</a> than models predicted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solar-wind-doesn-t-remove-much-dust">Solar wind doesn’t remove much dust</h2>



In space science slang, sputtering is the ping pong ejection of atoms when fast ions strike a surface. The effect shapes everything from comet tails to Europa’s glow, yet its efficiency depends on the microscopic landscape it meets and has proven devilishly hard to pin down.



“Using a specially developed quartz crystal microbalance, we were able to measure the mass loss of lunar material due to ion bombardment with extremely high accuracy,” said Johannes Brötzner, lead author of the study. 



Researchers bombarded Apollo grains with helium ions at roughly 135 miles per second, mirroring average <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meteorite-from-the-moon-tells-a-detailed-story-about-lunar-volcanoes/">solar</a> wind speeds.&nbsp;



The experiment fed into 3D models that traced every collision inside the dust’s labyrinth. Most ions got trapped, so only about 0.01 atoms escaped per helium ion - a much lower sputter yield.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moon-s-atmosphere-comes-from-dust">Moon’s atmosphere comes from dust</h2>



The lower yield dovetails with a 2024 isotopic study that analyzed potassium and rubidium in Apollo samples and declared micrometeorite impacts the main gas supplier. 



Independent agreement between laboratories using such different tools is rare in planetary science and strengthens the verdict.



Together, the papers imply that tiny dust bullets vaporize far more material than the solar wind can sputter during quiet solar periods. Impact vaporization also lofts atoms with lower energies, matching density patterns recorded by NASA’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/ladee/in-depth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LADEE</a> orbiter during its 2013-2014 mapping campaign.&nbsp;



Shelf life estimates now show that the exosphere would bleed away in just a few lunar days if micrometeorites paused, confirming how transient each atom really is. 



The result gives mission planners an environmental baseline for predicting dust behavior around future landers and rovers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-future-missions">Lessons for future missions</h2>



The timing is handy for NASA’s Artemis campaign, which aims to send astronauts to the lunar south pole later this decade. 



Accurate erosion rates help engineers judge how solar arrays, optical sensors, and habitat seals will fare during prolonged stays under relentless particle weather.



A better grasp of sputtering also guides remote sensing, because instruments that sniff sodium or helium must subtract the solar wind component before inferring recent impacts. Without that correction, mission scientists could mistake a quiet patch of sky for a lull in incoming dust.



The same physics applies beyond the Moon. When ESA and JAXA’s BepiColombo probe begins full science operations at Mercury in 2027, its instruments will need to separate signals from both sputtering and impacts. 



The new sputter yield curve will help scientists translate those signals into details about Mercury’s surface chemistry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-moon-s-dynamic-atmosphere">The Moon's dynamic atmosphere</h2>



By trimming the solar wind contribution, the study revises timelines for how quickly space weather alters the Moon’s atmosphere, darkens surface dust, and erases tracks or tool marks.



Equipment left by Apollo crews may thus last longer unaltered, offering historians and tourists clearer snapshots of early human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-meteorites-can-be-traced-to-three-asteroid-families/">exploration</a> on future visits.



Solar storms can boost ion levels 100-fold, making sputtering briefly dominant again. Tracking those surges will be a task for upcoming CubeSats that hitch rides on Artemis rockets, offering real time context for surface experiments.



Aumayr is already eyeing similar tests with dust from volcanic mare regions to see whether glassy beads behave differently. His group is also adapting the setup for icy terrain, which could refine erosion estimates for moons like Europa and Enceladus.



“Our study provides the first realistic, experimentally validated sputtering yields for actual lunar rock,” said Aumayr. Planetary scientists outside the project are taking note, saying the work turns a page in space weather textbooks.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-025-02546-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



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Apollo samples reveal what really created the Moon’s atmosphere

The Moon faces a constant spray of charged particles from...

The Thwaites Glacier in West Antarctica is nearly 80 miles wide, making it the largest glacier in the world by width. If it collapses entirely, the resulting changes could raise global sea levels. Scientists are racing to understand the forces at work before it’s too late.



To better understand how this could unfold, researchers developed a new way to study the cracks - or fractures - that weaken the massive ice shelves connected to glaciers. 



These shelves float on the ocean, but they’re anchored to land. When they fracture and collapse, they speed up the melting of the glacier behind them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antarctic-glacier-nears-its-breaking-point">Antarctic glacier nears its breaking point</h2>



Using years of NASA satellite data, the team focused on vertical fractures in the Antarctic ice sheet - the largest on the planet, even though it’s losing about 136 billion tons of ice each year. 



Their attention was on the Thwaites Ice Shelf, a critical extension of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predicting-the-future-behavior-of-thwaites-the-doomsday-glacier/">Thwaites</a> Glacier in West Antarctica.



Often called the “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/doomsday-glacier-may-collapse-sooner-than-we-thought/">Doomsday Glacier</a>” for its potential to raise sea levels by up to 11 feet, Thwaites is especially vulnerable. The ice shelf acts like a stopper, slowing the glacier’s flow into the ocean. If that shelf collapses, it could trigger a chain reaction of rapid ice loss.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-how-fractures-form">Rethinking how fractures form</h2>



The new method was developed by a research team at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State University</a>. Their findings zero in on how fractures form and evolve in ice shelves - and why existing models aren’t enough.



Shujie Wang is an assistant professor of geography, a faculty associate in the Earth and Environmental Systems Institute at Penn State, and a co-author of the study.



“We know little about fractures, and their behavior is much more complex than conventional models suggest,” she said. “Conventional models depend largely on simplified models and scarce, hard-to-obtain field observations.”



The Thwaites Ice Shelf is particularly unstable. It changes quickly, its surface is heavily fractured, and the ice flows at a fast pace. 



Researchers describe it as a final barrier that keeps the rest of the glacier from disintegrating.



Richard Alley, Evan Pugh University Professor of Geosciences at Penn State and co-author of the study, offered this analogy: “We’ve seen ice shelves break off, but we’ve never seen one grow back."



"This new research indicates we can predict better the point at which these will break off. It’s helping to establish the early-warning signals.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-resolution-views-of-ice-breaking">High-resolution views of ice breaking</h2>



To capture the changes in the ice shelf’s structure, the research team used data from NASA’s ICESat-2 satellite. It collected measurements between 2018 and 2024.



This satellite tracks ice elevation, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-much-will-antarctica-contribute-to-sea-level-rise/">sea level</a>, and other Earth features with remarkable precision.



The team built a new two-step process to analyze the satellite data. It lets them create high-resolution elevation profiles and visual cross-sections of fractures in the ice. 



Building on a previous algorithm Wang had designed to detect individual cracks, the new method gives researchers a better view of how different types of fractures form and evolve over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antarctica-s-glacier-instability-feeds-on-itself">Antarctica’s glacier instability feeds on itself</h2>



The findings showed that the eastern section of the Thwaites Ice Shelf has more aggressive fracturing, while the western side appears more stable. The cause of that difference isn’t clear yet.



But the researchers pointed to several possible factors. These included warmer winter temperatures, less sea ice, and shifting ocean currents beneath the shelf. Further research is needed to know for sure.



As fractures spread, the ice flows faster. In Antarctica, that creates more cracks, which leads to more instability - a feedback loop that can push parts of the glacier past the point of no return.



“We believe that if the Thwaites Glacier gets very unstable, it will have catastrophic consequences,” Wang said. “It’s an important area to be studied, to say what’s going to change next.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-a-glacier-lost">Lessons from a glacier lost</h2>



This latest work builds on a 2023 study led by Wang that looked at the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evidence-of-massive-ancient-icebergs-found-off-the-coast-of-britain/">Larsen B</a> Ice Shelf, which collapsed in 2002. 



That shelf, about 1,250 square miles in size, broke apart over just five weeks after years of weakening due to warmer air and ocean temperatures.



Back then, models didn’t catch the warning signs. Now, with this new method, researchers have better tools to predict when and where these breaks might happen.



While older approaches relied heavily on theory, the new system offers observations and data that can feed into more accurate models. Over time, the researchers hope this will lead to stronger predictions about how Antarctic ice is changing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tool-to-predict-ice-collapse">A tool to predict ice collapse</h2>



To support ongoing and future research, Zhengrui Huang, a doctoral candidate in geography and co-author of the paper, pulled together satellite data from more than 40 Antarctic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-threat-lurking-in-antarcticas-ice-shelves/">ice shelves</a>. 



That dataset includes 3D information about fracture locations and depths - a potential goldmine for scientists working to understand ice dynamics.



“We expect this will be a key observational dataset of fractures for researchers who study and model Antarctic ice-shelf dynamics,” Huang said.



By sharing this data as an open resource, the team hopes to accelerate discoveries and sharpen predictions. The researchers also aim to help the world better understand what's at stake if massive glaciers like Thwaites keep crumbling.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024JF008118" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Geophysical Research Earth Surface</a>.



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Glacier in Antarctica that could drown cities is breaking apart

The Thwaites Glacier in West Antarctica is nearly 80 miles...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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