Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

A fossil dug up during the Civil War has spent more than a century mislabeled. Once thought to be a seaworm, it turns out the creature is something entirely different - and far more important.



It’s called Palaeocampa anthrax. And according to scientists at the <a href="https://umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan</a>, it may be the first known member of its group to make the jump from sea to land.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-sitting-in-a-museum-drawer">Fossil sitting in a museum drawer</h2>



The fossil was sitting in a drawer at Harvard University's Museum of Comparative Zoology. Richard J. Knecht, a postdoctoral researcher from the University of Michigan, decided to take a closer look. 



What Knecht saw didn’t match the label. The creature wasn’t a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/millipede-legs-grow-in-an-unexpected-way/">millipede</a>, or a caterpillar, or even a worm. It was a lobopod.



Lobopods are soft-bodied invertebrates that look like worms with legs. They’re considered ancestors of all arthropods - insects, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rethinking-arachnid-evolution-the-surprising-history-of-spiders/">spiders</a>, and crustaceans. Until now, they were believed to be purely marine animals that lived over 500 million years ago.



But this fossil tells a different story. "This is the first evidence that we have that this group actually did leave the ocean," Knecht said. "Transitioning from a saltwater environment, even to a freshwater environment, is a major evolutionary step." 



"Any time you find a group that made this transition, it's not just insightful, it's really important evolutionarily to try to understand how this happened." 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-misidentified-for-over-a-century">Misidentified for over a century</h2>



Since it was first discovered, this lobopod fossil has been misclassified multiple times. Photos of it have appeared in scientific studies, but no one realized what it truly was.



"When the specimen was first discovered, lobopods didn't even exist as a group," said Knecht. "This is an example of why revisiting older specimens can be of real value." 



"Even specimens that are iconic and super well known provide an opportunity to make big discoveries just by viewing them with new techniques and fresh perspectives." 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-it-all-came-down-to-the-spines">It all came down to the spines</h2>



This particular lobopod doesn’t look like much at first glance. It resembles a fuzzy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-caterpillars-defend-their-territory-without-a-fight/">caterpillar</a>, with tiny spines and bristles running down its body.



But when examined more closely, it stands apart from other lobopods. Most lobopodian spines grow in a pattern like stacked cones. Palaeocampa anthrax’s spines don’t. They’re segmented like bamboo, each one ending in a flat, turret-like tip.



Then came the real surprise: orange halos around the tips of the spines. That unusual feature led the team to ask a new question - was this lobopod fossil leaving behind a chemical clue?



To answer that, Knecht teamed up with Nanfang Yu, a physicist at Columbia University. Using infrared spectroscopy, they found fossilized molecules at the tips of the spines. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-defense-strategy-suits-dry-ground">Defense strategy suits dry ground</h2>



These molecules weren’t found anywhere else on the lobopod fossil or the surrounding rock. This pointed to a startling possibility: the creature might have secreted chemicals from the tips of its spines - possibly for defense.



"If I were to place a chip on the table, I'd say this organism was probably more terrestrial or amphibious, specifically because of that tip. It makes more sense in an aerial rather than a subaqueous environment," Knecht said.



Most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/divers-discovered-tiny-sea-creatures-clavelina-that-resemble-swimming-panda-bear-skeletons/">sea creatures</a> with spines use them to inject toxins. But if a defense mechanism simply leaks from the tip, it wouldn't work well underwater. It would just wash away. That kind of system makes a lot more sense on land or near land.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-long-shot-fossil-find">A long shot fossil find</h2>



Finding a soft-bodied fossil like this is rare. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-noise-can-be-fatal-to-marine-invertebrates/">Invertebrates</a> don’t have bones, and their bodies decompose fast. To preserve one, it must die in just the right conditions - usually in oxygen-poor water with fine sediment that covers the body almost immediately.



That’s what makes sites like Mazon Creek in Illinois and Montceau-les-Mines in France so valuable. These sites, known as Lagerstätten, preserve fossils in exceptional detail. And that’s where Palaeocampa anthrax was found.



The fossil is one of only two lobopods from the Carboniferous period. It's also the youngest known example of its kind - and potentially the first to show evidence of life outside the sea.



"It's like winning the lottery not once, but three times. First, that the site existed at all; second, to have this level of preservation; and third, to then find it over 300 million years later," Knecht said. "It's a series of statistical miracles."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-fossil-matters">Why this fossil matters</h2>



This fossil does more than correct a case of mistaken identity. It shows that lobopods - some of the earliest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frozen-worm-comes-back-to-life-after-46000-years/">ancestors</a> of insects and spiders - may have begun exploring land far earlier than anyone thought.



It also proves the value of looking at old things in new ways. A mislabeled fossil, sitting in a drawer for 150 years, just rewrote a chapter of life’s story on Earth.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-025-08483-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Biology</a>.



Image Credit: Richard J. Knecht



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Forgotten fossil is reshaping the theory of evolution on land

A fossil dug up during the Civil War has spent...

Lightning jolts the sky and the ground around eight million times daily, but the quiet deaths it causes in forests remain mostly out of sight. A recent study now estimates that about 320 million individual trees succumb to direct lightning damage every single year.



“We’re now able not only to estimate how many trees die from lightning strikes annually, but also to identify the regions most affected and assess the implications for global carbon storage and forest structure,” said Andreas Krause from the Technical University of Munich (<a href="https://www.tum.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">TUM</a>).



The team calculated that these silent strikes account for roughly 2 to 3 percent of all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lightning-is-zapping-forests-harder-than-we-thought/">plant</a> biomass lost annually, and end up causing the emission of up to 1.09 billion tons of carbon dioxide as the dead wood decays.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lightning-kills-trees-silently">Lightning kills trees silently</h2>



Forest pathologists often miss a lightning hit because the bark scars fade fast or never appear at all. Ground surveys in Central Panama were among the first to reveal how often a single bolt can kill multiple neighbors, especially among the biggest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-species-face-unprecedented-climate-shifts-across-their-ranges/">trunks</a>.



The follow-up work at the same site showed lightning is responsible for about 40 percent of large-tree deaths, which is more than those caused by storms or insects in that forest. This finding hinted that global numbers could be far larger than the few local case studies suggested.



Direct counts alone could not scale to the whole planet, so the Munich group turned to modeling. They stitched satellite maps of lightning frequency with on-the-ground mortality rates and fed the mix into a dynamic global vegetation model that tracks how simulated trees grow and die.



Technicians now fly drones fitted with thermal sensors above tree-fall zones, watching for lingering heat that betrays an invisible bolt. These surveys confirm that many lightning deaths would go uncounted by ground crews alone.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-and-how-lightning-kills-trees">Where and how lightning kills trees</h2>



The model, LPJ-GUESS, already simulates the impacts of fires, droughts, and logging. By adding a lightning module, the researchers let virtual strikes hit the tallest simulated stems first, mirroring the real preference of bolts for sky-piercing crowns.



The team ran the system with two independent lightning data sets, one from NASA satellites and another from a worldwide sensor network, to check robustness. The two runs agreed within about ten percent, landing on the headline figure of 320 million tree deaths in a year.



To test realism, they compared the virtual Panama plot with years of tagged trees and found the model killed roughly three trees per strike, close to field counts. That match gave the team confidence to push the simulation out to every half-degree grid square on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-part-of-the-climate-solution-but-not-the-whole-answer/">Earth</a>.



In the output maps, the hottest kill zones stretch across the Congo Basin, northern South America, and Indonesia, where warm, moist air fires up thunderstorms almost year-round. Temperate forests mattered less for now, but the model hints that their share could climb as the climate warms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tall-trees-die-more-often">Tall trees die more often</h2>



The risk rises with height because taller trunks act like living lightning rods. Among trees wider than two feet (0.6 meters) across, lightning can account for one in 20 deaths worldwide, and nearly one in ten inside some African rainforests.



Losing a big canopy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smarter-forest-design-can-help-fight-climate-change/">tree</a> does more than thin the skyline. Each one packs about as much carbon as dozens of saplings, and shapes the light and humidity for everything growing beneath.



In tropical forests thick with lianas, the vines can even conduct electricity between neighboring trunks, which widens the kill radius. Such botanical wiring partly explains why a single discharge can fell clusters rather than lone stems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lightning-and-global-carbon-emissions">Lightning and global carbon emissions</h2>



Forests hold around 870 billion tons of carbon in their wood and soil. Each year, living trees pull another 2.4 billion tons out of the atmosphere through photosynthesis. 



Losing even two to three percent of that <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/nrs/pubs/jrnl/2024/nrs_2024_pan_001.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon</a> stock every year is no minor loss - it matches the emissions released by burning live vegetation in wildfires.



The model calculates that lightning-killed wood releases as much carbon each year as the entire aviation industry. Most of that release happens slowly, as fungi and insects break down trunks that never burned.



Carbon accountants therefore need to track these non-fire disturbances, as well as considering the megafires that make headlines. Skipping them could underestimate natural greenhouse-gas sources as weather patterns shift.



Lightning does not always burn its victims, so the carbon flows into the atmosphere mostly as slow respiration, not smoke. That timeline complicates satellite assessments that rely on sudden fire scars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-may-increase-lightning">Climate change may increase lightning </h2>



Warmer air holds more moisture and energy, and climate <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1259100" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">models</a> suggest United States lightning strikes may jump about 12 percent for every degree of global warming. 



Translated across the century, that projection means roughly 50 percent more flashes over mid-latitude lands.



Other research predicts fewer bolts in some tropical zones, showing the uncertainty that scientists still face. Even so, the new study underlines that any regional upswing could slice into forest carbon budgets that policymakers count on.



More strikes also raise the chance of wildfires, compounding the direct kills tallied here. Lightning already sparks most remote boreal fires, and an increase in strikes would lengthen the northern burning season.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-trees-with-better-tools">Tracking trees with better tools</h2>



The authors note that their numbers omit hidden knock-on effects, such as insects invading scarred trunks or delayed deaths that follow partial damage. 



Field crews armed with drones and lightning sensors could fill that data gap and sharpen future models.



“Most climate models project an increase in lightning frequency in the coming decades, so it’s worth paying closer attention to this largely overlooked disturbance,” said Krause. For now, the modeling exercise offers a first global baseline that forest managers can incorporate into planning.&nbsp;



From carbon budgets to conservation goals, adding silent lightning mortality changes the arithmetic. Knowing how many trees fall from lightning makes it easier to keep the planet’s living green ledger in the black.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.70312">Global Change Biology</a>.



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Lightning-struck trees release as much carbon as the aviation industry

Lightning jolts the sky and the ground around eight million...

The Arctic winter has changed. A season once defined by deep freeze and solid snow is now marked by rain, melting ice, and even patches of green.



On a research trip to the high-Arctic archipelago of Svalbard in February 2025, scientists were not met by deep snow and biting cold - but by puddles, blooming tundra, and rain. This isn’t just a freak event - it’s a sign of something bigger.



The researchers, affiliated with <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/">Queen Mary University of London</a> and several European institutions, have published a commentary that describes what they witnessed during their latest winter field campaign.



The findings confirm what climate models have warned about for years: Arctic winters are warming fast, and the shift is reshaping the entire environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warming-disrupts-arctic-winter">Warming disrupts Arctic winter</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/image/svalbard-melts-into-the-arctic-ocean/">Svalbard</a> is warming six to seven times faster than the global average. Winter temperatures in the region are rising nearly twice as fast as those in other seasons.



This means the deep freeze once expected in January and February is giving way to strange, disruptive thaws.



“Standing in pools of water at the snout of the glacier, or on bare, green <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-will-changing-tundra-landscapes-affect-earths-climate/">tundra</a>, was shocking and surreal,” said Dr. James Bradley. "The thick snowpack covering the landscape vanished within days. The gear I packed felt like a relic from another climate.”



His team had prepared for subzero temperatures. They packed heavy gloves, insulated clothing, and snowmobiles. But they ended up working barehanded in the rain, on a glacier.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-snow-replaced-by-rain">Snow replaced by rain</h2>



Laura Molares Moncayo, a Ph.D. student at Queen Mary and the Natural History Museum, had was on a mission to study freshly fallen snow.



“But over a two-week period, we were only able to collect fresh <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-snow-complexity-can-improve-winter-safety/">snow</a> once, as most of the precipitation fell as rain,” she said. 



"The unexpected melt not only disrupted our sampling plan, but also made us question how safe or feasible winter fieldwork really is under such rapidly changing conditions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arctic-thaw-is-now-routine">Arctic thaw is now routine</h2>



Scientists have long predicted that the Arctic would <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-022-00498-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warm faster</a> than the rest of the planet. What shocked this team was how quickly those predictions are turning into everyday reality.



When air temperatures rise above 0°C (32°F), even briefly, it changes everything. Meltwater pools form on top of frozen ground. Temporary lakes spread. Snow cover vanishes. Once-barren tundra starts blooming weeks or months too early. 



These changes don’t just make it harder to do science - they trigger a ripple effect across entire ecosystems.



Microbial carbon cycling is disrupted. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/permafrost-is-no-longer-permanent-arctic-communities-in-danger/">Permafrost</a> starts to thaw. Greenhouse gases that were once locked underground begin to escape. Some of these effects reinforce warming, and set off feedback loops that could speed things up even more.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arctic-winter-matters-for-everyone">Arctic winter matters for everyone</h2>



The team’s commentary doesn’t just describe strange weather. It calls attention to the broader risks - especially for Indigenous Arctic communities, whose infrastructure and emergency systems were never built for rain and floods in mid-winter.



It also warns that climate research itself is at risk. Equipment designed for snow and ice can fail when surrounded by slush and water.



Snowmobiles can’t get through to field sites. Emergency escape plans rely on frozen terrain. And researchers, already under pressure to capture rare seasonal data, may be forced to pause fieldwork or pull out entirely.



“Climate policy must catch up to the reality that the Arctic is changing much faster than expected, and winter is at the heart of that shift,” said Dr. Bradley.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arctic-change-demands-readiness">Arctic change demands readiness</h2>



The authors stress that more investment is needed in Arctic monitoring during winter. Right now, there's a dangerous gap in both data and understanding of what’s happening during this fast-changing season.



They argue that policymakers need to shift from reacting to events after they happen to planning for them ahead of time.



Even well-funded research stations are struggling to operate in these new conditions. If that’s the case, what happens to small, remote communities that rely on snow roads, frozen rivers, or ice-based hunting grounds?



“We are still unaware of the consequences that these recurring events are bringing to Arctic ecosystems, especially during the winter period,” said Donato Giovannelli, a geomicrobiologist at the University of Naples Federico II.



“We might have been too cautious with our messages. Irreversible changes to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-climate-will-permanently-change-by-2050-scientists-warn/">Arctic climate</a> are happening in front of our own eyes.”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-60926-8">Nature Communications</a>.



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Arctic winters are starting to look more like spring

The Arctic winter has changed. A season once defined by...

Up to now, scientists have followed sharks, turtles, and even albatrosses by strapping recorders to their bodies, yet most rays have slipped through that technological net. 



Biologging - attaching tiny sensors that record movement, sound, and surroundings - has thrived in other species, but rays’ smooth skin and fin-like bodies limited most attempts to just a few hours.



The whitespotted eagle ray, a six and a half foot wide coastal predator, is listed as Endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (<a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/42564343/2924463" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN</a>). 



Dr. Matt Ajemian of Florida Atlantic University’s <a href="https://www.fau.edu/hboi/">Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute</a> led a team that finally built a tag that can track rays for up to 60 hours.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-eagle-rays-are-hard-to-track">Why eagle rays are hard to track</h2>



Studying rays in the wild is tougher than tracking sharks. Their flat bodies lack a sturdy dorsal fin for clamps, and their skin feels almost velvety, so adhesives and darts fail fast.



Many species migrate across reefs, lagoons, and shipping lanes, meaning any tag must survive swift turns and strong cross currents.



Fieldwork is further hampered by conservation rules that limit handling time, leaving researchers mere seconds to attach equipment.



Because of these hurdles, less than ten published studies have reported fine scale behavior of pelagic rays, compared with hundreds of sharks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-new-tag-works">How the new tag works</h2>



The Harbor Branch team nested a camera, motion sensors, <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/hydrophone.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hydrophone</a>, satellite pinger, and acoustic beacon inside a package smaller than a paperback and lighter than one pound.



Silicone suction cups hold the tag to the ray’s head, but the breakthrough was a soft strap that loops through the animal’s spiracles, the small breathing holes behind each eye, adding grip without piercing skin.



“Our goal was to create a system that could be applied in seconds, stay on during natural behaviors, and collect rich, multi dimensional data,” said Ajemian. Attachment now takes about eight seconds on a gently restrained ray.&nbsp;



In sea trials off Bermuda, ten tagged rays kept their devices for an average of 21 hours, and one individual carried it 59.2 hours, three times longer than previous ray tags.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-eagle-rays-do-underwater">What eagle rays do underwater</h2>



Video showed the fish cruising over seagrass, coral rubble, sand flats, and reef ledges - dives that matched depth readings down to 72 feet.



“We’ve shown that complex behaviors, like the crunching of clams, can be identified using sound and movement data alone, even without video,” noted doctoral researcher Cecilia Hampton. 



Audio captured the distinct crack of crushed clams, confirming feeding bouts even when the camera switched off to save battery. Motion logs revealed rhythmic wingbeats while swimming and chaotic bursts during bottom digging before prey capture.



The tag also filmed brief meetings with other eagle rays and a curious barracuda, hinting at social and predator prey links that surface observers rarely see.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-reads-ray-movements">AI reads ray movements</h2>



Every second, the tag’s accelerometer and gyroscope, parts of an Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU), recorded 50 data points per axis.



A supervised Random Forest model trained on one ray’s footage correctly labeled “swimming” 99.6 percent of the time and picked out “browsing” and “digging” behaviors with useful accuracy.



Similar machine learning approaches already classify accelerometer data in cattle and narwhals, showing the method scales across species.



As training libraries grow, future tags may drop the camera entirely, extending battery life while still logging every clam crunch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-endangered-eagle-rays">Saving endangered eagle rays</h2>



Eagle rays help control conch and clam populations, yet bycatch, coastal construction, and targeted fisheries have pushed <a href="https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2024/04/19/2024-08340/endangered-and-threatened-wildlife-90-day-finding-on-a-petition-to-list-the-whitespotted-eagle-ray" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">numbers</a> down 50 to 79 percent in three decades.



Knowing where and when rays feed lets managers draw smarter no take zones and adjust dredging schedules to avoid peak foraging periods.



The new tags revealed long stays around inlet passes, data that could guide boat speed limits in those hotspots.



They also showed night time visits to shellfish farms, backing earlier acoustic surveys that hinted at after dark foraging on cultured clams.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-tracking-eagle-rays">What’s next for tracking eagle rays</h2>



Slimmer sensor suites and longer life releases could turn rays into mobile habitat monitors, sampling noise, temperature, and water quality across coastal grids.



Other smooth skinned species, such as cownose rays and manta rays, share similar spiracle shapes, so minor tweaks may spread the method throughout the family and even to small sandbar skates.



Biologging on <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-80744-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bluefin tuna</a> recently recorded a dramatic orca attack, proving that tags can chronicle entire food web interactions.



Combining these broader community insights with the new ray data could finally reveal how predators, prey, and habitats interact along tropical coastlines.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://animalbiotelemetry.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40317-025-00416-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Animal Biotelemetry</a>.



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Tracking endangered rays: A new chapter in marine conservation

Up to now, scientists have followed sharks, turtles, and even...

Cutting back on meat has become mainstream, but eggs have mostly held their ground at the American breakfast table. That could be about to change. A new study tackles a surprisingly simple question: What will it take for consumers to embrace plant-based eggs?



The research uses a vignette design to test how price, setting, and recipe shape buying intent, inviting volunteers to picture either scrambled eggs or pancakes made with vegan <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/many-people-are-willing-to-switch-to-plant-based-food-to-save-the-climate/">substitutes</a> at home and in restaurants. 



The findings, and the voices behind them, make clear that breakfast economics still trumps curiosity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pricing-plant-based-eggs">Pricing plant-based eggs </h2>



Retail trackers say plant-based foods pulled in $8.1 billion in U.S. grocery sales last year. Egg alternatives claimed just $71.1 million of that total in 2024.



Study participants rated the vegan choice higher when it cost less than the chicken-egg version - a pattern that matches models finding a 3 percent jump in market share for every 1 percent price drop on plant-based burgers. 



“We wanted to measure the consumer's perception about plant-based eggs,” said Da Eun Kim of the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (<a href="https://illinois.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UIUC</a>). 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-familiar-foods-work-better">Familiar foods work better</h2>



The strongest single nudge was not price but recipe, volunteers preferred pancakes over a solo scramble when the batter hid the new ingredient. 



“Introducing them as an ingredient, especially in a product that consumers are comfortable with, is a way to get people over any ‘mental hurdles’ associated with trying plant-based eggs,” said Brenna Ellison of <a href="https://agribusiness.purdue.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Purdue University</a>. 



Consumer research across several countries shows purchase intent rises sharply once shoppers have tasted similar meat-free foods, and familiarity predicts acceptance more reliably than age, income, or even stated ethics. 



That same dynamic surfaced here, as people who had tried vegan eggs before were the most eager to buy again.



Curiously, eating in a restaurant did not boost enthusiasm the way the authors expected, hinting that home cooks feel safe experimenting when the recipe is foolproof. 



Ellison noted that setting “didn't have as much of an effect as we imagined,” demonstrating the power of a trusted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-are-suffering-from-declining-plant-quality/">dish</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-based-eggs-win-on-fat-nbsp-content">Plant-based eggs win on fat&nbsp;content</h2>



Beyond ethics, health looms large, and the nutrition panels back it up, a hard-boiled vegan egg lists 0 milligrams of cholesterol compared with 186 milligrams in a large hen egg.



Study participants ranked traditional eggs higher for taste but favored the plant version on fat and cholesterol, echoing broader surveys that link plant-based eating to lower LDL levels.



Nutritionists caution that some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fertilizer-reduces-plant-damage-caused-by-droughts/">formulations</a> use coconut oil, so saturated fat can creep back in. Still, the cholesterol-free claim gives marketers a clear badge to display.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-good-for-the-planet-and-prices">Good for the planet and prices</h2>



Animal-based eggs carry a carbon cost of roughly 2.2 to 2.66 kilograms of greenhouse gas emissions per dozen. 



Feed production drives most of those emissions, so removing the chicken from the equation slashes the footprint at the start of the supply chain.



The past two years of avian influenza pushed shell-egg prices to nearly $5 per dozen in January of 2025, reminding consumers of the fragility of livestock supply chains. Plant-based eggs suffered no such shortages, giving them a timely window to win trials.



Environmental appeal and supply resilience combine into a story that resonates with shoppers who rate ethics and stability as highly as flavor. That story, however, still needs to be told in a way that feels personal rather than preachy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-who-is-most-likely-to-buy">Who is most likely to buy?</h2>



Generation Z and younger Millennials show the highest willingness to buy alternative proteins, a trend confirmed in surveys where age under 34 predicts frequent plant-based meat consumption. 



The researchers found a similar age gradient, with older participants least impressed by the vegan option.



Urban residence and liberal politics also correlated with purchase intent, mirroring patterns seen in earlier work on meat substitutes. For marketers, that means early wins will <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lanthanides-common-metal-in-plant-fertilizer-key-to-boosting-global-crop-food-supplies/">cluster</a> in cities and college towns before spreading outward.



Most striking, though, was experience, people who had already cracked a vegan egg were far more likely to buy again. Familiarity does more than any demographic trait to dissolve skepticism.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-based-eggs-still-need-improvement">Plant-based eggs still need improvement </h2>



Put price, familiarity, and health front and center, the authors suggest, and the category can break out of its niche. That could mean café pancakes with stealthy swaps, grocery bundles that pair the liquid mix with a trusted recipe card, and clear labels flagging cholesterol-free credentials.



Ongoing work to improve taste and texture is crucial - no bargain can make up for a rubbery scramble. But if plant-based eggs can match the feel of the real thing, their ethical and environmental benefits become a compelling bonus.



With global demand for alternative proteins climbing, even a small share of the egg market represents millions of hens spared and tons of CO2 emissions avoided. The next big test is whether consumers will keep buying once novelty fades.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2304-8158/14/10/1742" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Foods</a>.



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Plant-based eggs gain acceptance when hidden in comfort foods

Cutting back on meat has become mainstream, but eggs have...

Coral reefs have long been seen as flexible and resilient - bustling underwater cities where species can shift diets, share space, and adapt to change. But a new study challenges that assumption. 



The research reveals that many reef animals are far less adaptable than expected, relying on narrow energy pathways linked to specific food sources. In other words, these creatures may live side-by-side, but they aren’t eating from the same buffet.



Led by scientists at the University of Rhode Island’s <a href="https://web.uri.edu/gso/">Graduate School of Oceanography</a>, the study focused on three common species of snapper in the Red Sea: Lutjanus kasmira, L. ehrenbergii, and L. fulviflamma. 



All three were believed to be generalist predators, able to switch diets and thrive on a mix of prey. But when researchers tracked what these fish were really eating, the results told a different story.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-each-fish-has-its-own-menu">Each fish has its own menu</h2>



The team used a high-resolution method called compound-specific stable isotope analysis of amino acids (CSIA-AA). 



This technique lets scientists trace how carbon and nitrogen - key building blocks of life - move through an ecosystem over time. It’s not a short-term look at diet; it’s a long-term window into how energy flows.



What they found was striking: Lutjanus kasmira fed almost entirely on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plankton-tiny-ocean-creatures-overlooked-critical-life-on-earth/">plankton</a> drifting in the water column, L. ehrenbergii was tied to food chains rooted in macroalgae on the seafloor, and L. fulviflamma relied mainly on energy drawn from coral-based systems.



“When you dive on these beautiful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-the-value-of-coral-reefs-in-the-red-sea/">Red Sea reefs</a>, one of the first things that you’ll notice is these snapper species schooling together in perfect synchrony. We would never have guessed that each had carved out its own unique niche within these complex, biodiverse reef food webs,” said Professor Kelton McMahon.



These species aren’t opportunistic feeders hopping from one source to another. They’re loyal to specific food channels. And it’s not just the snappers - entire food webs are locked into these narrow lanes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-all-or-nothing-coral-food-webs">All or nothing coral food webs</h2>



In most ecosystems, we expect redundancy - multiple species doing similar jobs, drawing from shared resources. This overlap can make a system resilient. If one part fails, others can fill in.



But on these reefs, that overlap is missing. The study shows energy moves in what the team calls “vertical silos.” Each silo begins with a different primary producer - phytoplankton, macroalgae, or coral - and ends with specific predators.



“It’s one thing to see a species or two specializing on a specific food item, but to see entire food chains of potentially dozens or even hundreds of species form tight relationships connected to a single primary producer (e.g., macroalgae) when equally tasty coral is just inches away fundamentally reshapes how we think about biodiversity of coral reefs,” said McMahon.



That rigid structure comes with risk. If one primary producer is lost - say, from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-bleaching-has-reached-catastrophic-levels-on-the-great-barrier-reef/">bleaching</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/overfishing-and-habitat-degradation-have-devastated-marine-ecosystems/">overfishing</a>, or warming seas - it could disrupt the entire chain that depends on it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-patterns-in-reef-food-webs">Patterns in reef food webs</h2>



The research came from McMahon’s Ocean Ecogeochemistry Lab at URI, which studies how food moves through ecosystems and how animals’ diets reveal deeper environmental patterns. 



The lab uses CSIA-AA to go beyond what an animal ate last week - it helps reveal what’s sustained them over time.



“People have used isotopes to understand food webs for nearly a century, where they turn an organism into a single isotope value," said McMahon. 



"I’ve spent my career developing knowledge and tools to isolate and analyze all individual compounds within complex organisms, unlocking a metabolic history of organisms in a way we have never done before."



"That gives us the power to track where different sources of energy come from, and, in doing so, reveal patterns in the food web we couldn’t see before."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-insights-with-advanced-tools">New insights with advanced tools</h2>



The samples used in this study were collected over 15 years ago. But the analytical tools didn’t yet exist to make sense of them - until now.



“I collected these samples 15 years ago as a postdoc at King Abdullah University of Science and Technology,” shared McMahon. 



"The data were there, but I didn’t yet have the tools or perspective to make sense of it in a meaningful way." 



"Sometimes, you have to let an idea sit until the knowledge and methods mature enough to be impactful. Finally, I feel prepared to handle this work in the way it deserves, and the outcome definitely rewarded that patience.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solving-complex-ecological-problems">Solving complex ecological problems </h2>



This research opens up a new way to look at ecosystems - not just reefs, but possibly kelp forests, deep-sea environments, and coastal systems too. 



The team plans to apply this approach to other habitats and use DNA metabarcoding to better understand which prey are powering these energy silos.



“I get excited about opening up access to knowledge that people have been seeking for a long time,” said McMahon. 



“In my lab, we don’t specialize on a system or species; we’ve worked in Antarctica with penguins, on ancient human diet in MesoAmerica, and locally with the burgeoning jonah crab fishery."



"Our goal is to develop tools that solve vexing ecological problems, and make sure diverse people and approaches are effectively brought together.”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0960982225007948">Current Biology</a>.



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Coral reef food webs are more fragile than we thought

Coral reefs have long been seen as flexible and resilient...

For wild animals, survival may come down to the split-second decision to bolt or stay put when danger appears. A new study traces that choice to a tiny cluster of neurons deep in the midbrain.



By comparing two closely related deer mouse <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephant-brains-reveal-big-differences-among-species/">species</a>, the team showed that evolution simply tunes the sensitivity of this hub rather than rebuilding the whole defensive network. 



Forest-dwelling Peromyscus maniculatus flee at the faintest hint of a hawk, while open field Peromyscus polionotus remain statues until the threat becomes overwhelming.



Study co-lead Felix Baier of <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/">Harvard University</a> teamed up with Karl Farrow at the Vlaams Instituut voor Biotechnologie (<a href="https://vib.be/nl#/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">VIB</a>) in Leuven to identify the neurons involved in the brain's survival switch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-same-senses-different-instincts">Same senses, different instincts</h2>



Predators strike in milliseconds, yet landscapes differ. Animals can easily take cover in a brushy habitat, but not necessarily on the prairie. 



As a result, deer mice have evolved opposite default settings, even though their eyes and ears register danger with equal fidelity.



Baier’s group confirmed this by showing identical activity in the optic tract and superior colliculus of both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/big-brains-and-wide-ranges-cant-save-birds-from-climate-change/">species</a> during low intensity “shadow” stimuli. Only the behavior diverged, proving the sensory side was not the source of the split.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-survival-switch-controls-fear-response">Survival switch controls fear response </h2>



Attention then turned to the dorsal periaqueductal gray (dPAG), a cigar shaped nucleus already known to initiate escape in laboratory mice. 



Neuropixels probes - silicon shanks carrying hundreds of electrodes - recorded each spike while looming discs simulated an aerial predator attack.



In forest mice, a single loom sparked a volley in dPAG neurons that paralleled running speed. Open field cousins showed only a muted dPAG murmur even when their feet finally flew, meaning the threshold for firing was set far higher.



“We were surprised to find that evolution acted in a central <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rethinking-brain-evolution-birds-and-mammals-took-different-paths/">brain</a> region, downstream of peripheral sensory perception,” said Baier.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-survival-switch-in-other-animals">Survival switch in other animals</h2>



The dorsal periaqueductal gray (dPAG) has long been known as a key hub for defensive behavior in mammals. 



In lab mice and rats, stimulating this region can trigger running, jumping, or even vocalizations. In humans, analogous brainstem structures help process intense fear and panic.



By focusing on the dPAG, the researchers tapped into a deeply conserved circuit. Yet the study shows that even hardwired regions like this one can be tweaked to meet local demands. 



That finding challenges the assumption that core survival systems are biologically fixed across species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-same-midbrain-different-reactions">Same midbrain, different reactions</h2>



Next, the team used optogenetics to nudge the hub. Flash activating excitatory cells in the forest species made them sprint even when the arena was calm. 



The same light caused prairie mice to decelerate or halt, as though the stimulation felt more like a brake than a gas pedal.



When researchers used chemogenetics to dampen activity in the brain’s escape hub, forest mice began behaving like their prairie relatives - waiting longer and needing a stronger threat signal before reacting.



The reverse manipulation never flipped prairie mice into hyper skittish mode, highlighting their raised internal threshold.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-midbrain-tweaks-when-to-escape">Midbrain tweaks when to escape</h2>



Such fine grained tuning matches recent <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982224007450" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> showing that <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK526124/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GABA</a> rich neurons in dPAG set the “go/no go” point for escape. 



In the new study, inhibitory cells lit up strongly in the forest species but stayed mostly quiet in the prairie species, hinting that evolution dialed inhibition rather than altering excitatory drive.



Other animals deploy similar tricks. In zebrafish, threat avoidance ensembles in the <a href="https://elifesciences.org/articles/64934" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dPAG</a> scale with distance from a predator. That parallel supports the idea that central thresholds, not peripheral sensitivity, often decide which hard wired action rolls out.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-shapes-the-survival-switch">Habitat shapes the survival switch</h2>



The two mouse <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electrical-synapses-are-key-to-decision-making-in-animal-brains/">species</a> occupy very different landscapes shaped by predation risk. In brushy forests, motion attracts less attention than freezing, since cover is nearby. 



On open plains, stillness may be the best way to avoid being spotted by aerial predators. These constraints likely drove selection for divergent midbrain response thresholds.



Shifting the escape threshold in a central node like the dPAG may offer an efficient solution. Rather than overhauling sensory input or building a new circuit, evolution simply adjusts how soon a threat triggers action. 



This flexibility may also explain why such neural adaptations can arise repeatedly in separate species facing similar pressures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-it-means-for-human-fear">What it means for human fear</h2>



The findings add to a growing picture in which survival circuits come with built-in sliders that natural selection can nudge. That economy may explain why species thriving in wildly different niches still share a common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-brain-learns-study-reveals-an-unexpected-twist/">neural</a> architecture.



The findings also have medical relevance: overactive defensive circuits are linked to panic and anxiety disorders in humans. 



Discovering that a single midbrain hub can adjust its sensitivity opens up potential strategies for recalibrating fear responses without dulling sensory perception.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09241-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Survival switch in the brain controls when animals flee or freeze

For wild animals, survival may come down to the split-second...

A fossilized creature that lived more than 500 million years ago is turning the origin story of spiders and scorpions on its head. Scientists now say that its brain structure indicates arachnids may not have evolved on land, as was previously believed, but rather in the oceans. 



This bold idea comes from a new study by researchers at the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a> and King’s College London. The team examined an ancient arthropod fossil and found surprising similarities to modern spiders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-indicates-arachnid-origins">Fossil indicates arachnid origins</h2>



Spiders, scorpions, and their kin - collectively known as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rethinking-arachnid-evolution-the-surprising-history-of-spiders/">arachnids</a> - have barely changed in the past 400 million years. 



Arachnids have reigned as top arthropod predators on land, and their fossil record strongly suggested that they evolved and diversified in terrestrial ecosystems.



The team studied a rare fossil of Mollisonia symmetrica, which has long been considered an early marine chelicerate in the same broader group that includes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/horseshoe-crabs-view-the-world-through-compound-eyes/">horseshoe crabs</a> (Limulidae) and is closely related to the arachnids. 



The assumption had always been that <a href="https://burgess-shale.rom.on.ca/fossils/mollisonia-symmetrica/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mollisonia</a> was part of an ocean lineage that led to land-based arachnids, but only much later on.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-fossil-had-a-spider-s-brain">Ocean fossil had a spider's brain</h2>



According to the researchers, this didn’t hold up under closer scrutiny. Instead of looking like the nervous system of a horseshoe crab, Mollisonia's brain was like that of a modern spider. 



Its nervous system included a distinct, radiating layout of ganglia - clusters of nerve cells - and an unsegmented brain that sendt signals to pincer-like front limbs. This unexpected configuration is a clue.



"It is still vigorously debated where and when arachnids first appeared, and what kind of chelicerates were their ancestors, and whether these were marine or semi-aquatic, like horseshoe crabs," said Professor Nicholas Strausfeld, lead author of the study. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-arachnid-brain-structure">Modern arachnid brain structure</h2>



Mollisonia had a two-part body: a broad carapace at the front and a segmented tail-like trunk at the back. 



Some researchers have compared this body shape to that of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-reveals-the-first-ancestors-of-scorpions-and-spiders/">scorpion</a>. But nobody expected this creature to have anything close to a modern arachnid brain structure.



The Mollisonia nervous system had five pairs of ganglia in the prosoma (the front part of the body) for controlling the five limb pairs. That same layout is seen in spiders today.



The fossil also revealed short nerves that extend from the brain to a set of claw-like appendages - similar to the fangs in modern arachnids. 



While the nerve connections to the chelicerae come from the rear of the brain in crabs, these connections come from the front of the brain in Mollisonia (and all modern spiders).



"It's as if the Limulus-type brain seen in Cambrian fossils, or the brains of ancestral and present-day <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-invasive-crustacean-species-discovered-in-the-mediterranean/">crustaceans</a> and insects, have been flipped backwards, which is what we see in modern spiders," said Professor Strausfeld.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advantages-of-the-spider-brain">Advantages of the spider brain</h2>



This flipped brain may be the reason that spiders are so good at what they do - stalking, pouncing, and spinning intricate webs.



"This is a major step in evolution, which appears to be exclusive to arachnids," said Frank Hirth of King’s College London. 



"Yet already in Mollisonia, we identified brain domains that correspond to living species with which we can predict the underlying genetic makeup that is common to all <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/arthropods/">arthropods</a>."



Hirth suggested that this reversal creates neural shortcuts, making a spider's brain better at coordinating fast and precise movements.



"The arachnid brain is unlike any other brain on this planet and it suggests that its organization has something to do with computational speed and the control of motor actions," said Professor Strausfeld.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-ocean-predators-to-land-hunters">From ocean predators to land hunters</h2>



Arachnids may have had a head start when it came to surviving on land.



The first land animals were probably insect-like and millipede-like arthropods. But a Mollisonia-like ancestor may have made the transition too - and then turned its attention to those early pioneers.



"We might imagine that a Mollisonia-like arachnid also became adapted to terrestrial life making early insects and millipedes their daily diet," said Professor Strausfeld.



These early arachnid predators may have helped push insects to evolve wings to fly away from danger.



"Being able to fly gives you a serious advantage when you're being pursued by a spider," noted Professor Strausfeld. "Yet, despite their aerial mobility, insects are still caught in their millions in exquisite silken webs spun by spiders."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-fossil-under-the-microscope">A fossil under the microscope</h2>



To capture the tiny details of Mollisonia’s nervous system and brain, Professor Strausfeld spent time at the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard University. 



The fossil was photographed under different lighting conditions, using polarizing filters and magnification to capture features invisible to the naked eye.



Still, the researchers needed to be sure this wasn’t just a coincidence - a case of two unrelated animals evolving similar traits.



To rule that out, David Andrew, a former University of Arizona graduate student now at Lycoming College, ran a statistical comparison. He analyzed 115 neural and anatomical traits across both living and extinct arthropods.



The results were clear: in terms of its nervous system, Mollisonia sits right next to modern arachnids on the evolutionary tree.



Other Mollisonia-like fossils haven’t been preserved well enough to check for similar spider brain features. But if they had the same nervous system structure, their descendants could explain the many arachnid species we see today.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00822-X?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS096098222500822X%3Fshowall%3Dtrue">Current Biology</a>.



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Tiny fossil rewrites the origin story of spiders

A fossilized creature that lived more than 500 million years...

Fresh tracks stamped into 76 million-year-old mud are telling a new story about dinosaur society in southern Alberta. A densely packed patch of footprints shows several species strolling together - a first for the Late Cretaceous rock record.



The find comes from the Skyline Tracksite in Dinosaur Provincial Park, a place famous for skeletons but almost bare of tracks until now. 



“It was incredibly exciting to be walking in the footsteps of dinosaurs 76 million years after they laid them down,” explained Dr. Brian Pickles of the <a href="http://University of Reading https://share.google/UMmU9VV6QueLRAS46">University of Reading</a> who helped unearth the assemblage. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaurs-walked-together">Dinosaurs walked together</h2>



The slab is no bigger than two parking spaces, yet it preserves thirteen footprints from horn frilled ceratopsian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-extinction-theories-are-challenged-by-new-research/">dinosaurs</a>, a probable ankylosaurid, three prints from two large tyrannosaurid carnivores, and one dainty track from a small meat eater. 



All of the tracks head in nearly the same direction and sit on the same mud layer, evidence that the animals passed by within hours, perhaps minutes, of one another.



Because the ceratopsian imprints sit shoulder to shoulder with equal spacing, the team suspects the animals were moving as a coordinated group. 



Such orderly trackways match earlier monodominant bonebeds from Styracosaurus herds in the same formation, strengthening the case that horned dinosaurs traveled together for much of the year.



Mixed herds are rare even in footprints; earlier prints show single <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-suggests-early-dinosaurs-were-larger-than-we-thought/">species</a> gatherings or solitary walkers. 



The Canadian site therefore widens the behavioral picture, hinting that plant-eaters of different builds could coordinate their movements when the landscape demanded it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predator-prints-followed-dinosaurs">Predator prints followed dinosaurs</h2>



Two tyrannosaur prints slice across the herbivore lane, as if the hunters were pacing the herd from a safe distance. 



The three-toed marks, about 18 inches long, resemble footprints from the <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0103613" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bellatoripes fredlundi trackway</a> farther north that first suggested tyrannosaurs sometimes moved in pairs or packs.



Whether the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-sized-baby-dinosaur-unearthed-after-166-million-years/">predators</a> shadowed the plant eaters that day is unknown, yet their presence offers a motive for banding together. 



In modern savannas, zebras often merge with wildebeest to dilute risk and borrow their neighbors’ sharp senses; studies in the Serengeti show vigilance drops for both species inside mixed herds.



Applying that logic to the Cretaceous, stocky ankylosaurs with clubbed tails could add armor, while horned ceratopsians contributed sheer numbers and vision at different heights. Together they might have complicated the hunting plans of a predator.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-footprints-as-time-capsules">Footprints as time capsules</h2>



The prints sit in a thin mudstone band deposited when a winding river abandoned its channel, leaving a shallow lake that dried in patches. 



Foot pressure pushed watery clay aside, building raised rims still visible today. The overlying sand quickly buried the impressions, and iron minerals later cemented the layer into a rust colored bench.



Because steep badland slopes erode about one tenth of an inch each year, the rocks seldom expose flat bedding planes where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-footprints-reveal-a-dinosaur-that-changed-pace-while-walking/">tracks</a> show up. 



The team’s “search image” looking for those iron-rich rims peeking above softer sandstone has already revealed several more tracksites in the park, suggesting many prints went unnoticed for decades.



With portable GPS gear, the researchers mapped every depression, then photographed the surface in overlapping grids to create a precise 3D model. 



The digital replica lets scientists measure stride length, toe angles, and the subtle suction cups left when feet pulled free, all without further damaging the fragile layer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-prints-are-fragile-and-rare">Dinosaur prints are fragile and rare</h2>



Dinosaur tracks are far more vulnerable than bones. While skeletons can fossilize deep underground and survive eons of erosion, footprints are surface impressions that vanish quickly if not buried and preserved under the right conditions. 



Even once exposed, the thin ironstone layers that hold them can flake apart within months due to wind, rain, and temperature swings.



Researchers also face difficulties in identifying which dinosaur made which track, especially when skeletal features overlap between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammals-ground-dwellers-survived-the-asteroid-impact-that-killed-the-dinosaurs/">species</a>. 



For instance, distinguishing between ceratopsian and ankylosaurid tracks can be tricky without clear impressions of both front and hind feet. This uncertainty limits how precisely behavior can be inferred from fossil footprints.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-discovery-matters">Why the discovery matters</h2>



Until now, signs of dinosaur social life rested largely on mass death bonebeds or long, single species trackways. 



The Skyline Tracksite adds the missing piece: it captures different herbivores walking side by side - a behavior that parallels today’s large mammal guilds that share both grass and predators.



The trackway also reminds field crews to rethink “empty” rock. Dinosaur Provincial Park has yielded more than 400 articulated skeletons, yet typical tracks were thought absent. 



Recognizing the tell tale mud rims may transform ichnology in the Canadian badlands and other steep terrains carved from Late Campanian river deposits.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0324913" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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Dinosaur tracks reveal tyrannosaurs stalking their prey

Fresh tracks stamped into 76 million-year-old mud are telling a...

Nuclear war wouldn’t just kill people - it could kill the planet’s food supply. Imagine a world where sunlight vanishes behind thick smoke. In this scenario, temperatures crash, crops fail, and grocery store shelves go empty.



That’s the chilling reality of a nuclear winter - not science fiction, but a real risk if global conflict escalates. 



In a new study, scientists at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Pen</a><a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">n State</a> explored how a nuclear winter could affect global corn production, the most widely grown grain in the world.



The team also offered a practical idea to prepare for this worst-case scenario: stockpiling "agricultural resilience kits" filled with cold-tolerant seeds that could help keep food growing, even in the darkest of times.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-famine-after-the-fire">Famine after the fire</h2>



The researchers modeled six nuclear war scenarios, ranging from regional to large-scale global conflict. Each scenario simulated the effect of soot released into the atmosphere from nuclear firestorms -anywhere from five to 165 million tons of it.



In the best-case scenario, global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sweet-corn-yields-are-suffering-in-hotter-conditions/">corn yields</a> dropped by 7 percent. In the worst-case, an 80 percent drop.



“An 80 percent drop in global crop production would have catastrophic consequences,” said Yuning Shi, associate research professor in Penn State’s Department of Plant Science. 



“Even a 7 percent drop in global crop production would have a severe impact on the global food system and economy.”



Corn was chosen not just because it's everywhere - but because it’s highly sensitive to climate and represents a broader pattern in agriculture. What happens to corn would likely happen to many other crops.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modeling-nuclear-food-collapse">Modeling nuclear food collapse</h2>



The team used the Cycles agroecosystem model, developed by scientists at Penn State’s College of Agricultural Sciences. 



It’s a complex simulation tool that tracks how carbon and nitrogen move through the soil, plants, and atmosphere. 



With high-performance computing, the model can predict crop growth under different conditions - even under the shadow of nuclear fallout.



“We simulated corn production in 38,572 locations under the six <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nuclear-war-would-cause-global-famine-and-kill-billions/">nuclear war</a> scenarios of increasing severity - with soot injections ranging from 5 to 165 tons,” Shi said. 



“This investigation advances our understanding of global agricultural resilience and adaptation in response to catastrophic climatic disruptions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uv-radiation-could-make-it-worse">UV radiation could make it worse</h2>



Smoke and soot aren’t the only problem. A nuclear war could also shred the ozone layer, allowing more UV-B radiation to hit the Earth's surface. 



This form of radiation damages DNA, hurts photosynthesis, and stresses plants even further. Shi said this may be the first study to estimate the effect of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uv-radiation-played-a-role-in-earths-largest-mass-extinction/">UV-B radiation</a> on agriculture in a post-nuclear scenario. 



The damage wouldn’t be immediate. UV levels would peak 6 to 8 years after the bombs drop - just as the planet struggles to recover.



“The blast and fireball of atomic explosions produce nitrogen oxides in the stratosphere,” Shi explained. 



“The presence of both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nitrous-oxide-is-a-growing-threat-to-human-and-planetary-health/">nitrogen oxides</a> and heating from absorptive soot could rapidly destroy ozone, increasing UV-B radiation levels at the Earth’s surface. This would damage plant tissue and further limit global food production.”



Add UV damage on top of climate stress, and corn yields could fall by as much as 87 percent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-food-in-the-dark">Growing food in the dark</h2>



The researchers believe there's a small silver lining - if we act now. By switching to faster-growing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/corn-plants-use-jumping-genes-to-adapt-to-their-environment/">corn</a> varieties that can tolerate cold, food yields could increase by up to 10 percent even during nuclear winter, compared to doing nothing. But there's a catch: seed availability.



That’s where their idea for “agricultural resilience kits” comes in. “These kits would help sustain food production during the unstable years following a nuclear war,” said Armen Kemanian, professor of production systems and modeling at Penn State.



“The agricultural resilience kits concept can be expanded to other disasters - when catastrophes of these magnitude strike, resilience is of the essence.”



These kits would include seeds tailored to different regions and climates. The idea is to give local communities the tools they need to keep farming even if the global food network collapses.



Shi acknowledged the challenges in pulling off such a plan. “If we want to survive, we must be prepared, even for unthinkable consequences,” he said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-future-food-catastrophes">Lessons for future food catastrophes</h2>



The takeaway isn’t just about weapons. It’s about the fact that our food system is alarmingly fragile.



“Recall that catastrophes of this nature can happen not just because of nuclear war, but due to, for example, violent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-giant-volcanic-eruptions-alter-earths-climate/">volcanic eruptions</a>,” Kemanian said. 



“One may think that studies of this nature are just navel gazing, but they force us to realize the fragility of the biosphere - the totality of all living things and how they interact with one another and the environment.”



Food doesn’t grow in a vacuum. It depends on stable climate, clean air, and functioning ecosystems. Disrupt that balance, and the consequences ripple through every plate on the planet.



This research doesn’t predict the future. But it helps us prepare for one we hope never arrives.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/adcfb5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Research Letters</a>.



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Nuclear war would cripple Earth’s food supply

Nuclear war wouldn’t just kill people - it could kill...

The camera on NASA’s Juno spacecraft was in trouble. Known as JunoCam, it had survived over 50 orbits around Jupiter, capturing stunning images of the planet and its moons. But by late 2023, things took a turn for the space camera. 



Radiation had started to wear it down. The photos coming back were almost unusable - full of static, streaks, and distortion.



The camera had been exposed to Jupiter’s brutal radiation environment for years. With one of its most important missions approaching - a close flyby of Jupiter’s volcanic moon Io - the team needed a fix. And they had to do it from over 400 million miles away.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-camera-repair-in-deep-space">Camera repair in deep space</h2>



A team of experts, including scientists from the <a href="https://www.swri.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Southwest Research Institute</a> in San Antonio, took a shot in the dark. The experts believed the problem stemmed from radiation damage to a voltage regulator inside JunoCam. Their only remaining option was to try something risky - heat up the camera.



The process, called annealing, involves raising the temperature of a material to change it at a microscopic level. It’s a method used in electronics but rarely attempted in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-space-is-even-darker-than-we-imagined/">deep space</a>.



Jacob Schaffner is the Managing Engineer at Malin Space Science Systems, which designed and developed JunoCam and is part of the team that operates it.



“We knew annealing can sometimes alter a material like silicon at a microscopic level but didn’t know if this would fix the damage,” said Schaffner. 



“We commanded JunoCam’s one heater to raise the camera’s temperature to 77 degrees Fahrenheit - much warmer than typical for JunoCam - and waited with bated breath to see the results.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cranking-up-the-heat-on-junocam">Cranking up the heat on JunoCam </h2>



The first results were promising. The camera began producing clearer images again - but that didn’t last. Quality started to slip again.



“After orbit 55, our images were full of streaks and noise,” said JunoCam instrument lead Michael Ravine of Malin Space Science Systems. “We tried different schemes for processing the images to improve the quality, but nothing worked." 



"With the close encounter of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jupiters-moon-io-has-a-huge-new-volcano/">Io</a> bearing down on us in a few weeks, it was Hail Mary time: The only thing left we hadn’t tried was to crank JunoCam’s heater all the way up and see if more extreme annealing would save us.”



They gave it everything. The heater was turned up further, hoping that higher temperatures might realign the silicon and bring the camera back to life.



At first, it didn’t look like it worked. Test images were still noisy. But as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amalthea-jupiter-tiny-moon-captured-juno-spacecraft/">Juno</a> closed in on Io, the pictures began to improve - rapidly. By December 30, 2023, during its closest flyby yet - just 930 miles from Io’s surface - the images were crisp and detailed. 



The camera captured towering mountains dusted with sulfur dioxide frost and active lava flows from Io’s uncharted volcanoes. It was official - JunoCam was back.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-space-camera-repair">Beyond space camera repair </h2>



The team didn’t stop there. They have now applied versions of the annealing fix to other systems on the spacecraft - both science instruments and engineering subsystems.



Since its launch, Juno has made 74 orbits of Jupiter. During its most recent pass, image noise crept in again. But now the team has a tool - and some confidence - that they can respond.



“Juno is teaching us how to create and maintain spacecraft tolerant to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/3d-printed-hydrogels-developed-to-protect-astronauts-from-space-radiation/">radiation</a>, providing insights that will benefit satellites in orbit around Earth,” said Scott Bolton, Juno’s principal investigator. 



“I expect the lessons learned from Juno will be applicable to both defense and commercial satellites as well as other NASA missions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-a-space-camera">Lessons from a space camera </h2>



The lesson from this mission isn’t just about salvaging a camera. It’s about improvising when there’s no manual. It’s about learning how to keep hardware working long past its expected limits — under some of the harshest conditions in the solar system.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-astronauts-get-blurry-vision-in-space/">Space</a> is punishing. JunoCam wasn’t built to last forever. But thanks to some smart thinking and a little heat, it got a second chance. And it’s still taking pictures.



Image Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/SwRI/MSSS. Image processing by Gerald Eichstädt



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How NASA repaired a camera millions of miles away from Earth

The camera on NASA’s Juno spacecraft was in trouble. Known...

In the last two decades, smartphones have become deeply embedded in childhood. They are no longer luxury devices for adults but tools, toys, and social lifelines for children. 



A major global study by Sapien Labs has found that owning a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/phone-bans-dont-help-children-learn-to-navigate-the-digital-world/">smartphone</a> before age 13 correlates with poorer mind health in adulthood.



This includes higher risks of suicidal thoughts, aggression, detachment from reality, and weakened emotional control. The results span across cultures and regions, making it a global concern.



The researchers analyzed data from over 100,000 young adults aged 18 to 24. They found that early smartphone use in children - especially before age 10 - leads to a steep drop in mind health scores. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smartphones-and-harmful-content">Smartphones and harmful content </h2>



Smartphones today act as entry points to AI-powered environments. These systems, designed to maximize user engagement, often exploit psychological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mobile-addiction-harms-kids-mental-health-more-than-screen-time/">vulnerabilities</a>. 



They push harmful content, encourage constant social comparison, and replace in-person interaction and sleep with screen time.



“Our data indicate that early smartphone ownership - and the social media access it often brings - is linked with a profound shift in mind health and wellbeing in early adulthood,” said Dr. Tara Thiagarajan, who is the founder and Chief Scientist of <a href="https://sapienlabs.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sapien Labs</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-early-is-too-early">How early is too early?</h2>



The Mind Health Quotient (MHQ) scores showed that those who got smartphones at 13 scored around 30. Those who received one at age five scored just 1. 



Among females, early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/childrens-screen-time-shapes-their-mental-health-as-teens/">smartphone</a> use raised the percentage reporting suicidal thoughts by 20 points. Males showed an 11-point increase.



The symptoms most affected include suicidal ideation, hallucinations, aggression, and emotional instability. Functioning issues included reduced self-image, confidence, empathy, and calmness. 



The effects were more severe in English-speaking countries, where early access is common.



“These symptoms of increased aggression, detachment from reality and suicidal thoughts can have significant societal consequences as their rates grow in younger generations,” says Dr. Thiagarajan.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-effects-of-social-media">The effects of social media</h2>



The study found that early access to social media explained 40% of the negative effects. Cyberbullying, poor family relationships, and disrupted sleep were also significant contributors. These factors often act downstream of early social media use.



In the English-speaking world, the numbers were worse. Social media access accounted for up to 70% of the mental health impact. Female users also faced more exposure to sexual abuse linked to early online access.



“Based on these findings, and with the age of first smartphones now well under age 13 across the world, we urge policymakers to adopt a precautionary approach, similar to regulations on alcohol and tobacco, by restricting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/screen-time-and-mental-health-a-vicious-cycle-for-kids/">smartphone</a> access for under 13s, mandating digital literacy education and enforcing corporate accountability,” said Dr. Thiagarajan.



This isn’t just a parenting issue. Children whose parents limit devices may face peer exclusion. AI-driven social media apps are too persuasive for young minds to self-regulate. 



Even children protected at home face peer-led exposure to harm in schools. That’s why experts stress the need for collective solutions rather than isolated efforts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limiting-smartphone-access-to-children">Limiting smartphone access to children</h2>



Dr. Thiagarajan and her team propose a four-part policy response to protect children under 13. First, they recommend mandatory education on digital literacy and mental health to prepare children before they access online platforms. 



Second, they call for strict enforcement of age limits on social media, ensuring that companies are held accountable for underage users. The experts advocate for a complete ban on social media access for children under 13 across all internet-connected devices.



Furthermore, the researchers propose graduated smartphone access by providing children under 13 with basic phones that support only calling and texting, without internet or app capabilities.



“Altogether, these policy recommendations aim to safeguard mind health during critical developmental windows,” said Dr. Thiagarajan.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smartphones-children-and-health">Smartphones, children, and health</h2>



Delaying action could cost society a generation’s well-being. Up to 20% of youth may suffer suicidal thoughts due to early smartphone exposure. Nearly a third could face serious distress symptoms if trends continue.



“Our evidence suggests childhood smartphone ownership, an early gateway into AI-powered digital environments, is profoundly diminishing mind health and wellbeing in adulthood with deep consequences for individual agency and societal flourishing,” said Dr. Thiagarajan.



“I was initially surprised by how strong the results are. However when you give it due consideration, it does begin to make sense that the younger developing mind is more compromised by the online environment given their vulnerability and lack of worldly experience."



Dr. Thiagarajan noted that it is also important to point out that smartphones and social media are not the only assault to mental health and crisis facing younger adults. "It explains some of the overall decline but not all of it."



“Now, while more research is needed to unravel the causal mechanisms, waiting for irrefutable proof in the face of these population-level findings unfortunately risks missing the window for timely, preventative action.”



The research was supported by the Global Mind Project. The findings are published in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/19452829.2025.2518313" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Human Development and Capabilities</a>.



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Don't give your children a smartphone before the age of 13, scientists warn

In the last two decades, smartphones have become deeply embedded...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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